cAC AND DC SOURCES

 AC
The electric current periodically changes direction. AC is the standard
power delivered through power grids to homes and businesses. It's used
to power appliances, lighting systems, motors, and other large electronic
devices.
 DC
The current flows in one constant direction. DC is commonly used in
batteries, electronic devices, and various industrial applications.
Here are some sources of AC and DC current:
 AC: Hydroelectric power plants, thermal power generators, and nuclear
power generators
 DC: Electric cells, batteries, and DC generators

The major differences between Alternating Current and Direct Current are given in
the table below:
Alternating Current Direct Current

AC is easy to be transferred over longer distances – even DC cannot be transferred over a very long
between two cities – without much energy loss. distance. It loses electric power.

The rotating magnets cause the change in direction of electric The steady magnetism makes DC flow in a
flow. single direction.

The frequency of AC is dependent upon the country. But, DC has no frequency or zero frequency.
generally, the frequency is 50 Hz or 60 Hz.

In AC the flow of current changes its direction forward and It flows in a single direction steadily.
backward periodically.

Electrons in AC keep changing their directions – backward Electrons only move in one direction –
and forward. forward.

Difference between AC and DC Current

AC Current DC Current

The current moves in both directions. The current moves only in one direction.

Its load can be resistive, capacitive, or inductive. Its load is only resistive.

Its frequency is between 50-60 Hz. Its frequency is always zero.

It has a negative as well as a positive polarity. It has no polarity at all.

The direction of the flow is bidirectional. The direction of the flow is unidirectional.

Its power factor is between 0 and 1. Its power factor is always 1.

Its passive parameter is impedance. Its passive parameter is resistance.

It gets transmitted over long distances and also It does not get transmitted over long distances and also
maintains its electric power. loses its electric power.

It has a rotating magnetism. It has a steady magnetism.

Its magnitude of current varies over time. Its magnitude of current remains constant.

Its electron flow goes from forward to backwards Its electron flow goes only forward.
and vice versa.

Its waveform types are sinusoidal, triangular, and Its waveform types are pure and pulsating.
square trapezoidal.

Its source is an AC generator. Its source is batteries, electrochemical cells,

and photovoltaic cells.

It is mainly used in electric motors present in It is used in mobile phones, television sets, etc.
electric appliances.

It is also used in industries, factories as well as in It is also used in electrolysis, electroplating, electronic
households. appliances, etc.

Q1

Why can’t AC be stored in batteries instead of DC?

It is important to understand that batteries do not store the energy directly in them. They store
electrical energy in the form of chemical energy. The positive terminal of an AC source is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the negative terminal of an AC source is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery. The current starts to flow. But, AC changes
its polarity and there is no actual supply of the energy. This is because the positive half cycle
cancel outs the negative half cycle. If this process continues, it can damage the battery.
Therefore, AC is not stored in batteries.
Q2

What are the advantages of AC over DC?

Following are the advantages of alternating current over direct current:

  AC is less expensive and easy to generate than DC.
 AC can be transmitted across long distances without much energy loss, unlike DC.
 The power loss during transmission in AC is less when compared to DC.
Q3

Why is the use of AC voltage preferred over DC

voltage?

There are two reasons why the use of AC voltage is preferred over DC voltage:

 The loss of energy during the transmission in AC voltage is less when compared with
the DC voltage and this makes its installations easy when the transformers are at
distance.
 AC voltage has the advantage of stepping up and stepping down as per the
requirement.
Q4

What is wattless current?

Wattless current is defined as the current in an AC circuit when the average power
consumption is zero.
Q5

What will be the value of the power factor in the

circuit when it is at resonance?

The value of the power factor in the circuit when it is at resonance will be 1.
Q6

Give reasons for a loss in energy in the transformer.

Following are the reasons because of which there is a loss in energy in the transformer:

 Hysteresis
 Eddy current loss
 Leakage of flux
What is a Power Supply?

A power supply is an electrical device that converts the electric

current that comes in from a power source, such as the power
mains, to the voltage and current values necessary for powering a
load, such as a motor or electronic device.

The objective of a power supply is to power the load with the

proper voltage and current. The current must be supplied in a
controlled manner — and with an accurate voltage — to a wide
range of loads, sometimes simultaneously, all without letting
changes in the input voltage or in other connected devices affect
the output.

A power supply can be external, often seen in devices such as

laptops and phone chargers, or internal, such as in larger devices
such as desktop computers.

A power supply can either be regulated or unregulated. In a

regulated power supply, the changes in the input voltage do not
affect the output. On the other hand, in an unregulated power
supply, the output depends on any changes in the input.
The one thing all power supplies have in common is that they
take electric power from the source at the input, transform it in
some way, and deliver it to the load at the output.

The power at the input and output can be either alternating

current (AC) or direct current (DC):

 Direct current (DC) occurs when the current flows in one

constant direction. It usually comes from batteries, solar cells,
or from AC/DC converters. DC is the preferred type of power
for electronic devices.
 Alternating current (AC) occurs when the electric current
periodically inverts its direction. AC is the method used to
deliver electricity through power transmission lines to homes
and businesses

Therefore, if AC is the type of power delivered to your house and

DC is the type of power you need to charge your phone, you are
going to need an AC/DC power supply in order to convert the AC
voltage coming in from the power grid to the DC voltage needed
to charge your mobile phone’s battery.
Understanding Alternating Current (AC)

The first step in any power supply design is to determine the

input current. And in most cases, a power grid’s input voltage
source is AC.

The typical waveform for an alternating current is a sine

wave (see Figure 1).`

Figure 1: AC Waveform and Basic Parameters

There are several indicators that must be taken into account

when working with an AC power supply:

 Peak voltage/current: The maximum value of amplitude the

wave can reach
 Frequency: The number of cycles the wave completes per
second. The time it takes to complete a single cycle is called
the period.
 Mean voltage/current: The average value of all the points the
voltage takes during one cycle. In a purely AC wave with no
superimposed DC voltage, this value will be zero, because the
positive and negative halves cancel each other out.
 Root-mean-square voltage/current: It is defined as the square
root of the mean over one cycle of the square of the
instantaneous voltage. In a pure AC sinusoidal wave, its value
can be calculated with Equation (1):
VPEAK√ 2 VPEAK2
 It can also be defined as the equivalent DC power needed to
produce the same heating effect. Despite its complicated
definition, it is widely used in electrical engineering because it
allows you to find the effective value of an AC voltage or
current. Because of this, it is sometimes expressed as V .AC

 Phase: The angular difference between two waves. A complete

cycle of a sine wave is divided into 360°, starting at 0°, having
peaks at 90° (positive peak) and 270° (negative peak) and
crossing the start point twice, at 180° and 360°. If two waves
are plotted together, and one wave reaches its positive peak
at the same time that the other reaches its negative peak,
then, the first wave will be at 90°, while the second wave will
be at 270°; this means the phase difference is 180°. These
waves are considered to be in antiphase, as their values will
always have opposite signs. If the phase difference is 0°, then
we say the two waves are in phase.

Alternating current (AC) is the way electric power is transmitted

from generating facilities to end users. It is used for power
transportation because electricity needs to be transformed
several times during the transportation process.

Electric generators produce voltages of about 40,000V, or 40kV.

This voltage is then stepped up to anywhere between 150kV and
800kV, to reduce power losses when transporting electric current
over long distances. Once it reaches its destination area, the
voltage is stepped down to between 4kV and 35kV. Finally, before
the current reaches individual users, it is reduced to 120V or
240V, depending on the location.

All these changes in voltage would be either complicated or very

inefficient to do with direct current (DC), because linear
transformers depend on voltage fluctuation to transfer and
transform electrical energy, so they can only work with
alternating current (AC).

Linear vs. Switching AC/DC Power Supply

Linear AC/DC Power Supply
A linear AC/DC power supply has a simple design.
By using a transformer, the alternating current (AC) input voltage
is reduced to a value more suitable for the intended application.
Then, the reduced AC voltage is rectified and turned into a direct
current (DC) voltage, which is filtered in order to further improve
the waveform quality (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Linear AC/DC Power Supply Block Diagram

Traditional linear AC/DC power supply design has evolved over

the years, improving in terms of efficiency, power range, and size
— but this design has some significant flaws that limit its
integration.

A huge limitation in a linear AC/DC power supply is the size of the

transformer. Because the input voltage is transformed at the
input, the necessary transformer would have to be very large and
therefore very heavy.

At low frequencies (e.g. 50Hz), large inductance values are

necessary to transfer high amounts of power from the primary to
secondary coil. This demands large transformer cores, which
makes miniaturization of these power supplies practically
impossible.

Another limitation of linear AC/DC power supplies is the high-

power voltage regulation.

A linear AC/DC power supply uses linear regulators to maintain a

constant voltage at the output. These linear regulators dissipate
any extra energy in the form of heat. For low power, does not
pose much of a problem. However, for high power, the heat that a
regulator would have to dissipate to maintain a constant output
voltage is very high, and would require adding extremely large
heatsinks.
Switching AC/DC Power Supply
New design methodology has been developed to solve many of
the problems associated with linear or traditional AC/DC power
supply design, including transformer size and voltage regulation.
Switching power supplies are now possible thanks to the evolution
of semiconductor technology, especially thanks to the creation of
high-power MOSFET transistors, which can switch on and off very
quickly and efficiently, even if large voltages and currents are
present.

A switching AC/DC power supply enables the creation of more

efficient power converters, which no longer dissipate the excess
power.

AC/DC power supplies that are designed using switching power

converters are called switched-mode power supplies. AC/DC
switched-mode power supplies have a slightly more complex
method for converting AC power to DC.

In switching AC power supplies, the input voltage is no longer

reduced; rather, it is rectified and filtered at the input. Then the
DC voltage goes through a chopper, which converts the voltage
into a high-frequency pulse train. Finally, the wave goes through
another rectifier and filter, which converts it back to direct current
(DC) and eliminates any remaining alternating current (AC)
component that may be present before reaching the output (see
Figure 3).

When operating at high frequencies, the transformer’s inductor is

able to transfer more power without reaching saturation, which
means the core can become smaller and smaller. Therefore, the
transformer used in switching AC/DC power supplies to reduce the
voltage amplitude to the intended value can be a fraction of the
size of the transformer needed for a linear AC/DC power supply.

Figure 3: Switched-Mode AC/DC Power Supply Block Diagram

As could be expected, this new design method does have some

drawbacks.

Switching AC/DC power converters can generate a significant

amount of noise in the system, which must be treated to ensure it
is not present at the output. This creates a need for more
complex control circuitry, which in turn adds complexity to the
design. Nevertheless, these filters are made up of components
that can be easily integrated, so it does not affect the size of the
power supply significantly.

Smaller transformers and increased voltage regulator efficiency in

switching AC/DC power supplies are the reason why we can now
convert a 220V¬RMS AC voltage to a 5V DC voltage with a power
converter that can fit in the palm of your hand.

Table 1 summarizes the differences between linear and switching

AC/DC power supplies.
Linear AC/DC Power Switching AC/DC Power
Supply Supply

Size and Large transformers are Higher frequencies allow for

Weight necessary, adding much smaller transformers,
substantial size and if needed.
weight

Efficiency If unregulated, Transistors offer small

transformer losses are switching losses, because
the only significant they behave as small
causes for efficiency loss. resistances. This
If regulated, high power enables efficient high-power
applications will have a applications.
critical effect on
efficiency.

Noise Unregulated power When transistors switch very

supplies may have quickly, they generate noise
significant noise caused in the circuit. However, this
by the voltage ripple, can be either filtered out, or
but regulated linear AC the switching frequency can
DC power supplies can be made extremely high,
have extremely low above the limit of human
noise. That is why they hearing, for audio
are used in medical applications
 sensing applications.

Complexi A linear AC/DC power The added noise generated

ty supply tends to have by the transformers forces
fewer components and the addition of large,
simpler circuits, than complex filters, as well as
switching AC/DC power control and regulation
supply. circuitry for the converters.

Table 1: Linear vs. Switching Power Supplies

Single-Phase vs. Three-Phase Power Supplies

An alternating current (AC) power supply can either be single-

phase or three-phase:

 A three-phase power supply is composed of three conductors,

called lines, which each carry an alternating current (AC) of
the same frequency and voltage amplitude, but with a relative
phase difference of 120°, or one-third of a cycle (see Figure 4).
These systems are the most efficient at delivering large
amounts of power, and are therefore used for delivering
electricity from generating facilities to homes and businesses
all around the world.
 A single-phase power supply is the preferred method to supply
current to individual homes or offices, so as to distribute the
load evenly between lines. In this case, the current flows from
the power line through the load, then back through the neutral
wire. This is the type of supply found in most installations,
except large industrial or commercial buildings. Single-phase
systems cannot transfer as much power to loads and are more
prone to power failures, but single-phase power also allows
use of much simpler networks and devices.
 Figure 4: Three-Phase Power Supply AC Waveform

There are two configurations for the transmission of power

through a three-phase power supply: delta (Δ)(Δ) and wye (Y)
configurations, also referred to as triangle and star configurations,
respectively.

The main difference between these two configurations is the

ability to add a neutral wire (see Figure 5).

Delta connections offer greater reliability, but Y connections can

supply two different voltages: phase voltage, which is the single-
phase voltage supplied to homes, and line voltage, for powering
larger loads. The relationship between phase voltage (or phase
current) and line voltage (or line current) in a Y configuration is
that the line voltage (or current) amplitude is √3 times larger than
the phase magnitude.

Because a standard power distribution system must supply power

to both three-phase and single-phase systems, most power
distribution networks have three lines and a neutral. This way,
both homes and industrial machinery can be supplied with the
same transmission line. Therefore, the Y configuration is the most
commonly used for power distribution, whereas the delta
configuration is typically used to power three-phase loads, such
as large electric motors.
 Figure 5: Y and Delta Three-Phase Configurations

The voltage at which the power grid delivers single-phase electric

power to its users has various values, depending on the
geographical location. That is why it is very important to check a
power supply’s input voltage range before buying or using it, to
ensure that it is designed to work in your country’s power grid.
Otherwise, you could damage the power supply or the device
connected to it.

Table 2 compares the grid voltages in different areas around the

world.
RMS (AC) Peak Frequen Region
Voltage Voltage cy

230V 310V 50Hz Europe, Africa, Asia,

Australia, New Zeland and
South America

120V 170V 60Hz North America

100V 141V 50Hz/ Japan*

60Hz

*Japan has two frequencies in its national grid because of the

origins of its electrification in the late 19th century. In the western
city of Osaka, electricity suppliers bought 60Hz generators from
the United States, while in Tokyo, which is in the east of Japan,
they bought 50Hz German generators. Both sides refused to
change their frequency, and to this day Japan still has two
frequencies: 50Hz in the east, 60Hz in the west.

As mentioned before, three-phase power is not only used for

transportation, but is also used to power large loads, such as
electric motors or charging large batteries. This is because the
parallel application of power in three-phase systems can transfer
much more energy to a load, and can do so more evenly, due to
the overlapping of the three phases (see Figure 6).

Figure 6: Power Transmission in Single-Phase (Left) and Three-Phase (Right) Systems

For example, when charging an electric vehicle (EV), the amount

of power you can transfer to the battery determines how fast it
charges.

Single-phase chargers are plugged into the alternating current

(AC) mains and converted to direct current (DC) by the car’s
internal AC/DC power converter (also called an on-board charger).
These chargers, are limited in power by the grid and the AC
socket.

The limitation varies from country to country, but is typically less

than 7kW for a 32A socket (in EU, 220 x 32A = 7kW). On the other
hand, three-phase power supplies convert the power from AC to
DC externally, and can transfer over 120kW to the battery,
enabling super-fast charging.
Summary

AC/DC power supplies are everywhere. The main job of an AC/DC

power supply is to transform the alternating current (AC) into a
stable direct current (DC) voltage, which can then be used to
power different electrical devices.

Alternating current is used to transport electric power all across

the electric grid, from generators to end users. An alternating
current (AC) circuit can be configured as a single-phase or a
three-phase system. Single-phase systems are simpler, and can
deliver enough power to supply an entire house, but three-phase
systems can deliver much more power in a more stable way,
which is why they are frequently used to supply power for
industrial applications.

Designing an efficient AC/DC power supply is no easy task, as

current markets demand high-power, extremely efficient,
minuscule power supplies that are capable of maintaining
efficiency over a wide range of loads.

Methods for designing an AC/DC power supply have changed over

time. Linear AC/DC power supplies are limited in size and
efficiency, because they work at low frequencies and regulate the
output temperature by dissipating the excess energy in the form
of heat. By contrast, switching power supplies have become
extremely popular, because they use switching regulators to
convert AC to DC power. Switching power supplies work at higher
frequencies and convert electrical power far more efficiently than
previous designs, which has enabled the creation of palm-sized,
high-power AC/DC power supplies.