EXPERIMENT NO.

2
DC Load Line Analysis of Transistor Amplifier

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives:
1. To construct a maximum dissipation curve.
2. To construct a dc load line in CE amplifier.
3. To verify the predicted operating conditions of the amplifier.
Introduction:
Transistor amplifier must be operated over the linear portion of their characteristics when it is
necessary to reproduce the input signal without distortion. It is therefore necessary to choose
carefully the operating point, the characteristics of the transistor, and the associated circuit
components in considering the design of a linear amplifier. In transistors the operating point is
determined by the currents chosen for collector, emitter and base. Hence, in designing an
amplifier, an engineer should consult the transistor characteristic curves and other listed data.

Collector-dissipation Curves

Fig.1. Collector characteristics curve.

Fig.1. shown above is a typical family of collector characteristic curve for a transistor
connected in the common-emitter configuration. These curves show the behavior of the
transistor at 25°C ambient temperature, over a range of collector currents and voltages, for
specified values of base or bias currents. There is a certain restriction, however, on the potions
of the curve over which the transistor may be operated. This restriction relates to the maximum
collector dissipation permissible at the specified temperature level. For example, a collector
dissipation of 100mW when operating at an ambient temperature of 25°C. The permissible
operating range may be shown in the manufacturer’s datasheets by graphs superimposed on
the family of collector curves. If the maximum dissipation is not mentioned in the
manufacturer’s data, the engineer can easily plot it on the family of characteristics curve. The
 curve presents 100mW at every point; i.e., the coordinates of every point on this curve are
selected so that the product of
VCE × IC = 100mW (1)
For example, the 2V 50mA point satisfies this condition, as does the 10V 10mA point, the
curve is, of course, one branch of the hyperbola defined by above. The transistor must be
operated to the left of this curve.

DC Load Line:
The performance of the transistor amplifier can be predicted graphically by means of a load
line. The effect of an input on the output signal for specified operating conditions, assuming
no ac load, can then be determined from the load line.
Refer to the Fig.2 which shows the output circuit of a grounded-emitter amplifier. If VCC and
RL are known, the load line may be drawn through the two limiting points on the line:

Fig.2. DC Voltage in the output of a grounded-emitter amplifier.

(a) Maximum Saturation: on the collector

current axis.
(b) Absolute cutoff:
(IC = 0, VCE = VCC) on the collector voltage axis

Fig.3. Load line for specific values of RL and Vcc.

 A numerical illustration will show how the coordinates of the limiting points are found. In Fig.
2
VCC = 6 V and RL = 300 Ω. Now when VCE = 0, IC = 20 mA. When IC = 0, VCE = 6 V, the line
drawn through these points is shown in Fig. 3.
What would be the effect on the line of increasing or decreasing the value of R L, all other
conditions remaining equal? Again a numerical example will indicate the answer. First, if R L
is decreased in value to 100Ω, the load line (2) coordinates are:

And

IC = 0, VCC = 6V (3)
This line (2) has a common point with the load line 1, namely, VCC = 6, IC = 0, but lies above
it. Again if the value of RL is increased to say 1200 Ω, the coordinates of the load line (3) are

And
IC = 0, VCE = 6V (5)

Fig.4. Load line drawn if the operating point Q and the load line are
known.

Load line 3 shares a common point with lines 1 and 2 but lies below line 1. Note that in all
three cases the load line is to the left of 100 mA maximum dissipation curve.
The general method of drawing the load line is clear as long as the values of RL and VCC are
known. Suppose the value of RL is not known, but the operating point of the transistor
amplifier is known. (The operating point may be defined by the quiescent conditions of the
amplifier, that is, by the dc values of VCE and IC with no signal present).
If the operating point Q is VCE = 5.25 V, IC = 19 mA, and the supply voltage VCC = 10 V, the
load line is drawn through Q and through the point IC = 0, VCE = 10 V, as in Fig. 4. Note that
the load line intersects the collector mill ampere axis at the point VCE = 0, IC = 40 mA. The
value of RL may now be found, for IC = VCC/RL when VCE = 0. Therefore

Substituting the values VCC = 10 V, IC = 40 mA in the above equation gives

A 250Ω collector load resistor would permit the amplifier to be operated at the required point
Q.

Predicting Amplifier Operation from the Load Line:

From the load line it is now possible to predict the manner in which collector current will vary
with changes in the base current. The intersection of the load line with any of the family of
collector curves may serve as operating point. The best operating point selected in the last
example, VCE = 5.25 V, IC = 19 mA, lies on the intersection of the load line with the IB = 0.3
mA characteristic curve. This means the base current of 0.3 mA will cause a current of 19 mA
to flow in the collector circuit of 2N649 transistor. The transistor operates from a 10V source
with load resistance of 250Ω, connected in the grounded emitter configuration in Fig. (3).
What would be the effect on the collector current of increasing the base current in this circuit
to, say, 0.4 mA? The answer is obtained by noting the point at which the load line intersects
the 0.4mA characteristic. In this case IC = 26 mA, an increase of 7 mA, and VCE = 3.5 V, if IB
is reduced to 0.2 mA, a decrease of 7 mA, and VCE = 7.0 V. For the operating point and the
circuit chosen, we see that changes in collector current are linearly related to changes in base
current between base current limits of 0.1 to 0.3 mA.
From the load line also we can find the current gain for the amplifier. We previously defined
current gain as the ratio of output-current change to input-current change. That is,

In the example cited we see that

∆I out = 26 − 12 = 14 mA (9)
∆Iin = 0.4 − 0.2 = 0.2 mA (10)
Substituting in the above Eq, we find

Saturation Point:
The saturation current is the maximum possible current through the transistor and occurs at the
point where the voltage across the collector is minimum.
Cutoff Voltage:
The cutoff voltage is the maximum possible voltage across the collector and occurs at zero
collectors current.
Summary:
1. The family of average collector characteristics is shown in Fig.1. It shows how
collector current IC varies with base current IB and the collector voltage VCE, in a
specific transistor operating at a specified temperature. For the graph to be useful, the
maximum dissipation curve of the transistor must be drawn on collector characteristics.
 2. A dc load line is a straight line drawn on the family of characteristic curves. Amplifier
performance may be predicted from this line. To draw the load line, it is assumed that
VCC and RL are known. The end points of the line may be calculated as follows:
3. The coordinates of the point on the collector current axis are: VCE = 0 and IC = VCC/RL;
4. The coordinates of the point on the collector voltage axis are: VCE = VCC and IC = 0.
For DC load line analysis of a transistor, we need to find the saturation current and
cutoff voltage.

LAB SESSION

Lab Task:

Set up the circuit for DC load line analysis for transistor 2N2222A and draw the collector
characteristic curves.

Equipment and Materials:

➢ Transistor curve tracer 1 Motorola 2N3904 NPN transistor (150 mA, 60 V) with βdc =
βAC
➢ Load Resistance RL
➢ Digital Multimeter
➢ Power supply, Digital storage oscilloscope
➢ Function generator
Experimental Procedure:

1. Consider the circuit diagram shown above.

2. Use an appropriate value of RC and VCC. Ground the emitter.
3. Draw the corresponding load-line. Determine and record an appropriate "Q" point
along the load line for "midpoint biasing" that is a good approximation for operation
as a minimum distortion amplifier.
4. Specify ICQ, VCEQ, and IBQ for your Q point.
5. Determine and record βdc, βAC, and roc using graphical techniques and Equations,
described above.
6. Finally, determine and record the value of ib required to switch the BJT from cutoff to
saturation along the load-line determined above.
Observations:

Table No.1

Load Line Value Computed Load Line Value Measured

IB , uA IC , mA VCE , V IB , uA IC , mA VCE , V VBE , V
10 10
15 15
20 20
25 25
30 30

Operating Points Collector Current Gain Collector voltage Gain

=∆𝑰𝒄 /∆𝑰𝑩 =∆𝑽𝑪𝑬 /∆𝑽𝑩𝑬
Q1 (_____uA)
Q2 (_____uA)
Q3 (_____uA)

Questions:

1. What is the importance of transistor Q point in amplifier’s operation?

2. In which region the transistor operates for doing the DC load line analysis?
3. Why stabilization of operating point is needed?
4. What is the difference between an AC load line and a DC load line analysis?
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: How would you determine the Q point to be in the middle of the DC LL?
Discuss. What are applications for load line analysis?

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Conclusion /Summary

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