Spherical Mirrors ‘A mirorwhose surface is cut out of out ofa spherical shells called a spherical mirror. One face of spherical mito jed with amalgam of mercury and tin, whichis futhe rpainted with ro. doxide te avoid tarnish, Thus Second face acts as reflecting plane and rates ts the lights There are two types of spherical mi ors—concave and convex. (i) Concave mirror: A spherical mirr_ or whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of sphere, of which mirror is a p art called concave mirror. : oe (i Convex mirror; A spherical mirr_ or whose reflecting surface is away from the centre of sphere, of which mitror is a p art, called convex mirror. A 7 = Principal axis Fig The centre of reflecting surface of mirror is called pole (p) of mirror. The centre of spherical shell, of which mirror isa __ partis called centre of curvature of mirror ( C) and radius of that spherical shell is c alled radius of curvature (R) The line joining the po. le and centre of curvature is called principal axis. Principal focus: It is. a point on the principal axis of the m_irror such that the rays incident o n the mit ror parallel fo principal axis, after re flection actually m eet at this point (co ncave) or appear to come from it (convex mirror).Itis denoted by F. The distance between the pole and principal focus _F is called the focal length of mirror /). fradius of curvature of mirror is R, then focal length of mirror is given byying three laws fecal lenath of mir for m = length of imaget!) jenath of object() . ey sal axis (concave mirror) ‘Te image formed by the meer paneer oP fet cs ough prin xs : epee : — Pc eee TRS orncepmcnaactene +) Eh th yal axis (conc ave) OF te LSE cae ete oe oe Be i oon amo pth ate recon om aT se Retton beeen uv andor mir . vouf i ance us tatanc een ajc ana pl frit : Sere con re ap" Magnification a ‘Sign conventions for measurement of distances: 4. The incident ray Is drawn fro. m left to mirror. 2, Alldistances are measured from pole of mirror. 3. Alldistances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken positive while _alll distances measured in ‘opposite direction of incident ray taken negative 4, Heights of object and images perpendicular to x-axis in upward direction considered positive while in downward direction are considered negative Light Object “ x axis J FPPoIe | as () axis v1 Fiat Optical Bench: An optical bench is used to find the focal length of mirrors and lenses. \tis made of wooden or Melal rods oflength 1.5 meter. The rods of bench are graduated along its length in centimetersandmillime tersy from) the eye. T heg 4 triangle, Lens ‘A homogeneous transparent medium enclosed between two curved surface plane surface is called lens, The curved surface of lens may be spherical, Fist, is calle or one curved surface and one lindrical and paraboloidal. But jereal Ions are most commonly used lenses, Spherical lenses are classified into the following two t used. Bipgories-convex and concave. Convex Concave Teas tens @), © Be bus Figat Convex lens: These lenses are thickest in the middle and thinner at the edges. Concave lens: These lenses are thinner in the middle than at the edges. ur is Both of these type of lenses are further divided into three categories. @ () © @ © ©. Converoconvex Plino-convex Coneavoconver ConcivOzonewePlant-Tncave Conver zneave Convex lens ‘Concave lens Fig.4.2. The line joining the two centre of curvature of both surfaces is called principal axis. Optical centre is a fixed point inside the lens put on principal axis such that a ray of light passing through it oes undeviated. It is represented by C (fig 4.3)Meter Bridge and Post-office Box — ————— eatstone Brice: Whostatone bridge was invented by British ssi jet Sir Charles F, Whentstone.*® pies somnances ewe for mesa one of ham in lrme oi g = eters Foose tid lo Dnlane Towing current through battery ete ge ond obama pny cmmtn, aot the four resistances are connected to form a parallelogram. am ie connected with galvanometer and other is tdjust the four resistances of parallelogram, [Aj rallelog! resistance ther sides. Kg 71 four resistances P,,R and S are gives in of four sides of arllcopram ABCD. A galvanometer Qi conected 7 ope of the diagonals say BO ckrough 2 key K,, In the other dingon 1 AG, a cell Bis connected through eee 2 ay K, current jis allowed to flow from the cell, At the rig Key A. By pressing fam A, eurrent ‘is divided into (vo Part Metres 4D. The values of PORS ate adjusted that on pressing the key K, there ‘ometer arm, i.e, diagonal BD. Thus, the favanometer G. In other words , the ‘and iy flows through BC and DC respectively. On pres key K,, there is no current in the tal difference between Band D. On applying Kirct hhoff’s rule in loop ABDA. hb AB and Current i, flows th .s no deflection in the po current through the galva same current fy jem BD It means there is no pote Pi, R=0 Pi, =i2R ® Similarly for loop BCDB @i, ~Si =0 a i) PR On dividing ea. (i) by ea. (i) B= dividing ea a) G5 tances P and @ and the resistance R, one can wn arm and arm CD ar that knowing the ratio of the ¥« From this equation it is cle 4 Qare called ratio arm, arm ADis call dleslate unknown resistance S. The arm P a iia sem, Arm AC and BD are called conjugat® lepends upon the values ofthe resistances P.@ Rand S. The bridgeis maximum ‘The sensitivity of the bridge Gasitive, when all the four resistances are of the same order ——Ore stop the current 1 Fel sirspes cco acest epee g sane ones rang are de crrmen e785 OE 2) venice, shown in fig 9.1(@). Tris G@ Single-way Plug Key: A plug Key is shown SOT Ono, Fig 9.1 Plug key ued in th crit when 8 ona pie base with © Fa ‘Two thick brass block: suitable size between them. A brass plug 18 3 ; Girouit isto be closed. The plug is taken out when circu Gre tole wopresentation of a key is chown in fig 2.1(0): 4 det = the key ar w C 1 represents a key which is closed. in the laboratory is shown in @ ‘Tapping key: Tapping key used i iy used when current is required to be passed for very he metallic lever of i992 Tepinaey \ feo. Thiskeyi eek f ‘The circuit is made when th short intervals of time. ‘ Key is pressed to touch the metallic stud fixed underneath, The circuit murle and current starts flowing, When the metallic levers released the | direuit breaks and current stops flowing. Symbol of a tapping key in a\ circuit diagram is shown in fig 9.2(b). x er | used whenever it is a; @ ) (iii) Two-way Plug key: This type of key necessary to change the connection quickly from one circuit to another D without disconnecting the wires. It has three terminals 1,2 and 8. By Fig 9.3 Twoomay key inserting key in the proper place, connection with any one of the two shown in fig 9.3(b). circuits can be made ata time fig 9.3(a). Symbol of a two-way key (iv) Commutator or Reversing key: A commutator is an arrangement used for reversing the current in th s. Two such keys, namel whole or a part of the external circuit of a battery without disconnecting any of the wir quadrant commutator and revolving brush type commutator, are shown in fig 9.4 and 9.6. The reversing key provided with four terminals (fig 9.6) B,, B, ,G, Gy, The terminals B, and B, are connected to the battery a G,,G, are cter i Gr, are connected to the circuit in which it is desired to reverse the current.as ot enon vat, These eines geo cal arosoeere i. "The material of the wire nae naka oan feng th cn mola te anon thet jt of resistance co peach coil is written (OF When all the plugs are inserted tightl blocks and offer almost zero resistance. corresponding resistance coils as shown in introduced in the path of the current. To prevent induction effects of el means that the resistance wire is first bobbin or a reel. Their ends are soldere« integral value of resistance can be inserte‘ 200, 500,..ohms ete. satisfy the above requirement Important instructions for using a resistance box 1 Remove and insert the plug with a screw motion. 2, Donot pass strong currents through the resistance v i ive windings, which lectrie current the resistance coils have non-inductiv® ieablad ove hen wound over a wooden, t doubled over itself as shown in fig 9.7() and t tio rare studs, Values of the resistances are so chosen tha a ig cieuit, The resistances of values 1, 2, 2,5, 10,20, 20, 60, 100,20) box, otherwise the coils might get burnt. Keep the brass portions of the keys bright by rubbing them with brass polish, but never with sand paper. 3. Rheostat as Variable Res It isa device used to increase of d cate constant, Thi wiroiswrape cd round a non-conducting ebonite cylinder as shown in fig 9.8. The end : beg wire are connected to the terminals A and B. A thick metallic rod R is attached to the frame such that: ales kay 3 enn slide over it. Apart from making electrical contact with the rod R, the slider also mal contact with the wire wound over the cylinder. The rheostat is used(i) for providing varying resistances i and (ii) as a potential divider as shown in fig. 9.8 (a) and (b) respectively. ae a stance croase the current ina circuit. A rheostat is made of a long resistance wired! ‘Aen ——$§+ 8 Variable resistance (a) Variable potential diference Fig od eoFeria AES EE mnen the maori J jpanneocsrent som str ay ohn mam values of pace, They ean rode anche sama Meters ee eect he teporant ceanae ee oie ea tai encore ae Jia A ale aly Scien Tee ene vanes of ma Tsao wmometer is generally used for detectin visions on either side of the central mark 18 HA0 Boy Baas sieeb pret and plnecvoieeas cece Pete igo hap iota paced stam the pols of rong hereon rae “Phe oton of the collie rly pet er rig he era io hc thee reve anlenda fr arent A Heb intr ced th il ih ne aout he pn nah ta DNS Sea ra ccthocaland rents ofa few should be pase though auch Pit eucenor because astrong.current will op env cbemnaermemnmntnigc os © St a 8 a con beet \ UTE eoree ue ime 2 eI Tt is a galvanometer having @ coil sos to read the current directly in amperes, eter is always placed in series value of 2, Ammeter: An ammeter is a current measuring device of low ance in parallel, which is callled shunt, Ammeter is graduated ro-amperes, Itis connected as shown in fig 9.10(a). An amm ‘a cirouit does not alter the actual away that the current enters at .4 in laboratories is Shown resist 2n{ jpjllamperes or in mi sath the eizcuit. Since the resistance of ammeter is low, its insertion in orminals of an ammeter are joined in the circuit in such ive terminal, An ammeter commonly us current perceptibly. Th: positive terminal and leaves onvaieneeed its ‘om its negati rine’ in fig 9.10(b). in parallel @ 2) Agawanometer vith alow resistance in paral {b)Anammeter Figa.10 difference (p.d) between any two sure potential n its construction but instead of is used to mea 3. Voltmeter: It is an instrument which It is similar to an ammeter 0 points of a conductor or in any part of a circuiteer ox the source of emf 1 or the call and netativg iis shown in fig 9-110) fe of this type Wh 1» connected tg ee es its ends move over the circular scale, A ‘A voltmeter isl fired at te bottom, ‘Femail magnetic 20 Rin the horizontal plane egecte eld uniorm on} in a8 Betetion of the needle accuratl set angle to the need such that Freee of plane mirror is Gixed below th sree bbls noting the deflection ofthe pointer Trae he eofigin the magnetic meridian, a current Tamperes PY ia) B8H weber pr mt at right angles the multaneously on the duces 9-12 Tangent galvanometer a magnetic flux density of ie plane of the coil. Hence two perpendicular fields acts! needle, one due to the current through the coil and the other due to the earth through which the magnetic needle is deflected, is given by the relation )2nn (22)22< ay ue an) 3 & By tand Ho _ 10? where /2=107 weber/amp-metre and By =032 gauss =032%10* weber/metre” or tesla Here n is the number of turns of t the number of turns o il, ris its radius in metres and B,, is the b t earth c field B at the place. ee Here, #2 282 ig is the constant for a galvanometer and is usually denoted by the let an or agnetic field By. The angle,i re = Bit cand = Keane ‘Therefore, 1B cand aK whore Kis called tho reduction Factor of tho galvanometer Reduction Factor The =45°, then tan0 =1 therefore: once the reduction factor is numerically equal ta the surrent in amper goin he tangent galvanometer, symbols Used in Circuit Diagrams vot required to produce a deflection of ‘Varina otectricl accessories uso in electrical circuits are seprevented by “he/evaibalajas wiaicatesl SO Cell, longer stroke +ve terminal TEE Resistance box ‘ Plug key (open) Plug key (losed) a Reversing key Resistor millimeter Ammeter 4 Voltmeter me Voltameter Variable resistance [omar [fnkn nico aie sist [on sed in electrical circuits Fig 9.13. Symbol of components Experiment-16 Object To determine the resistance and figure of merit of a galvanometer by half deflection method. Required Apparatus ‘5000 Q and 500Q), two key, rheostat and A galvanometer, a voltmeter, battery, two resistance box connecting wires. Principle () The resistance of a galvanometer tion method is given by formula where R is the resistance connected in series with galvanometer and Sis the shunt resistance