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Emotions in Sport

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-03921-8_11

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 247 11

Emotions in Sport
Philip Furley, Sylvain Laborde, Claudio Robazza and Andrew Lane

Contents

11.1 Introduction – 248

11.2  niversal Emotions and Culture: Darwin’s Observations

U
on the Connection Between Emotions and Evolution – 249

11.3 Physiology of Emotions – 256

11.4  he Connection Between the Physiology and the Psychology

T
of Emotions – 257
11.4.1 J ames-Lange Theory – 257
11.4.2 Cannon-Bard Theory – 258
11.4.3 Appraisal Theory (Lazarus-Schachter Theory) – 258

11.5 Functions of Emotions – 259

11.5.1  otivation and Attention – 259
M
11.5.2 Cognition – 259
11.5.3 Social Functions of Emotions – 259

11.6 Emotions and Athletic Performance – 261

11.7 Emotion Regulation – 262

11.8 Emotional Intelligence – 263

11.8.1 E motional Intelligence in Sport – 264
11.8.2 Training of EI in and Through Sport – 264

11.9 Measurement of Emotions and Emotional Intelligence – 264

11.9.1  easurement of Emotions – 264
M
11.9.2 Measuring Emotional Intelligence – 271

References – 272

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

J. Schüler et al. (eds.), Sport and Exercise Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-03921-8_11
 248 P. Furley et al.

Learning Objectives ety and stress. Therefore, this textbook contains a sepa-
Basic: rate chapter on the topic of anxiety and stress in sports.
55 To be able to describe emotions The influential emotion researcher Richard Lazarus
55 To understand the contribution of nature and nurture (2000) criticizes that stress/anxiety research and research
for emotional expression on emotions, in general, have been conducted in relative
55 To understand mind-body interaction using emotions isolation from each other:
as examples
»» “In the past, two almost separate research literatures
have grown up, one centered on stress and coping, the
Advanced:
other on emotion. […] This is illogical and counterpro-
55 To be able to describe interindividual and intraindi-
ductive.” (p. 231)
vidual functions of emotions
55 To be able to describe the influence of emotions in The reason that anxiety or the stress process has received
sport a lot of attention in sport psychology has to do with
55 To be able to describe emotion regulation two historically important publications (Martens, 1977;
55 To understand emotional intelligence and its influence Martens et al., 1990a) that provided a theory and tool to
on athletic performance examine sport-specific anxiety, and thereby providing a
major thrust for research. As research evolved, it became
Experts: clear these emotions are commonly experienced. It also
55 To learn about methods to induce emotions and moods became clear that the influence of anxiety on sports per-
55 To gain knowledge about instruments measuring emo- formance was complicated; some people thrive when
tions, emotional intelligence, and mood feeling anxious, while others perform poorly (Neil &
Woodman, 2019).

11.1 Introduction Reflection

11
Emotions play an important role in sport. The desire to Try to remember emotional experiences that you have
experience or not to experience an emotion motivates a had while doing or watching sports.
lot of behavior in humans. It helps explain why millions What emotions do you remember in this context?
of spectators at major sporting events are spellbound
in front of the television or flock to large sports arenas
and live public viewing events. Think, for example, of In everyday life, we often get asked how we are feeling or
the moment when in the USA, Michael Jordan scored how we are doing. Usually, we answer this question with-
the last shot in the fourth game of the 1998 National out much thought with relatively empty statements like
Basketball Association (NBA) final series against the “good,” “It is going well,” or “It could be worse,” without
Utah Jazz. This iconic moment has recently been covered giving much detail on our complex inner world of experi-
in the widely viewed documentary “The Last Dance” encing and feeling. Although feelings and emotions seem
which vividly captured the intense emotional reactions to be so central to human psychology, there is hardly any
the event caused all over the world with players and other topic within psychology that has led to such great
spectators jumping with joy and creating a good mood controversy (e.g. Beck, 2015). This is exemplified by a
among Chicago Bulls fans even days later. However, if recent review article entitled What Scientists Who Study
you were a supporter of the Utah Jazz in the final, the Emotion Agree About published by the prominent emo-
identical situation most likely had a different effect on tion psychologist Paul Ekman (Ekman, 2016). The con-
you as the numerous pictures of crying and mourning troversy on emotions in psychology is also expressed by
players and fans in the media showed. Although intense the fact that most standard textbooks in the applied field
emotions like the ones described tend to be more memo- of sport psychology do not contain a chapter on emo-
rable, more subtle forms of emotions are omnipresent in tions in sport but usually only deal with anxiety and the
sports for everyone involved. For instance, athletes and stress process in sport. Even though most people have
spectators might be annoyed or angry when the referee an intuitive understanding of what is meant by the term
decides against their own team. Or think about how you “emotions” or “moods,” this understanding differs con-
might feel when watching a super slow-motion picture of siderably from person to person (Ekman, 2016), which
an athlete getting injured (e.g., breaking a leg). Further, complicates both research and applied interventions tar-
athletes and fans are probably familiar with feeling ner- geting emotions. Emotions in everyday life are usually
vous tension in anticipation of an important match or thought to be merely a feeling (e.g., “I am happy” or “I
competition. Interestingly, most research on emotions in am angry with my colleague”). However, common psy-
sports is conducted on the last example, that is, on anxi- chological theories define emotions more broadly.
Emotions in Sport
249 11
Emotions
Emotions describe a complex pattern of physical and
mental changes in response to a triggering situation
perceived as personally significant. These changes
include physiological arousal, feelings, cognitive pro-
cesses, expression, and behavior. We are usually emo-
tional about something or someone, and these feelings
are intense and relatively short.

Moods
Moods are distinguished from emotions primarily by
the fact that emotions are considered to be reactions to
specific events that are short term and intense. Moods
are usually less intense, do not have a specific anteced-
ent or cause that an individual can identify, and can
last for several hours or days. There is a weaker rela-
tionship between moods and their triggering events.

11.2  niversal Emotions and Culture:

U
Darwin’s Observations
on the Connection Between Emotions
and Evolution
..      Fig. 11.1 Charles Darwin
When we travel to foreign countries and cultures, com-
munication is impeded by our relative inability to mas- curring stimulus constellations and 2) communicating
ter the different languages. In contrast, Charles Darwin important social cues.
(. Fig. 11.1) noted that the experience and expression
of emotional states seems to be relatively universal and ? How can the main ideas of Darwin’s “theory of
cross-culturally recognized, thereby facilitating inter- emotional expression” be summarized?
cultural communication beyond language. In his book 55 Emotional expressions developed hand in hand
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, with other physiological reactions to prepare an
Darwin (1872/1998), describes that emotions have organism for adaptive actions (e.g. fight or flight).
developed hand in hand with other important struc- These emotional expressions also signal to others
tures and functions of living beings. Darwin regarded that adaptive actions are likely.
emotions as adaptive mechanisms representing highly 55 If emotional signals are useful to the individual (i.e.,
specific, coordinating operations of the brain. These increased reproductive fitness), the communicative
operations had the purpose of preparing a living being function might become more important than the
for certain categories of reoccurring situations/stimulus physiological function. In turn, evolutionary selection
patterns in the environment and in the body. They also pressure would lead to exaggerated expressions, and
help them to respond adaptively to recurring problems physiological functions might become vestiges. As a
and opportunities in their environment (e.g., threat, dis- consequence, contrary messages (e.g., pride and
gust, or feelings of sexual arousal). Darwin saw emo- shame) are often expressed by opposing movements
tions as inherent, specialized physiological programs and postures to make them better recognizable by
that increase the chances of living beings to pass on their observers (e.g., pride takes up more place in space,
genes to the next generation. Or as de Waal (2019) puts whereas the expression of shame makes you collapse
it, “emotions help us navigate a complex world that we and take up less place in space; principle of antithesis).
don’t fully comprehend.”
According to Darwin’s theoretical considerations, A recent theory has taken up these considerations and
physiological processes and muscle movements associ- integrated them into the “two-step model of emotional
ated with emotions generally fulfill two functions: 1) expression” (see for an overview Shariff & Tracy, 2011).
preparing the organism for adaptive actions in reoc- In this two-step model, it is suggested that internal phys-
 250 P. Furley et al.

iological regulation drives the intensity of emotional enemy, flaring and standing up, tensing muscles, and dis-
expressions (e.g., dilated pupils in anxiety to identify the playing one’s weapons were used to prepare for a fight.
source of a possible threat). Later in the process, how- All these behaviors could be interpreted by an observer
ever, social communication is more important, since or rival as signs of imminent aggression and danger. The
the efficient organization of groups leads to a range of signaling and interpretation of aggressive or dominant
adaptational advantages (e.g., signaling to the social behavior gave both parties a survival advantage, as the
group through dilated pupils that danger was immi- probability of a life-threatening fight decreased (7 Study
nent). Another example illustrative of Darwin’s theoreti- Box: “This Is What Winners Look Like”: Can Specta-
cal considerations is the evolution of display behaviors tors Judge the Score Based on Body Language?; 7 Side
and threatening gestures. Behaviors such as staring at an Story: Body Language and Emotions in Sport).

Case Study Box

“The Expression of Winning”: Can and table tennis players playing in handball players or handball laymen
Spectators Judge the Score Based on competition. The actual score at the or laywomen.
Body Language? time of the recordings varied from The results of these three studies
From Darwin’s theory on the evo- “trailing by far” to “leading by far” showed that participants were able to
lution of display behavior follows that for the player shown. For each video distinguish between leading and trail-
people in confrontational situations recording, participants assessed how ing athletes. The effect size was consis-
should display nonverbal behavior far the athletes were leading or trail- tently high by statistical convention.
that provides information about who ing on a continuous scale. Interestingly, participants with sport-
is superior or inferior (see Furley, 2021, Study 2 investigated develop- specific experience were not more
for an evolutionary account of emo- mental differences by comparing the accurate in their assessments, and so
tions and applications in the sport results of Study 1 with one group of knowledge of the sport and its cul-
11 context). Furley and Schweizer (2014a,
2014b) based a study on this hypothesis,
children aged 4–8 years and a second
group of children aged 9–12 years.
ture were not influential. Although
children were also able to distinguish
examining it in athletic competitions Study 3 served to replicate Study between leading and trailing athletes,
and whether people can distinguish 1 with new stimulus material (record- the effect was more pronounced in
between leading and trailing athletes ings of handball players) and inves- adults.
based on their nonverbal behavior. tigate if domain-specific sports
In Study 1, participants viewed knowledge moderated the effect.
short video recordings of basketball Participants were either experienced

Side Story

Body Language and Emotions in body language and can interpret it (Furley, 2019) and, thus, prevent
Sports reliably. After all, language developed possible life-threatening attacks. In
There is hardly a television broad- late in evolutionary history, and our this context, studies have made the
cast in sports in which the commen- ancestors were dependent on non- remarkable observation that win-
tator does not mention the body verbal communication (see Fridlund, ning or losing in competition leads
language of the athletes (see Furley & 1994, for an alternative explanatory to changes in blood hormone levels
Schweizer, 2020 for a recent review on approach, arguing that nonverbal (Booth et al., 1989; Edwards & Casto,
body language in sports). Statements communication has the adaptive 2018) associated with dominant or
such as “You can see the team has advantage of communicating social submissive behavior. Against this
given up” or “The player is bursting motives and behavioral intentions background, the frequent comments
with self-confidence” are common- rather than just emotions). on body language in football also
place in sports like football. A particularly important category make sense. Recent studies show that
Charles Darwin observed and of nonverbal behavior, especially individuals are extremely efficient at
documented in detail that certain among primates, is the communica- assessing the correct score tendency
emotional states are communicated tion of dominance and submissive- based solely on nonverbal signals
uniformly. Therefore, it is not sur- ness to quickly and efficiently convey (Furley & Schweizer, 2016) and that
prising that we are so familiar with information about rank and status even children with autism spectrum
Emotions in Sport
251 11

disorder are capable of doing so fearfulness. Even the slightest sig- it would, therefore, be conceivable
(Ryan et al., 2016). nals of dominance or submissiveness that an athlete’s nonverbal behavior
Of greater practical relevance are activate stored schemata. For exam- could be part of a vicious (or virtu-
studies showing that dominant and ple, submissive body language leads ous) circle. For example, a team trail-
submissive nonverbal behavior have opponents to assess them negatively ing in a competition might, in turn,
an important influence on the oppo- and then to strengthen their percep- show submissive body language. This
nent (Furley & Dicks, 2012; Furley tion of being able to counter them is perceived by the opponent who in
et al., 2012a). The experiments dem- successfully. Numerous studies on return grows in self-confidence and so
onstrate that a dominant body lan- self-­
efficacy show that the belief to is more convinced in his ability to beat
guage is unconsciously associated perform successfully is closely related the opponent. This might result in the
with positive characteristics such to performance (Budden et al., 2020; opponent actually playing more suc-
as self-­confidence and competence. Feltz & Öncü, 2014). Conversely, cessfully and again displaying more
Conversely, a submissive body lan- doubts about success often lead dominant body language.
guage is associated with negative to failure of the action (Furley &
characteristics such as insecurity or Schweizer, 2014a). Theoretically,

Sport Practice
lish good eye contact with the goalkeeper, (3) place the
How Do I Hide My Nervousness During the Penalty ball on the spot, (4) look at the goalkeeper when run-
Kick and Increase My Chances of Success? ning back to the starting point, (5) take a deep breath
Two studies provide some insight into this ques- after the referee’s whistle and allow yourself 2 s (possi-
tion by showing a connection between emotions and bly count “21, 22”), and (6) initiate the run-up.
nonverbal behavior (Jordet & Hartman, 2008; Jordet,
2009). These studies show that football players tend
to display certain nonverbal avoidance behaviors dur- A straightforward hypothesis that can be derived from
ing very important penalties. More specifically, they Darwin’s theoretical considerations is that certain emo-
tend to turn their backs to the goalkeeper and spend tional reactions should occur universally irrespective of
less time between the referee’s whistle and the start of cultural origin of a person; emotions are universal and
their run-­up, possibly because they want to get the it was the same adaptive processes that shaped them
important penalty kick over as quickly as possible or over generations of evolution. Various researchers have
it could be that the players are hiding from the stress- tested this universality hypothesis by comparing the
ors, albeit nonconsciously. Such behavior has been emotional responses of newborns and the consistency
shown to have a negative influence on the shooter’s of facial expressions across cultures. If Darwin’s theory
probability of success. It is argued that this shows that was supportable, children all over the world should show
the emotion fear/anxiety is associated with poorer comparable emotional responses (Izard, 1994). The first
performance (7 Chap. 12). It could also partly be due psychologist to provide evidence for this assumption
to the extent to which the goalkeeper has learned was Silvan Tomkins (1962, 1981). He was able to show
from observing such preperformance nonverbal comparable, unlearned emotional responses in infants
behavior. Research has shown that goalkeepers feel when loud sounds elicited fear. These results were
more confident in saving the penalty kick when they interpreted as a kind of neural “hardware program” in
perceive the striker is uncertain on where to place the response to a certain kind of triggering stimulus pat-
shoot and believe they can adapt their behavior terns. Certain environmental stimuli lead to neuronal
accordingly—i.e., by waiting longer until they initiate response patterns that are automatically interconnected
their movement (Furley et al., 2012b). Interestingly, it to brain areas and effector organs leading to an emo-
is precisely those nations showing this avoidance tional response that is universal enough to fit a wide
behavior most frequently that have been less success- range of situational conditions. Comparative cultural
ful in penalty shootouts in the past (e.g., England!!!!!). research confirms this theorizing by providing evidence
Taken together, evidence-based recommendations that some emotional responses in young children are
for penalty takers could be as follows: (1) show high very similar (Camras, 1992; Camras et al., 1992; 7 Case
self-­confidence by how you pick up the ball, (2) estab- Study Box: Do Infants Show Comparable Emotional
Reactions?).
 252 P. Furley et al.

Case Study Box

Do Infants Show Comparable coding system. Both the children’s China reported less intense emotional
Emotional Reactions? facial expressions and behavior were expressions than their Japanese and
Five and 12-month-old infants highly comparable between Japanese the American peers. This finding
from the USA and Japan reacted very and American children (Camras could be interpreted that culture
similarly when the experimenter et al., 1992). might be having an early influence on
grasped the children’s wrists and fixed However, this finding was not sup- the emotional hardware program of
them to their stomachs. The children’s ported by a later study led by the same children, and clearly further evidence
reactions were all recorded on video author (Camras et al., 1998). In this is needed.
and compared with each other using a study, 11-month-old infants from

Various studies on universal expressions of emotions still debate here). According to Ekman (2007), all other
suggest that the interpretation and recognition of emo- facial expressions are composed of a mixture of these
tional expressions has also an evolutionary innate com- primary facial expressions (see Gendron et al., 2018, for
ponent. For example, 4- to 6-month-old infants could a recent critique of this theory).
reliably distinguish between surprise, fear, and anger
(Serrano et al., 1992). In addition, infants show more ??Based on his many years of research on emotional
approach behavior and smile more often in response to expressions, Paul Ekman and his daughter Eve Ekman
looking at happy facial expressions. Infants show avoid- have launched the online Atlas of Emotions in 2016
ance behavior and frowning in response to looking at (7 http://atlasofemotions.­org/). The goal of this inter-
angry facial expressions (Serrano et al., 1995). Infants, active tool is to sensitize and improve the emotional
therefore, seem to be able to distinguish not only basic awareness of people. This, in turn, aims to help people
11 emotional expressions but also show an early under- recognize how emotions affect their lives. The atlas
standing of their meaning. is based on the “neurocultural theory of emotion”
Probably the most prominent proponent of this basic (Ekman, 1994) and assumes there are (at least) five uni-
emotion approach is Paul Ekman, who was the only versal emotions all people can recognize and express,
­psychologist to be named as 1 of the 100 most influential regardless of their origin or social background. The
people by Time Magazine in 2009. In his detailed inter- Atlas of Emotions is summarized in . Table 11.1.
cultural studies, Ekman (1984, 1992, 1994) has shown
what Darwin first suspected—that is, the existence of a ??What does it mean to assume emotions as basic?
kind of universal emotional language (at least for some The adjective basic contains two main characteristics
facial expressions), which presumably is an innate com- regarding emotions (Ekman & Cordaro, 2011):
ponent of the human evolutionary heritage. One is that these emotions are discrete, meaning
they can be clearly distinguished from other emotions.
??Thanks to Paul Ekman and his work on facial expres- Differentiation criteria include facial expressions, the
sion, emotion, and deception, we have a better under- voice, the physiology of the autonomic nervous sys-
standing of how the expressions and gestures we tem, and the triggers initiating the emotion.
display on the surface are a direct reflection of what is Second, emotions are an evolutionary product of
going on in the neurocircuitry deep inside our brains our adaptation to the environment. Although humans
(Quote from the laudation of the Time Magazine from are incredibly versatile in their behavior, they embody
30th April, 2009). biological mechanisms that allow them to deal with
basic life tasks (e.g., loss, frustration, success). Every
Specifically, it has been demonstrated that the emotional basic (universal) emotion guides human behavior in a
facial expressions of joy, anger, disgust, fear, and sad- certain direction that has proven to be superior to other
ness (and possibly also surprise and contempt, depend- directions in the course of evolution (see Gendron
ing on the study) are shown and reliably recognized all et al., 2018, for a critique of this view).
over the world (Ekman & Friesen, 1986, . Fig. 11.2).
Regarding basic emotions, it is important to mention In regard to the popular nature vs. nurture debate, it
that not all emotional expressions are universally recog- should be noted that the basic emotion approach does
nized. This has only been shown for the five emotions: not argue that emotions are 100% nature and 0% nur-
joy, anger, disgust, fear, and sadness (although there is ture.
Emotions in Sport
253 11

..      Fig. 11.2 Evaluation of emotional facial expressions (Author: Icerko Lýdia). Assign these seven emotional terms to the faces shown: fear,
disgust, joy, surprise, contempt, anger, and sadness

.       Table 11.1 Ekman’s Atlas of Emotions

Emo- Experience Condition Response Trigger Moods

tion (sorted by
intensity)

Anger We get angry when something Annoyance Dispute Interference with Irritable: predisposed to
blocks us or when we think we’re Frustration Be locomotion becoming angry, easily
being treated unfairly Exasperation passive-­ Interference with provoked
Argumenta- aggressive action
tiveness Insult Rejection by a
Bitterness Quarrel loved one
Vengefulness Scream/yell Inefficiency or
Fury Simmer/ bureaucracy
brood Being put down
Suppress by an authority
Use figure
physical Encountering
force Offensive beliefs
Undermine Being wrongfully
accused
(continued)
 254 P. Furley et al.

.       Table 11.1 (continued)

Emo- Experience Condition Response Trigger Moods

tion (sorted by
intensity)

Enjoy- Enjoyment describes the many good Sensory Exclaim Sensory Elated: a long-lasting,
ment feelings that arise from experiences pleasure Engage/ experience of generalized good feeling
both novel and familiar Rejoicing connect nature
Compassion/ Gloat Helping others
joy Indulge Social interaction
Amusement Maintain Playing sports
Schadenfreude Savor Places associated
Relief Seek more with enjoyable
Peace memories
Fiero The taste of
Pride something nice
Naches Spending time
Wonder with loved ones
Excitement
Ecstasy
Disgust Feeling disgusted by what is toxic Dislike Avoid Anything coming Sour: generally repulsed
helps us to avoid being poisoned, Aversion Dehuman- out of the body
physically or socially Distaste ize Rotting or decay
Repugnance Vomit Fans of opposing
Revulsion Withdraw sport teams
Abhorrence Unfamiliar
Loathing religious customs
11 Eating insects or
raw meat
Fear Our fear of danger lets us anticipate Trepidation Avoid Imminent bodily Apprehensive: anxious that
threats to our safety and, thus, Nervousness Freeze impact something bad will happen,
ensures security and well-being Anxiety Hesitate Sudden loss of on edge
Dread Ruminate gravity
Desperation Scream/yell Threat to safety
Panic Withdraw snake-like shapes
Horror Worry Threat of losing
Terror job
Thunder
Public speaking
Sadness Sadness is a response to loss, and Disappoint- Feel Being rejected by Dysphoric (or feeling blue):
feeling sad allows us to take a ment ashamed someone an enduring feeling of
timeout and show others that we Discourage- Mourn important discouragement or disap-
need support ment Protest Losing a loved pointment
Distraught- Ruminate one
ness Seek Perceiving a loss
Resignation comfort of status
Helplessness Withdrawal Not being invited
Hopelessness to a party
Misery Losing a
Despair treasured
Grief belonging
Sorrow
Anguish

The interactive Atlas of Emotions with more detailed descriptions can be found at 7 http://atlasofemotions.­org/
Emotions in Sport
255 11
Ekman (1994) claims in his “neurocultural theory
of emotion” that both evolution (through the pre-­
connection of neural circuits in the brain) and culture
influence emotional programs and their expression.
The influence of culture on emotional programs
occurs via social learning and socialization, which
teaches the appropriate handling of emotion according
to the social situation. In this way, social rules or cultural
norms are established about when and to what extent
certain emotions are expressed or lived out (Mesquita &
Frijda, 1992; Ratner, 2000).
The zoologist Ernst Mayr’s (1974) distinction
between open and closed genetic programs is helpful in
understanding the relative influences of nature and nur-
ture on emotions. In a closed genetic program, no “add-­ ..      Fig. 11.3 Laughing/smiling can lift your mood
ons” through experience are possible, whereas open
genetic programs can integrate additional input through The “Try it yourself example” on facial feedback shows
experience. Mayr argues that organisms with long devel- that we can control our facial expressions at will and
opmental periods of parental care have more time to the human facial expression is not just a display that
learn and adapt to varying environmental conditions shows others what evolutionary emotional program is
and therefore have a selection advantage through open currently running. Thus, humans can consciously put
genetic programs (see Sterelny, 2012, for a detailed argu- on facial expressions and suppress automatic, “real”
mentation on this). In this context, Ekman and Cordaro facial expressions, as predicted by dual-process models
(2011) argue emotions belong to the open genetic devel- (Furley et al., 2015b, for an overview in sports). For
opmental programs since humans need to learn to adapt example, you can put on a fake smile to hide a lie. How-
their universal emotional programs to their living condi- ever, some cues allow for distinguishing real expressions
tions through experience. from fake ones (Ekman, 2007). Ekman was able to show
According to this view, universal emotion programs that fake emotions are often interrupted by very short
evolve in the process of ontogenesis by the interconnec- facial expressions (micro-expressions) of the true emo-
tion of sensory cells, neuron groups and effector organs tion. Such micro-expressions usually last about 0.05 s,
(e.g. muscles), but can be influenced by experiential but with appropriate training, they can be recognized
input. without technical aids.
Besides micro-expressions, other cues allow to distin-
guish between real and staged expressions. In 1862 the
Reflection
French anatomist Duchenne claimed a real smile could
Am I Laughing Because I’m Happy, or Am I Happy be distinguished from a fake smile by looking at the two
Because I’m Laughing? muscles contracted during a real smile: the musculus orbi-
Research suggests that there is evidence for both cularis oculi, which surrounds the eyes, and the musculus
and that our facial expressions influence our emo- zygomaticus major, which lifts the corners of the mouth.
tional experience (. Fig. 11.3, Adelmann & Zajonc, According to Duchenne, people do not have any prob-
1989). To test this so-called facial feedback hypothe- lems to arbitrarily contract the zygomaticus major muscle
sis (Strack et al., 1988), participants were instructed to lift the lips, whereas most people cannot contract the
to show different facial expressions while viewing a orbicularis oculi muscle purposefully. With a real smile,
series of photographic slides (Rutledge & Hupka, both eyes and mouth laugh, whereas with a fake smile,
1985). The results showed that participants reported usually only the mouth laughs. Therefore, the real smile
that the slides made them happier or less annoyed was called a Duchenne smile (Ekman & Davidson, 1993).
when they made a happy facial expression compared
to an angry expression. ? Universal emotions and culture
Try it yourself: Pull your eyebrows down and 55 Universal emotions serve a specific purpose and
together at the same time. Lift your upper eyelids, help people deal with a range of reoccurring situa-
tighten your lower eyelids, make your lips narrow, and tions.
press them together. If you hold this expression for a 55 Universal emotions vary in the intensity by which
while and notice you feel slightly upset, you have just they are experienced.
experienced the effect of facial feedback. 55 We react to our universal emotions with certain
actions or action tendencies.
 256 P. Furley et al.

55 A trigger is something in our environment and in important component of our innate emotional hard-
our thoughts that provokes an emotion. ware preparing people for a wide range of reoccurring
55 Nature and nurture influence whether and to what emotional situations (Levenson et al., 1992 for more
extent basic emotions become noticeable in expres- detail). Research results have also shown that participat-
sion or behavior. ing in a sport competition have a measurable impact on
55 Emotions and expressions are in a reciprocal rela- hormone levels in athletes (Edwards & Casto, 2018).
tionship with each other (facial feedback): Emo- In addition to the autonomic nervous system, the cen-
tions influence expressions and expressions tral nervous system needs to be briefly discussed to enable
influence emotions. a comprehensive understanding of the physiological
55 If certain basic emotions occur several times in a hardware of emotions. The hypothalamus and the limbic
certain period or over a longer time, they influence system are responsible for the interaction of hormonal
our mood. and neural aspects of emotions. At the center of neuro-
nal emotion research is the amygdala, which is part of
So far, research has been covered showing that some the limbic system (Pinel & Barnes, 2018). Metaphorically,
physiological responses to emotional events have a the amygdala is often described as the “gate of emotions”
genetic origin but can be influenced by social learning. and as a kind of “filter for memory.” In this sense, the
Based on these findings, we now turn to emotion theo- amygdala “colors” information from the environment
ries explicitly dealing with the interaction of physiologi- and memory in a way that gives it emotional meaning or
cal and psychological processes. valence (i.e., pleasure or displeasure). This process meta-
phorically describes the mechanism by which experience
influences the open basic emotional programs of humans.
11.3 Physiology of Emotions The cortex, the seat of many memories, has also
been shown to be involved in emotional experiences.
Everyone knows the feeling of experiencing a strong Metaphorically speaking, sensory impressions are emo-
emotion: For example, you notice your heart beats tionally colored and stored as the foundation for future
11 faster, your breathing becomes faster, your muscles behavior. This process points to a close interconnec-
become tense, and your mouth begins to dry. Many fur- tion of cognition and emotion, which is also increas-
ther physiological processes can accompany emotional ingly anchored in the literature (e.g. Damasio, 1994:
reactions that do not necessarily have to be consciously “Somatic Marker Hypothesis“; Slovic et al., 2007: affect
noticed. All these physiological reactions evolved to heuristics). In his Somatic Marker Hypothesis, Damasio
mobilize the organism to respond adaptively to the cur- argues that perceptual events—imagined or generated
rent environmental conditions (Kalat, 2019). by one’s actions—are related to certain somatic reac-
In this process, the autonomic nervous system plays tions of the body and are stored in memory together
a key role in preparing the body for adaptive reactions with these somatic/emotional reactions. This means
by orchestrating the activity of the parasympathetic that recalling certain memories automatically activates
and sympathetic components. The activity ratio of the somatic representations that were active when experi-
respective parasympathetic and sympathetic systems encing (or encoding) the memorized event. This gives
depends on the quality and intensity of the triggering perceptual events and anticipated perceptual events a
stimuli. certain valence, which is transmitted via emotional reac-
In the present chapter, we give a schematic overview tions (for Seligman et al., 2016, the emotional coloring
of the most important general physiological principles of imagined prospective actions could even be the cen-
of emotions rather than enter into the highly complex tral role of emotions since the direct influence of emo-
discussion on the physiological processes of emotions tions on behavior is often difficult to prove).
in detail. It is generally accepted that the sympathetic As a result, when making decisions and planning our
nervous system directs its activating effect by releas- behavior, we can draw on emotional valence information
ing the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline from and thus adapt our decision-making and anticipation
the adrenal gland and thus controls a cascade of other behavior effectively to the environment. In other words,
physiological processes, which, for example, stimulates people seem to attribute emotional valence to different
other internal organs, increases blood sugar, or increases action alternatives, which help us to choose between
sweat production. In contrast, the parasympathetic these alternatives. People who lose this function due to
system is considered to have a deactivating or calming brain lesions have great problems to regulate themselves
role, for example, by inhibiting the release of activating in everyday life, as shown in the case of Phineas Gage
hormones into the bloodstream. Comparative cultural (7 Side Story: The Case of Phineas Gage and How It
studies suggest that the autonomic nervous system is an Changed Previous Thinking About Emotions).
Emotions in Sport
257 11
Side Story

The Case of Phineas Gage and How was described as a responsible, intel- try in the San Francisco area until
It Changed Previous Thinking About ligent, and social person and was very his death. Although Gage was buried
Emotions popular with friends and colleagues. along with the ramming iron that had
The young railway worker Phineas After he recovered from his accident, injured him, neurologist John Harlow
Gage was the victim of a tragic Gage appeared to be as intellectually received permission to examine Gage’s
industrial accident in 1848. During and physically capable as before, but body and the ramming iron 5 years
a blowup, he was shot through his both his personality and his emo- after the funeral. Today, the skull and
face, skull, and brain with a 3-cm- tional world had changed completely. the ramming iron are exhibited in a
thick, 90-cm-long ramming iron. This Above all, his disrespect, vulgarity, museum at Harvard University, and
caused a lesion in the orbitofrontal and impulsiveness were noticeable. Gage’s condition is now called fron-
and prefrontal cortex. Miraculously, As a result, he lost his job and was tal brain syndrome since the frontal
Gage survived the accident. How- no longer able to take on a position brain performs important functions
ever, he appeared to be a different involving responsibility. He became in terms of self-control, impulse con-
person thereafter. Previously, Gage a vagabond who wandered the coun- trol, and executive functions.

The cortex can thus be seen as a kind of archive in 11.4  he Connection Between
T
which associations are stored that connect psychologi- the Physiology and the Psychology
cal experience with physical reactions. In this context,
of Emotions
some researchers have suggested that emotions lead to
two distinct behavioral tendencies: approach and avoid-
The previous section summarized evidence that the
ance behavior or approach and avoidance motivation
human organism, through evolution and learning,
(Davidson et al., 2000). In this context, Davidson et al.
shows a variety of rapid physiological reactions to reoc-
(2000) speak of two different perceptual-action systems
curring, meaningful events, called emotions. All these
that are governed by emotions and are responsible for
rapid reactions serve the purpose of enabling adaptive
approach- and avoidance-related reactions.
behavior. In the following, we will briefly present basic
theories on the origin of emotions integrating the inter-
> Physiology of Emotions
action of physiological responses, cognitive evaluations,
55 The autonomic nervous system prepares the body
and behavioral tendencies.
for emotional reactions using the parasympa-
thetic and sympathetic components in order to
adapt.
11.4.1 James-Lange Theory
55 The hypothalamus and the limbic system are
responsible for hormonal and neuronal interac-
Aristotle already assumed that a psychological feel-
tions of emotion.
ing sets in after the body has reacted to a situation.
55 Via the limbic system/amygdala, incoming infor-
The founding father of American psychology, William
mation and memory content receive emotional
James, also assumed this sequence: physiological reac-
valence.
tion followed by psychological emotion (James, 1890).
55 Emotional valence stored in networks involving
This view of emotions coming from physical feedback
the cortex influences information processing and
has become known in the psychological literature as the
behavior (somatic marker hypothesis, affect heu-
“James-Lange theory of emotion” (Carl Lange was a
ristics).
Danish psychologist who formulated a similar theory at
55 Basically, a distinction can be made between an
the same time). According to this theory, the perception
approach-related and an avoidance-related emo-
of a situation leads to somatic reactions, which in turn
tional system.
leads to the experience of a psychological emotion.
 258 P. Furley et al.

11.4.2 Cannon-Bard Theory an overview) or whether emotions are better char-

acterized as a two-dimensional (or multidimen-
The American physiologist Walter Cannon (as well sional) construct that varies on the dimensions
as another physiologist: Philip Bard) rejected the valence (pleasant vs. unpleasant) and activation
theory of “James Lange” due to empirical evidence (high vs. low) (e.g., Russell et al., 1989).
not being consistent with the theory (Leventhal, 1980, 55 This controversy continues and cannot be clearly
for an overview). Furthermore, it had been argued resolved in favor of one or the other perspective at
that the reactions of the autonomic nervous system this time.
are too slow to be the cause of the rapidly develop- 55 Without going too deeply into this debate (see
ing psychological emotions. According to Cannon, Gendron et al., 2018, for an up-to-date overview),
the thalamus registers incoming information, which is both the supporters of the discrete emotion
then transmitted in parallel to different areas. They approach (e.g. Ekman, 2016; Lazarus, 2000) and
simultaneously cause emotional experience and fur- the supporters of the dimensional approach (Criv-
ther somatic reactions. According to this theory, an elli & Fridlund, 2018, for an up-to-date overview)
emotional stimulus is at the same time the trigger for provide conclusive arguments in favor of the
physical arousal and subjective experience of the emo- respective theory.
tion. A central hypothesis of this theory implies that 55 First studies (e.g., Cowen & Keltner, 2017) have
physical arousal and emotional experience are not meanwhile made promising progress in integrating
mutually dependent. However, more recent cognitive the two theoretical approaches.
assessment theories suggest that this does not seem to
be true. Even though there is plenty of empirical evidence for
the important role of cognitive evaluation processes in
the experience of emotions (Lazarus, 1991, 2000, for
11.4.3 Appraisal Theory (Lazarus-Schachter an overview), this theory is not without criticism (e.g.
Theory) Zajonc, 2000), since studies suggest certain emotions
11 cannot result from evaluation processes. Taken alto-
In many situations, internal states of arousal are very gether, however, it can be said that cognitive evaluations
similar, even when emotions are different. Therefore, can make an important contribution to emotional expe-
there is a risk of ambiguity and confusion in the physi- rience but are not the only source (Izard, 1993). In some
ological excitation pattern. For this reason, Schachter situations, emotional experience appears to be con-
and Singer (1962) postulated that the psychological trolled of innate, evolutionary “programming” of the
experience of emotions is a joint effect of physiological human nervous system occurring independently of cog-
arousal and cognitive assessment. Physiological arousal nitive assessment. These different sources of emotional
is only the first step in the emotional chain. This physi- experience might be indicative that emotions fulfill dif-
cal arousal is assessed (typically unconsciously) by the ferent functions in humans. The assumed functions of
person in terms of its significance. Another supporter emotions will be discussed in the next section.
of the central role of cognitive assessment in the emer-
gence of emotions was Richard Lazarus (Lazarus, > Psychology of Emotions
1991; Lazarus & Lazarus, 1994). He argued that emo- 55 James Lange Theory: Experiencing emotions
tions cannot be fully understood through physiologi- arises from physical/somatic feedback.
cal processes, but rather they result from the dynamic 55 Cannon-Bard Theory: Incoming information is reg-
interaction of the person with the environment, which istered by the thalamus and simultaneously influ-
is continually being evaluated nonconsciously and con- ences physical arousal and emotional experience.
sciously. 55 Lazarus-Schachter Theory: Experiencing emo-
tions is a joint effect of physiological arousal and
? Are there discrete emotions or do emotions differ cognitive evaluation.
only in terms of a few dimensions? 55 Discrete emotion approaches assume qualita-
55 A lengthy controversy within emotion research tively different emotions, whereas dimensional
concerns the question of whether there are differ- approaches distinguish between pleasant and
ent discrete emotions (Ekman & Cordaro, 2011, for unpleasant states with different activation levels.
Emotions in Sport
259 11
11.5 Functions of Emotions 11.5.2 Cognition
Throughout this chapter, it was argued that emotions Emotions influence not only attention allocation but also
play an important role in the evolution of humans and numerous other cognitive processes such as learning,
other animals by preparing them to react adaptively in memory, judgment and decision-making, and creative
reoccurring, important situations. The next section will performance (Forgas, 2006, for an overview). In general,
elaborate on the assumed adaptive functions of emo- emotions have been shown to influence the important
tions. processes of organizing and categorizing our experience.
In this respect, studies have shown that an emotion or
a mood is stored in memory together with the accom-
11.5.1 Motivation and Attention panying events as a global schema (Bower, 1981, 1991a,
1991b). These associative memory representations are
Emotions are often the driving force for action, as is evi- evident in findings of mood-congruent processing and
dent in everyday expressions such as “I yelled at the ref- mood-dependent memory. Studies on mood-congruent
eree because I was angry at him.” Therefore, emotions processing indicate that people show a selective sensitiv-
have motivational character by encouraging people to ity to stimuli that match their current moods. For exam-
act in a certain way based on a previous experienced or ple, Gilligan and Bower (1983) have shown that stimuli
imagined event or an anticipated prospect in the future. that are congruent with a person’s prevailing mood (e.g.,
In this respect, emotions often inform the direction images of a spider when anxious) are more likely to be
and intensity of behavior toward a certain goal (see the noticed, attended to, and processed more elaborately.
action tendencies in . Table 11.1). A related body of research has provided evidence for
In addition to this motivational effect of emotions mood-dependent memory recall. People find it easier to
on observable behavior, emotions also influence the recall certain events from memory if their current mood
orientation of attention. Humans can only process a is congruent with their mood when they first remem-
small fraction of the incoming information. Attention bered/stored an event (Eich, 1995; Eich & Macaulay,
processes ensure that the most relevant information is 2000; Terry et al., 2005). Studies also suggest that posi-
processed in detail and irrelevant information is faded tive feelings lead to more efficient and creative thinking
out. Emotions help to adjust this attentional filter to and problem-solving than negative feelings (Isen, 1987).
ensure that currently relevant information is processed.
Thus, emotions concentrate the limited attentional
resources on information that is congruent with the 11.5.3 Social Functions of Emotions
current emotional state of the individual. As Janelle
et al. (2020) have pointed out, recent evidence sug- A growing body of literature shows that emotions fulfill
gests that the motivational intensity of an emotion not only intrapersonal but also interpersonal functions
may moderate the influence of affective valence (i.e., (see Friesen et al., 2013a for a review). Interpersonal
pleasantness or unpleasantness) on attentional focus. perspectives in sport provide information on the ways in
For example, unpleasant emotions high in avoidance which athletes’ emotions and emotion regulation oper-
motivation, such as anxiety and fear, tend to narrow ate interdependently in influencing sports performance
the attentional focus and promote actions to escape and relationships between athletes and their teammates,
threats or perceived danger. Unpleasant emotions low coaches, and parents. According to this perspective,
in avoidance motivational intensity, such as sadness, do emotions make an essential contribution to the regula-
not necessitate action and tend to broaden the atten- tion of social interactions. For example, emotions help
tional focus. Similar effects on attentional focus have organizing groups by binding some individuals together
been observed for pleasant emotions. More elaborate and distancing them from other individuals. If a person
processing of emotion-congruent objects or events fur- is “boiling with anger,” we would probably tend to keep
ther leads to better memory recall of these object or our distance from that person, whereas we would prob-
events. Studies inside (Wilson et al., 2009) or outside ably be more likely to seek contact with a smiling person
of sport (e.g., Öhman et al., 2001) indicate that discrete (7 Side Story: Dunbar’s “Social Brain Hypothesis”).
emotions have an influence on setting of the attention Friesen et al. (2013b) illustrate how emotion regulation
filter and thus influence which information is processed of others and self can operate in the context of a team
elaborately and which is not. environment.
 260 P. Furley et al.

Side Story

Dunbar’s “Social Brain Hypothesis” signals that influence the thoughts ways of unintentionally ‘outing’ our-
Cozolino (2006) proposed a and behavior of the recipients, selves to others.”
memorable analogy to describe the which are again communicated over In this context, Dunbar (1993)
nonverbal communication of emo- the social synapse. Cozolino (2006, was able to demonstrate an impressive
tions within “social synapse theory.” p. 24) claims that the nonverbal emo- correlation between brain size and
Cozolino compared nonverbal com- tional communication has an impor- group size of living beings. This corre-
munication between individuals with tant adaptation advantage because lation has been interpreted as evidence
the neurochemical communication it has allowed the organization for the coevolution of increasing com-
of nerve cells. Accordingly, people into increasingly larger groups: “It putational power (i.e., larger brains)
constantly send out signals into the appears that social communication that is required to coordinate increas-
social synapse (the space between has been chosen by natural selection ing complexity of life in larger groups.
people) which are picked up by the to be of greater survival value than One aspect of this is interpreting and
sensory organs of other people and disguising our intentions and feel- acting upon the emotional signals
transformed into electrochemical ings, so much so that we even have sent out by group members.

An influential model assigning central importance to cesses describe how observers extract information from
the social function of emotions is the “EASI model” emotional signals and use it to better assess the situa-
(Emotions As Social Information; van Kleef, 2009). tion and adapt their behavior accordingly (e.g., some-
This model originated from the social-functional per- one is angry because I was late, so I better apologize).
spective of emotions (Parkinson, 1996) and is based on Affective processes refer to a direct path through which
the premise that emotions serve to communicate impor- observed emotional expressions influence one’s own
11 tant social information to other people: “Emotion is emotional reactions (e.g., when one automatically has
not just a feeling. Emotion is for influence” (Van Kleef to laugh when another person laughs; for this reason,
et al., 2011, p. 154, see also Friesen et al., 2021; Friesen e.g., background laughter is used in comedy series). This
et al., 2013a, 2013b for extensions to sport). The “EASI process is commonly referred to as emotional contagion
model” assumes two specific mechanisms of how emo- in the literature (Emotional Contagion; Hatfield et al.,
tional expressions influence observers: via (1) inferential 1993; 7 Study Box: Facial Expressions and Emotional
processes and (2) affective processes. Inferential pro- Contagion?).

Study Box

Facial Expressions and Emotional shown either a happy or an angry sured by facial EMG) revealed that
Contagion? face for only 30 ms, immediately the participants who had been pre-
Dimberg et al. (2000) provided masked by a neutral face. None of sented with a happy face showed a
evidence that people tend to imitate the participants could report the slightly happy expression, whereas
other people’s facial expressions even emotional face presented because it those who had been shown a slightly
if they are not conscious about what was not consciously perceived. angry expression reacted with a
they see. The participants were Nevertheless, facial muscles (mea- slightly more angry expression.

The relative influence of whether an observed emo- lead to emotional contagion (van Kleef, 2009). The
tional expression leads to more inferential or affective predictions of the “EASI model” were tested and con-
processing depends on moderating circumstances, e.g., firmed in a study in sport (. Fig. 11.4; Furley et al.,
whether the observed person is in a cooperative or com- 2015a). This study demonstrated that the emotional
petitive relationship with you. Competing relationships expressions of pride and shame in the context of pen-
are more likely to be related to inferential processes, alty shootouts have a variety of effects on opponents
whereas cooperative relationships are more likely to and teammates.
Emotions in Sport
261 11

Affect Influence on
Subjective experience: NVB Display: NVB expression observer: e.g.
e.g. outcome of soccer Emotion Signal recognized by
e.g. pride Inference team-mate or
penalty observer opponent

..      Fig. 11.4 Schematic presentation of the “EASI model” in sport following Furley et al. (2015a)

Sport Practice

Show Your Joy and Pride After a Successful Sporting

Performance!
Moll et al. (2010) analyzed all penalties taken
during World and European football championships.
Not surprisingly, they were able to show that athletes
expressed different emotional behavior depending
whether a penalty was successful or not. More note-
worthy was the finding that certain emotional expres-
sions were related to the subsequent success or
failure of the players and opponents. Players who
expressed pride after a penalty kick increased the
probability of their team winning the penalty shoot-
out. This further increased the probability that the ..      Fig. 11.5 Emotional contagion in sports
following competitor missed his penalty kick. More
specifically, it was twice as likely that an opponent
would miss his penalty if he had seen a proud emo- 11.6 Emotions and Athletic Performance
tional expression from the opposing team right
before his penalty kick, compared to a player who Explaining or predicting performance in sports across
did not celebrate his success. Although the authors situations is an exceptionally difficult task. In this regard,
of the study explain these results via the mechanism the emotion-performance relationship seems to be par-
of emotional contagion, Furley et al. (2015a) pointed ticularly complicated (see Hanin, 2000; Ruiz & Robazza,
out that the results by Moll and colleagues are likely 2020). Systematic investigations on the effects of dis-
explained by both inferential processing (in the crete emotions on specific behaviors and performance
opponent) and emotional contagion (in teammates). in sport are rare in the literature. Nevertheless, several
An earlier study by Totterdell (2000) provided initial meta-analyses indicate a connection between sport-
evidence that longer-lasting moods can also be trans- related performance and emotions. However, this rela-
mitted via emotional contagion during long cricket tionship has primarily been established for anxiety or
matches and impact on a team’s performance stress and athletic performance (Craft et al., 2003; Jokela
(. Fig. 11.5). & Hanin, 1999). Since 7 Chap. 12 deals with anxiety and
athletic performance, anxiety is not discussed in detail
here. Lazarus (2000, p. 231) criticizes that stress/anxiety
>>Functions of Emotions research and research on emotions, in general, have been
55 Emotions motivate to act.
conducted in relative isolation from each other:
55 Emotions influence information processing, deci- »» Stress is important in its own right, but emotion encom-
sions, and behavior. passes all of the important phenomena of stress. I
55 Current theories point to important social func- believe that emotions provide a far richer understand-
tions of emotions in the field of communication. ing of the adaptation struggles of human and infrahu-
55 Emotions can be “contagious.” man animals.
 262 P. Furley et al.

Few studies have tested Lazarus’s “cognitive-moti- ? What does IZOF mean?
vational theory of emotions” (1991, 2000) in sport to 55 Emotion-performance relationships in sport are
approach the complex relationship between discrete very complex. Simple models are likely inadequate
emotions and specific performance (where again the (e.g., inverted-U hypothesis, 7 Chap. 12).
majority of studies are in the area of stress and anxi- 55 The influence of emotions on athletic performance
ety). Similar to Ekman’s considerations, Lazarus can only be understood as an individualized
assumes that discrete emotions of an athlete are asso- person-­environment interaction.
ciated with certain “core relational themes” that are 55 Person-environment interactions describe the rela-
similar to the triggers and action tendencies in Ekman’s tionship between task characteristics and the
Atlas of Emotions (see . Table 11.1). “Each emo- resources of a person.
tion also entails a biologically derived action tendency 55 Research on emotions in sport should relate the
or impulse that may be so strong that it is difficult to optimal and suboptimal emotional experiences of
inhibit” (Lazarus, 2000, p. 243). For example, anger can an athlete to their successful and unsuccessful per-
be triggered by an obstacle (object or person) that pre- formances.
vents you from achieving a desired goal. The behavioral 55 IZOF envisages five dimensions of emotions: form,
tendency includes increased muscle tension to overcome content, intensity, time, and context.
the obstacle. First, isolated studies could provide evi- 55 Athletes should use their own labels to describe
dence that certain discrete emotions led to improved emotions before, during, and after competition
performance in specific sport-related tasks, e.g., anger since common measurement instruments do not
led to increased strength when lifting, holding weights, include about 80% of the idiosyncratic emotion
or throwing (Rathschlag & Memmert, 2013; Woodman labels used by athletes (Ruiz & Hanin, 2004; Syrjä
et al., 2009). & Hanin, 1998).

Self-Reflection
11.7 Emotion Regulation
11
Remember personal emotional experiences in sports.
Try to think of as many different emotional Emotion Regulation
­experiences (joy, pride, shame, anger, relief, etc.) as
Emotion regulation describes the process of how peo-
possible and answer the following questions as accu-
ple influence what emotions are experienced, when
rately as possible:
they occur, and how they are experienced and expressed
55 How would you describe the trigger of the emo-
(Gross, 1998).
tional experience?
55 Was this experience linked to any action tenden-
cies or thought processes? If so, to which ones?
55 What else do you associate this emotional experi- Emotion regulation can be distinguished from the term
ence with? “coping,” as coping is always related to a stressor and
can be problem-focused or emotion-focused. Emotion
regulation differs in that people regulate to a standard
The emotion-performance relationship in sport is mod- and, therefore, engage in regulation strategies when they
erated by interindividual appraisal styles and coping perceived a discrepancy between current and desired
strategies of athletes (Hanin, 2007). For this reason, emotions. Emotion regulation is not always stress
the first textbook on emotions in sport (Hanin, 2000) related; people can engage in emotion regulation strate-
postulates a highly individualized approach (individual gies to remain happy or try to feel happier, for example.
zones of optimal functioning, IZOF) for understand- A dominant model of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998,
ing emotions in sport. Twenty years later, a second 2014) is the process model. In this model, there are five
textbook has been published (Ruiz & Robazza, 2021) families of emotion regulation: (a) situation selection,
summarizing contemporary knowledge on a wide range (b) situation modification, (c) attention orientation, (d)
of emotion and emotion-related feeling states in sport modification of cognition, and (e) suppression of emo-
through a multidisciplinary perspective. Although tions (see Lane et al., 2012a, for a review of emotion
largely expanded and integrated, Hanin’s emphasis and regulation in sport).
contribution on individual performance states, experi- By seeking out or avoiding certain situations,
ences, and emotion self-regulation strategies are still (a) people can influence their emotional experience.
valid today. Athletes who feel nervous and possibly ashamed dur-
Emotions in Sport
263 11
ing public television interviews can influence their
emotional experience, for example, by avoiding giving
television interviews. However, they could also modify
this situation (b) by not giving an interview immediately
after a match and waiting until they have calmed down Trait
and rested. Through attention orientation (c), athletes
can control which aspects of a situation they focus on.
For example, if basketball players focus on the situa-
Ability
tion in which they felt they were being treated unfairly
by the referee, this will have different emotional con-
sequences than if they focus their attention on their
own performance. Analogous to attention orientation,
athletes can modify the cognitive assessment of a situ- Knowledge
ation (d). If a handball penalty is assessed as a threat
due to the chance of letting one’s team down, this will
probably have different emotional consequences than if ..      Fig. 11.6 Illustration of the “three-part model of emotional
the situation is assessed as a challenge in helping one’s intelligence” (Nelis et al., 2009)
own team. All these examples illustrate how the emo-
tional experience can be regulated at different points (Petrides & Furnham, 2003; Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
in time and thus lead to different emotional reactions Since the emergence of the concept in the 1990s, there
(experience and physiological reactions) and associated has been much debate on EI, especially regarding the
behavioral tendencies. The last point of emotion sup- conception of EI as a trait or as an ability. The “tri-
pression (e) describes how athletes can suppress emo- partite model of EI” (. Fig. 11.6) embraced the trait
tions to regulate emotions. To return to the example of and ability models by assuming there are different com-
the football penalty kick, penalty shooters often show ponents of EI that perform important functions: (1) a
the behavioral tendency to get out of a penalty situation knowledge component, (2) an ability component, and,
as quickly as possible in stressful conditions and do not (3) trait component (Nelis et al., 2009).
take their time to prepare for the penalty kick (Furley
et al., 2012b). When there is not a clear opportunity Emotional Intelligence
to change or modify the situation, alter attention, or Emotional intelligence describes the relatively stable
think differently about the situation, and knowing this aspects of an individual’s emotional experience and
can lead to negative performance (Jordet & Hartman, actions. It is divided into knowledge, ability, and trait
2008), penalty shooters can instruct themselves to take components. Emotional intelligence is relatively stable
two deep breaths after the referee’s whistle before initi- but can be improved via training (Laborde et al., 2021).
ating the run-up.
The different points in the emotional regulation pro-
cess can be more or less automatic or controlled as well
as nonconscious or conscious. Through learning pro- The knowledge level refers to the complexity and range
cesses or sport psychological interventions, conscious, of emotional knowledge. It describes the emotional
controlled emotional regulation processes can be trained knowledge of a person and how this knowledge is used
and become increasingly autonomous (e.g., Furley et al., to deal with emotionally charged situations.
2015b). In this way, the emotional experience of a per- The ability level refers to applying emotional knowl-
son can be intentionally changed and stabilized. edge in an emotional situation and using strategies for
how to act. The focus here is not on what people know,
but on how they can act.
11.8 Emotional Intelligence The trait level refers to emotional dispositions,
namely, the tendency to behave in a certain way in emo-
In the previous sections, emotions have been treated as tional situations. The focus here is not on what people
transient states. However, it is also possible to investi- know or can do, but on what they habitually do.
gate the stable aspects of an individual’s emotional These three levels of EI are loosely connected:
experience (Lazarus, 2000). The most prominent con- “Knowledge is not always immediately transformed into
cept reflecting these relatively stable emotional char- abilities, which in turn are not always put into practice”
acteristics has been termed emotional intelligence (EI) (Nelis et al., 2009, p. 36).
 264 P. Furley et al.

11.8.1 Emotional Intelligence in Sport aims to increase both the emotional knowledge and
ability component to initiate changes at the trait level
A review paper on the influence of EI on athletic of EI. Successful EI training programs have demon-
performance (Laborde et al., 2016a) showed a posi- strated positive long-term consequences on the psy-
tive correlation between EI and athletic performance. chological and p ­ hysiological level (Kotsou et al., 2011;
Studies suggest that the ability component of EI has Nelis et al., 2011).
a positive effect on objective performance criteria over
an entire season in cricket (Crombie et al., 2009), bas- > Emotional Intelligence
ketball (Zizzi et al., 2003), and ice hockey (Perlini & 55 EI describes how a person deals with emotions in
Halverson, 2006). Emotional intelligence has been different situations.
found to relate to emotional states experienced before 55 EI is subdivided into a knowledge, ability, and
competition, which relate to performance (Lane et al., trait level.
2012b; Lane & Wilson, 2011). Furthermore, EI has 55 EI has a positive influence on athletes and coaches
been suggested to influence subjective performance in sports and exercise.
happiness. In this context, stress perception, coping 55 EI can be trained.
strategies, and the assessment of situations as challeng-
ing rather than threatening were identified as mecha-
nisms (Laborde et al., 2014a). Moreover, EI is found 11.9 Measurement of Emotions
to make people more resistant to pressure and severe and Emotional Intelligence
stress. Athletes with a high trait EI were able to per-
form better under pressure by using more efficient cop- 11.9.1 Measurement of Emotions
ing strategies (Laborde et al., 2012) and were found to
have superior physiological stress resistance (Laborde The controversies in emotion research addressed in the
et al., 2011, 2014b, 2015b). introduction are particularly evident in the scientific
EI is important not only for athletes but also for
11 coaches (Hopkins et al., 2011; Thelwell et al., 2008).
investigation and measurement of emotions. As a result,
no standard paradigm for the investigation and mea-
In general, coaches with higher EI have been shown surement of emotions has been established so far.
to coach more effectively, for example, by exhibiting a
more efficient management style and by paying more ? Why is the scientific study of emotions a real chal-
attention to athletes’ needs. lenge?
With regard to physical activity and exercise, a posi- A quotation from Alan Fridlund vividly illustrates
tive relationship between trait EI and an active lifestyle the problem (Beck, 2015): “At the heart of ‘emotion’
has been documented, which has significant benefits for is the experience of emotion, and this can’t be mea-
both health and well-being. Trait EI is believed to pro- sured. Recorded, maybe, but not measured. This leaves
mote an active lifestyle through motivational mecha- scientists studying ‘emotion’ trying instead to measure
nisms that play a role in initiating and maintaining everything around it.”
physical activity behavior (Saklofske et al., 2007a,b; 55 Emotions are multidimensional constructs.
Solanki & Lane, 2010). Consequently, trait EI goes hand 55 Exploring them requires a multi-methodological
in hand with an active and healthy personality (Laborde approach.
et al., 2017). 55 Inducing emotions under standardized conditions
is a challenge.
55 Intense emotional states are ethically hardly feasi-
11.8.2 Training of EI in and Through Sport ble in the laboratory.

EI training has already been implemented in a variety 11.9.1.1 Inducing Emotions

of sports including cricket (Crombie et al., 2011), net- Different approaches have been used in emotion
ball (Barlow & Banks, 2014), and rugby (Campo et al., research to induce and investigate emotional states
2016). An overview article on EI training (Campo (. Table 11.2; Coan & Allen, 2007; Quigley et al., 2014;
et al., 2015) recommends that successful EI training for overviews; Wetherell et al., 2018, for an overview of
should ideally be based on the tripartite model of EI techniques of inducing stress).
(Nelis et al., 2009). The organization of such training
Emotions in Sport
265 11

.       Table 11.2 Selected emotion induction techniques (based on Quigley et al., 2014)

Method Stimulus material and references Advantages Disadvantages

Images Bradley et al. (2001) Easy presentation Do not include all emotions or
International Affective Picture Economical are not suitable for all
System (IAPS) (Lang et al., 2008)
Videos Gross and Levenson (1995) Easy presentation Familiarity of the content can
Philippot (1993) Economical cause variability
Schaefer et al. (2010) More emotional information
compared to pictures
Faces Ekman and Friesen (1978) Easy presentation Not clear whether faces trigger
Matsumoto and Ekman (1988) Economical emotions or activate concepts
Beaupré and Hess (2005) Faces have high emotional
valence
Sounds/voices IADS (Bradley & Lang, 2007) Easy presentation Not well researched whether
Bliss-Moreau et al. (2010) Economical emotions are actually induced
Simon-Thomas et al. (2009)
Music Eich and Metcalfe (1989) Easy presentation Not suitable to evoke discrete
Can preserve emotional states emotions (rather valence)
over a long period
Words Bradley and Lang (1999) Simple presentation Not clear whether words trigger
Stevenson et al. (2007) Relatively low effect strength emotions or activate concepts
Imagination techniques and Wilson-Mendenhall et al. (2011) External validity Great interindividual variability
recall Olatunji et al. (2009) Can be ideographically in ability of imagination
Velten (1968) manipulated
Carter et al. (2002)
Movement and posture: Strack et al. (1988) Relatively implicit method to Needs good cover story to avoid
facial (body) feedback Duclos et al. (1989) induce emotions demand effects
paradigm Stepper and Strack (1993)
Staged interactions Cohen et al. (1996) External validity Complicated
DeSteno et al. (2006) Needs good cover story and
actors
In situ observation and TSST (Kirschbaum et al., 1993) External validity Complicated
motivated performance Akinola and Mendes (2008) Expensive
tasks Teachman (2007) Ethical concerns
Castanier et al. (2011)
Virtual reality Riva et al. (2007) External validity in combina- Complicated
tion with experimental Expensive
control
Physiological and pharmaco- z.B. epinephrine-injections High impact Medical expertise needed
logical manipulation (Schachter & Singer, 1962) Expensive
Oxytocin injections (Norman Ethical concerns
et al., 2011) Needs good cover story
Sport (Ekkekakis et al., 2011)

This list represents measures from the entire scientific spectrum. The sports reference is made in the measurement section
 266 P. Furley et al.

? How can emotions be induced and investigated? ation?) and secondary assessment processes (How do I
55 Presentation of standardized stimuli material with assess my resources to cope with the situation?) of a per-
validated emotional content (pictures, films, faces, son. It aims to determine what generates precompetitive
sounds/voices, music, words) emotions.
55 Imagination techniques and memories
55 Movement and posture: facial (bodily) feedback z Neurophysiological Component
paradigm The most important neurophysiological parameters
55 Staged interactions related to emotions and athletic performance are elec-
55 In situ observation and motivated performance trodermal activity, heart rate, heart rate variability,
tasks hormone concentrations, and brain measurements. The
55 Virtual reality collection of neurophysiological parameters in sport
55 Physiological (e.g., sports) and pharmacological can be problematic, since these parameters change not
(e.g., drugs) manipulation only in relation to emotions but also in relation to move-
ment and physical activity.

11.9.1.2 Measuring Induced States kElectrodermal Activity

Depending on the author, there are substantial differ- The electrodermal activity of the skin coincides with
ences in how many dimensions should be distinguished affective, motivational, and attention processes of the
in the measurement of emotions. According to Scherer central nervous system (LaCaille et al., 2013). The elec-
(2005), there are five dimensions of emotions: cognitive, trodermal activity of the skin can be divided into a tonic
neuropsychological, motivational, motor-expressive, and a phasic category.
and subjective emotional component (. Fig. 11.7). The tonic value of skin resistance (also known as
It is important to note that the various components conductance) is the absolute degree of resistance or
of emotions can function separately from one another conductance at a given moment in the absence of a
(Scherer, 2005). It is therefore advisable to measure sev- measurable phasic reaction. This value is known as skin
11 eral components at the same time (Mauss & Robinson, conductance. In tonic measurements, rest conditions
2009). It should be emphasized, however, that the assess- prevail, whereas in phasic measurements, certain stimuli
ment of all the different components is difficult to real- are used to induce activation in the subject (Dawson
ize and therefore this should not be made a standard et al., 2000).
procedure. We aim to inform sports scientists and sport Electrodermal activity is used as an indicator of
psychologists about the possibilities of measuring dif- arousal (intensity), but not of the valence of the emo-
ferent emotional components so that they can make an tion. The skin conductance response correlates posi-
informed choice about appropriate measurement tools tively with emotional arousal regardless of valence
to answer their research question. (Bradley & Lang, 2000). It is assumed that the skin con-
ductance response is regulated exclusively by the sympa-
z Cognitive Component thetic nervous system (Venables & Christie, 1980). The
The cognitive component refers to the appraisal of sympathetic innervations of the sweat glands induce
objects, events, and situations. To evaluate the cognitive changes in skin conductivity (Gutrecht, 1994), which is
assessment component, a contemporary questionnaire associated with emotional arousal in a variety of situa-
in sport, the “precompetitive appraisal measure” (PAM; tions (Dawson et al., 2000). In sports, skin conductance
Wolf et al., 2015), was developed. The PAM is based on response has rarely been used as a measure of emotion,
the “cognitive-motivational-relational theory” (Lazarus, as it is strongly associated with physical activity (for
1999) and records the primary (How do I assess the situ- exceptions, see Collet et al., 2003; Rada et al., 1995).

Emotion

Cognitive Neurophysiological Motivational Motor-expressive Subjective Feeling

Component component component component component
(appraisal) (bodily symptoms) (action tendencies) (Expressions) (Experience)

..      Fig. 11.7 The five relevant components for measuring emotions according to Scherer (2005)
Emotions in Sport
267 11
kHeart Rate cardiac vagal activity and lower cardiac vagal activity
To a certain extent, heart rate can indicate the valence reduction under pressure (Laborde et al., 2011, 2015b),
and intensity of an emotion. Bradley and Lang (2000) which is indicative of a biological basis of more adaptive
demonstrated that emotional images led to systematic emotional dispositions.
changes in the classic three-phase pattern—an initial
delay, an acceleration component, and a secondary kHormonal Measurement
delay—of heart rate. More specifically, it was shown Measurement of hormones, in particular cortisol, can
that affective valence contributed to the extent of ini- serve as indicators of anxiety or stress (Denson et al.,
tial deceleration and acceleration activity, with unpleas- 2009a, 2009b). Cortisol measurement in saliva is par-
ant stimuli producing a stronger initial deceleration and ticularly helpful because it is noninvasive, painless, and
pleasant stimuli producing a stronger peak acceleration. thus ethically justifiable. It can be carried out without
There are however many other variables that influ- medical expertise (Kirschbaum & Hellhammer, 2000).
ence heart rate, such as posture, breathing, and physical In athletic competition, an increase in cortisol lev-
constitution. These variables may obscure an affec- els often coincides with an individual’s stress experi-
tive influence on heart rate (Bradley & Lang, 2000). ence (Filaire et al., 1996, 1999, 2001). Research has, for
Nevertheless, it might be possible to measure the effect example, shown that the closer a competitive encoun-
of affective valence on heart rate when the processing ter approaches, the higher the cortisol level is (Strahler
context is appropriately controlled. Although physical et al., 2010). The cortisol response of athletes to stress-
activity complicates the interpretation of heart rate as ful encounters has been shown to be less important
an emotional indicator in sport, some studies in sport at the highest-performance level compared to low-­
have demonstrated association between heart rate and performance levels (Moya-Albiol et al., 2001). However,
anxiety in climbing (Oudejans & Pijpers, 2010) and a growing number of studies suggests that there is a
gymnastics (Tremayne & Barry, 1988). negative correlation between cortisol and athletic per-
formance (Lautenbach et al., 2014, 2015a, 2015b).
kHeart Rate Variability
Heart rate variability (HRV) can be calculated from the kMeasurement of Brain Activity
time intervals between the R-R peaks of the ECG. HRV Measurements of brain activity are a promising new
is never constant but varies from beat to beat and cor- development in the field of emotion and performance
responds to the variability of RR intervals (i.e., intervals (see Bertollo et al., 2020, for a recent overview). In
between successive R-R peaks; Niskanen et al., 2004). sports, for example, functional magnetic resonance
HRV reflects the interaction between the sympa- imaging (fMRI) has been used to investigate the effect
thetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic of cognitive interventions on coping with sports fail-
nervous system (Malik, 1996). Both sympathetic and ure at the neurophysiological level (Davis et al., 2008).
parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous A further study combined fMRI with neuroendocrine
system are involved in emotions (Levenson, 2003); measurements to investigate the correlates of neuronal
therefore, HRV can be considered an objective measure activation with cortisol and testosterone (Davis et al.,
of emotional response (Appelhans & Luecken, 2006). 2012). A challenge for researchers is adapting athletic
Of the two branches, HRV can only indicate the activ- emotional tasks to the particularities of fMRI (Daamen
ity of the parasympathetic nervous system regulating & Raab, 2012) since a large number of observations is
cardiac functioning, also known as cardiac vagal activ- required to derive reliable brain activation patterns.
ity (Malik, 1996). This is of particular interest for the Another method for measuring brain activity with a
sports domain since it has been postulated that resting higher time resolution is electroencephalography (EEG).
cardiac vagal activity has a positive relationship to cog- Although electroencephalography has been extensively
nitive functions, emotion regulation, and health accord- used in sports to study attention processes (e.g., Sanchez-­
ing to the “neurovisceral integration model” (Thayer Lopez et al., 2016), this method has rarely been used to
et al., 2009). study emotional processes in sports and needs to be fur-
In sport, athletes who show a lower decrease in car- ther established (for an exception, see Ring et al., 2016).
diac vagal activity under pressure show better decision-­ First studies suggest that neurofeedback may be a
making performance (Laborde & Raab, 2013; Laborde useful applied tool to improve performance under pres-
et al., 2014c) and memory performance (Laborde et al., sure (Ring et al., 2014). The development of mobile
2015a), which is consistent with the “neurovisceral inte- EEG methods might provide a promising perspective to
gration model” (Thayer et al., 2009). Emotional intel- improve the understanding of emotions in sports (Park
ligence has also been associated with higher resting et al., 2015).
 268 P. Furley et al.

z Motivational Component use of EEG and event-related potentials. This method

The motivational component within the measure- has been used, for example, to demonstrate the influence
ment of emotions reflects the action tendencies associ- of emotions on risk preference and outcome assessment
ated with discrete emotions (Ekman & Cordaro, 2011; during a decision task (Zhao et al., 2016).
Lazarus, 2000). The motivational component can affect
behavior by interrupting or inhibiting current behavior z Motor-Expressive Component
and generating new goals and plans (Scherer, 2005). According to Bradley and Lang (2000), behavioral
The motivational component of emotions is based on events can be assessed either by direct actions (e.g.,
circuits in the brain that respond to appetitive and aver- emotional expressions, approach, avoidance, flight,
sive stimuli (Lang & Bradley, 2010). Most commonly attack, defensive reflexes) or indirect indicators (e.g.,
the motivational component is assessed via self-report response latency, amplitude; 7 Study Box: Winning
or behavioral observation. Another possibility to inves- Athletes Show Discrete Emotional Expression After a
tigate the motivational component of emotions is the Triumph).

Study Box

Winning Athletes Show Discrete ferent from known emotional social groups and thus establish hier-
Emotional Expression After a Triumph expressions like pride. This was con- archies. This line of argumentation
Matsumoto and Hwang (2012) firmed in a second study where trained was further confirmed by the finding
recorded the spontaneous reactions coders evaluated the behavior. The that the expressions of superiority
of successful judoka at the 2004 authors argued that certain expres- and triumph were also shown by ath-
Olympics. Detailed evaluation of the sions of superiority and triumph have letes at the Paralympics who were
nonverbal behaviors of the athletes developed over the course of evolu- blind from birth and therefore could
showed that the emotional expres- tion (. Fig. 11.8), which help to not have learned these expressions
11 sions after success or failure were dif- establish status and dominance in (Tracy & Matsumoto, 2008).

..      Fig. 11.8 Athletes show a discrete emotional expression after a success

Emotions in Sport
269 11
The effects of emotions on muscle activity and move- Side Story
ment behavior can be evaluated by controlled moni-
toring of changes in movement patterns and muscle What Do Movements Say About Emotions in Sport?
tension (Pijpers et al., 2003, 2005). These studies show Motion recordings can make an important contribu-
that it is possible to use electromyographic data to tion to the analysis of the motor component of emo-
assess qualitative differences in muscle tension and tions in sports, even though there is a controversial
movement patterns as a function of emotional state. It discussion about whether it is possible to reliably draw
has also been shown that emotions influence the speed conclusions about emotional states based on move-
and initiation time of targeted movements (Beatty ment (Castellano et al., 2007). First studies show that it
et al., 2016). is possible to identify discrete emotions through move-
The influence of emotions on physical perfor- ment (Li et al., 2016; Vernazza-Martin et al., 2015,
mance was demonstrated in various sport-related . Fig. 11.10).
tasks, such as the strength of the finger muscles,
jump height of a countermovement jump, the speed
of a thrown ball (Rathschlag & Memmert, 2013),
and sprint performance (Rathschlag & Memmert,
2014; . Fig. 11.9). Furthermore, it has been demon-
strated that changes in performance under pressure
are mediated by emotionally induced changes in mus-
cle activity and kinematic parameters (Cooke et al.,
2010; 7 Side Story: What Do Movements Say About
Emotions in Sport?).

..      Fig. 11.9 Emotions can influence sprint performance, for exam-

ple (Rathschlag & Memmert, 2014)
..      Fig. 11.10 Expression of emotions in sports
 270 P. Furley et al.

z Subjective Emotional Component and the resultant measure was very similar to the model
There are two main methods for obtaining self-­ developed initially for clinical use. As emotions are uni-
evaluations of emotional experiences: the discrete emo- versal, one might wonder why specific emotions might
tion approach and the dimensions approach (Scherer, arise in certain contexts, and rather than seek different
2005). emotions, it is more reasonable to expect the intensity of
emotions to vary by context. Thus we expect anxiety to
kDiscrete Emotions be high before competition and low after competition.
There are two approaches for measuring discrete emo- Further instruments measuring emotion-related feelings
tions: individualized (idiosyncratic) and group-oriented in sport (“Psychobiosocial States Scale, Trait Version”,
(nomothetic). PBS-ST, and Psychobiosocial Experience Semantic
Differential scale in sport, PESD-Sport) were developed
Idiosyncratic The individualized approach was initiated by Robazza et al. (2016, 2021; see Ruiz et al., 2019, for a
by the work of Hanin and his colleagues with the IZOF state version of the questionnaire).
(Hanin, 2000; Jokela & Hanin, 1999). An individualized The Competitive Aggressiveness and Anger Scale
approach allows scientists to get closer to the experienced (CAAS; Maxwell & Moores, 2007) was used to reveal
emotions of athletes and to grasp their idiosyncratic correlations between certain emotions and illegal aggres-
nature for each individual athlete. To allow for group sive behavior in rugby (Maxwell & Visek, 2009). In addi-
analysis of IZOF data, a method has been proposed that tion, picture tests have been used to measure people’s
combines performance-enhancing and performance-­ attitudes toward participating in physically and emo-
reducing emotions (Laborde et al., 2016b). The IZOF was tionally challenging tasks in physical education (Bortoli
further developed and combined with physiological mea- & Robazza, 1994) and high-risk sports (Robazza et al.,
surements to allow predictions of when athletes are in an 2006; . Fig. 11.11).
optimal emotional performance range (Bertollo et al.,
2012). Since theory testing and the synthesis of data from kDimensional Approach
different studies is difficult with this idiosyncratic This category of measuring tools typically assesses dif-
11 approach (Jones et al., 2005), researchers usually choose ferent dimensions of emotions via pencil and paper
the group-oriented (nomothetic) approach. scales. Common dimensions that are measured are
the hedonic valence (pleasant vs. unpleasant) and the
Nomothetic For the group-oriented approach, there are activation level (i.e., arousal). A frequently used instru-
several standardized sport-specific measures that focus on ment is the “Affect Grid” (Russell et al., 1989) which
one specific emotion, e.g., fear. These, for example, include evaluates hedonic valence and intensity. The sport-
the “Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2” (Martens related “Affect Grid” is based on the same principle
et al., 1990b), which has been revised to an updated ver- (Woodman et al., 2009). It evaluates two independent
sion (Martinent et al., 2010), and the “Sport Anxiety dimensions of affect: activation and valence (pleasant-
Scale-2” (Smith et al., 2006). ness). It is presented as a 9 × 9 grid (. Fig. 11.12): The
Non-sport-specific scales are often used to assess a vertical axis evaluates activation (from extremely low
broader range of affective states: the Profile of Mood to extremely high), and the horizontal axis evaluates
States (POMS; McNair et al., 1971; although it refers to hedonic valence (from unpleasant feeling to pleasant
moods rather than emotions), the Brunel Mood Scale feeling).
(BRUMS: Terry et al., 2003), and the Positive Affect and Another popular instrument is the “activation-­
Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988). deactivation checklist” (Thayer, 1989). It records the
The POMS and BRUMS assess anger, tension, depres- activation dimension and was used to assess affective
sion, fatigue, confusion, tension, and vigour. sensation after physical activity (Ekkekakis et al., 2005).
Even though the POMS and the PANAS have been The “Affect Scale” (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989) is a bipolar
used in athletic contexts, they were not designed to evaluation scale used to assess emotional reactions dur-
assess emotions in sport. Therefore, the sport-specific ing training.
questionnaire “Sport Emotion Questionnaire” (SEQ: The “Visual Analog Scale” is a biaxial orthogonal
Jones et al., 2005) was developed. It contains 22 emo- grid (200 mm axes with the poles “not at all” and “very
tion adjectives from five different dimensions (anger, much”) that has been used to measure the arousal and
anxiety, dejection, excitement, and happiness) and has hedonic valence dimensions. The scale is frequently used
been validated to measure emotions before a competi- as a quick and effective measure to control emotional
tion. The SEQ correlates very closely to the BRUMS, manipulations (Davis et al., 2010).
Emotions in Sport
271 11

..      Fig. 11.11 In big wave surfing, the athletes expose themselves to an enormous risk

..      Fig. 11.12 “Sport Affect

Extremely High
Grid.” Participants are asked to
mark a section of the grid with
an X that represents the current
emotional state. The score for
activation and the hedonic
valence of feelings are calculated
separately by converting the Intensity
position of the X on each axis to
a value from 1 to 9 (Woodman
et al., 2009)

Extremely Low

Unpleasant Feeling Pleasant Feeling

Feeling

In general, dimensional measures provide less infor- an ability is measured with emotional intelligence tests
mation than inventories assessing discrete emotions but (Petrides, 2009a). Regarding the measurement of EI as
can be helpful for quick affective assessments. a personality trait, nine different questionnaires have
been used in the sport context (Laborde et al., 2016a). A
> Measuring Emotions full description of all these questionnaires is beyond the
Measuring emotions is complex. The following indica- scope of this chapter, so we will limit ourselves here to
tors provide information about a person’s emotional the description of the emotional intelligence question-
states: naire (Petrides, 2009b).
55 Cognitive component This questionnaire shows the best psychometric
55 Neuropsychological component properties (Petrides, 2009a) and the highest external
55 Motivational component validity. Furthermore, the questionnaire showed asso-
55 Motor-expressive component ciations with physiological and hormonal responses
55 Subjective emotional component (Laborde et al., 2011, 2014a, 2014b, 2014c, 2015a,
2015b). The questionnaire contains 153 terms that can
be used to calculate 15 subscales included in 4 factors
11.9.2 Measuring Emotional Intelligence (i.e., well-being, self-control, emotionality, and socia-
bility) and a global EI score. This factor structure has
Emotional intelligence as a personality trait is usually been replicated using a sample of sportsmen and women
measured with personality questionnaires, while EI as (Laborde et al. 2014a, 2014b, 2014c).
 272 P. Furley et al.

In sport, Lane et al. (2009) examined the validity of

the frequently used emotional intelligence scale (Schutte 9. Describe the most important anatomical structures
et al., 1998). Lane, Meyer et al. (2009) found that many and the associated physiological processes related
items showed poor face validity, and Davies et al. (2010) to emotions.
found evidence to support a brief ten-item version. For 10. How are emotional physiological processes related
researchers wishing to obtain a brief measure of emo- to information processing, decision-­making, and
tional intelligence, for example, in contexts where brev- behavior?
ity is important, the short measure developed by Davies 11. Name the three theoretical approaches to describe
et al. (2010) has many desirable qualities. the connection between physiology and emotional
Regarding the measurement of EI as an ability, tests experience.
like the “Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence 12. How does the discrete emotion approach differ
Test” (MSCEIT; Mayer et al., 2002), “Test of Emotional from the dimensional approach? What are the
Intelligence” (TEMINT; Blickle et al., 2011), and “Ability arguments for the discrete emotion approach?
Emotional Intelligence Measure” (AEIM; Warwick 13. What are the functions of emotions?
et al., 2010) have been developed (Warwick et al., 2010). 14. Which findings support the interpersonal functions
The MSCEIT is the most commonly used ability of emotions?
EI test and the only one used in sport (Crombie et al.,
2009, 2011). It evaluates four emotional dimensions: the Experts:
ability (1) to perceive emotions, (2) to use emotions to 15. Describe the “EASI model” and discuss the signifi-
facilitate thoughts, (3) to understand emotions, and (4) cance of the model for sports.
to control emotions. The four dimensions are assessed 16. What is the relationship between emotions and
with 141 items. Although this measure has been criti- sports performance? Outline key assumptions and
cized (Fiori et al., 2014), it currently represents the most findings.
widely used measure in the field of sport. 17. What are the five aspects that can be addressed by
emotion regulation?
11 18. What is emotional intelligence? What is the rela-
Learning Control Questions tionship between emotional intelligence and sports
Basic: performance?
1. What is an emotion? How does an emotion differ 19. List different ways to induce emotions.
from a mood? 20. Which dimensions can be distinguished when mea-
2. What is the main statement of Darwin’s “theory of suring emotions in sport?
emotional expression” and why are emotional
expressions central to understanding emotions?
3. What are the findings on Darwin’s theoretical
assumptions in sport? Describe them and discuss References
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