Design and Analysis of Algorithm

1. Algorithms
An algorithm is a type of effective method in which a definite list of well-defined
instructions for completing a task; that given an initial state, will proceed through a well-
defined series of successive states, eventually terminating in an end-state. The concept of
an algorithm originated as a means of recording procedures for solving mathematical
problems such as finding the common divisor of two numbers or multiplying two
numbers.

Algorithms are named for the 9th century Persian mathematician Al-Khowarizmi. He
wrote a treatise in Arabic in 825 AD, On Calculation with Hindu Numerals. It was
translated into Latin in the 12th century as Algoritmi de numero Indorum, which title was
likely intended to mean "[Book by] Algoritmus on the numbers of the Indians", where
"Algoritmi" was the translator's rendition of the author's name in the genitive case; but
people misunderstanding the title treated Algoritmi as a Latin plural and this led to the
word "algorithm" (Latin algorismus) coming to mean "calculation method".

1.1 Algorithm Specification

The criteria for any set of instruction for an algorithm is as follows:
 Input : Zero of more quantities that are externally applied
 Output : At least one quantity is produced
 Definiteness : Each instruction should be clear and unambiguous
 Finiteness : Algorithm terminates after finite number of steps for all test
cases.
 Effectiveness : Each instruction is basic enough for a person to carried out
using a pen and paper. That means ensure not only definite but also check whether
feasible or not.

1.2 Algorithm Classification

There are various ways to classify algorithms. They are as follows

1.2.1 Classification by implementation

Recursion or iteration: A recursive algorithm is one that invokes (makes reference
to) itself repeatedly until a certain condition
matches, which is a method common to functional programming. Iterative algorithms
use repetitive constructs like loops and sometimes additional data structures like
stacks to solve the given problems. Some problems are naturally suited for one
implementation or the other. For example, towers of hanoi is well understood in
recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly
more or less complex) iterative version, and vice versa.
Logical: An algorithm may be viewed as controlled logical deduction. This notion
may be expressed as:
Algorithm = logic + control.
The logic component expresses the axioms that may be used in the computation and
the control component determines the way in which deduction is applied to the
axioms. This is the basis for the logic programming paradigm. In pure logic

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 1

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

programming languages, the control component is fixed and algorithms are specified
by supplying only the logic component. The appeal of this approach is the elegant
semantics: a change in the axioms has a well-defined change in the algorithm.
Serial or parallel or distributed: Algorithms are usually discussed with the
assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time. Those
computers are sometimes called serial computers. An algorithm designed for such an
environment is called a serial algorithm, as opposed to parallel algorithms or
distributed algorithms. Parallel algorithms take advantage of computer architectures
where several processors can work on a problem at the same time, whereas distributed
algorithms utilise multiple machines connected with a network. Parallel or distributed
algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems
and collect the results back together. The resource consumption in such algorithms is
not only processor cycles on each processor but also the communication overhead
between the processors. Sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their
communication overhead is expensive. Iterative algorithms are generally
parallelizable. Some problems have no parallel algorithms, and are called inherently
serial problems.
Deterministic or non-deterministic: Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with
exact decision at every step of the algorithm whereas non-deterministic algorithm
solves problems via guessing although typical guesses are made more accurate
through the use of heuristics.
Exact or approximate: While many algorithms reach an exact solution,
approximation algorithms seek an approximation that is close to the true solution.
Approximation may use either a deterministic or a random strategy. Such algorithms
have practical value for many hard problems.

1.2.2 Classification by Design Paradigm

Divide and conquer. A divide and conquer algorithm repeatedly reduces an instance
of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem (usually
recursively), until the instances are small enough to solve easily. One such example of
divide and conquer is merge sorting. Sorting can be done on each segment of data
after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in conquer
phase by merging them. A simpler variant of divide and conquer is called decrease
and conquer algorithm, that solves an identical sub problem and uses the solution of
this sub problem to solve the bigger problem. Divide and conquer divides the problem
into multiple sub problems and so conquer stage will be more complex than decrease
and conquer algorithms. An example of decrease and conquer algorithm is binary
search algorithm.
Dynamic programming. When a problem shows optimal substructure, meaning the
optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to sub
problems, and overlapping sub problems, meaning the same sub problems are used to
solve many different problem instances, a quicker approach called dynamic
programming avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed. For
example, the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted graph can be found by
using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming
and memoization go together. The main difference between dynamic programming
and divide and conquer is that sub problems are more or less independent in divide
and conquer, whereas sub problems overlap in dynamic programming. The difference

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 2

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

between dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or

memoization of recursive calls. When sub problems are independent and there is no
repetition, memoization does not help; hence dynamic programming is not a solution
for all complex problems. By using memoization or maintaining a table of sub
problems already solved, dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of
many problems to polynomial complexity.
The greedy method. A greedy algorithm is similar to a dynamic programming
algorithm, but the difference is that solutions to the sub problems do not have to be
known at each stage; instead a "greedy" choice can be made of what looks best for the
moment. The greedy method extends the solution with the best possible decision (not
all feasible decisions) at an algorithmic stage based on the current local optimum and
the best decision (not all possible decisions) made in previous stage. It is not
exhaustive, and does not give accurate answer to many problems. But when it works,
it will be the fastest method. The most popular greedy algorithm is finding the
minimal spanning tree as given by Kruskal.
Linear programming. When solving a problem using linear programming, specific
inequalities involving the inputs are found and then an attempt is made to maximize
(or minimize) some linear function of the inputs. Many problems (such as the
maximum flow for directed graphs) can be stated in a linear programming way, and
then be solved by a 'generic' algorithm such as the simplex algorithm.
Reduction. This technique involves solving a difficult problem by transforming it
into a better-known problem for which we have (hopefully) asymptotically optimal
algorithms. The goal is to find a reducing algorithm whose complexity is not
dominated by the resulting reduced algorithm's. For example, one selection algorithm
for finding the median in an unsorted list involves first sorting the list (the expensive
portion) and then pulling out the middle element in the sorted list (the cheap portion).
This technique is also known as transform and conquer.
Search and enumeration. Many problems (such as playing chess) can be modeled as
problems on graphs. A graph exploration algorithm specifies rules for moving around
a graph and is useful for such problems. This category also includes search
algorithms, branch and bound enumeration and backtracking.
The probabilistic and heuristic paradigm. Algorithms belonging to this class fit the
definition of an algorithm more loosely.
Probabilistic algorithms are those that make some choices randomly (or pseudo-
randomly); for some problems, it can in fact be proven that the fastest solutions
must involve some randomness.
Genetic algorithms attempt to find solutions to problems by mimicking biological
evolutionary processes, with a cycle of random mutations yielding successive
generations of "solutions". Thus, they emulate reproduction and "survival of the
fittest". In genetic programming, this approach is extended to algorithms, by
regarding the algorithm itself as a "solution" to a problem.
Heuristic algorithms, whose general purpose is not to find an optimal solution, but
an approximate solution where the time or resources are limited. They are not
practical to find perfect solutions. An example of this would be local search, or
simulated annealing.

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 3

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

1.3 Recursive Algorithms

A recursive algorithm is an algorithm which calls itself with "smaller (or simpler)"
input values, and which obtains the result for the current input by applying simple
operations to the returned value for the smaller (or simpler) input. More generally if a
problem can be solved utilizing solutions to smaller versions of the same problem, and
the smaller versions reduce to easily solvable cases, then one can use a recursive
algorithm to solve that problem. For example, the elements of a recursively defined set, or
the value of a recursively defined function can be obtained by a recursive algorithm.
Recursive computer programs require more memory and computation compared with
iterative algorithms, but they are simpler and for many cases a natural way of thinking
about the problem.

For example consider factorial of a number, n

n! = n*(n-1)*(n-2)*...*2*1, and that 0! = 1.

In other words,

Function to calculate the factorial can be written as

int factorial(int n)
{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return (n * factorial(n-1));
}

factorial(0)=> 1

factorial(3)
3 * factorial(2)
3 * 2 * factorial(1)
3 * 2 * 1 * factorial(0)
3*2*1*1
=> 6

This corresponds very closely to what actually happens on the execution stack in the
computer's memory.

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 4

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

1.4 Space and Time Complexity

Two important ways to characterize the effectiveness of an algorithm are its space
complexity and time complexity.

1.4.1 Space Complexity

Space complexity of an algorithm is the amount to memory needed by the program
for its completion. Space needed by a program has the following components:

1. Instruction Space
Space needed to store the compiled version of program. It depends on
i. Compiler used
ii. Options specified at the time of compilation
e.g., whether optimization specified, Is there any overlay option etc.
iii. Target computer
e.g., For performing floating point arithmetic, if hardware present or not.

2. Data Space
Space needed to store constant and variable values. It has two components:
i. Space for constants:
e.g., value ‘3’ in program 1.1
Space for simple variables:
e.g., variables a,b,c in program 1.1

Program 1.1
int add (int a, int b, int c)
{
return (a+b+c)/3;
}

ii. Space for component variables like arrays, structures, dynamically allocated
memory.
e.g., variables a in program 1.2

Program 1.2
int Radd (int a[], int n)
1 {
2 If (n>0)
3 return Radd (a, n-1) + a[n-1];
4 else
5 return 0;
6 }

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 5

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

3. Environment stack space

Environment stack is used to store information to resume execution of partially
completed functions. When a function is invoked, following data are stored in
Environment stack.
i. Return address.
ii. Value of local and formal variables.
iii. Binding of all reference and constant reference parameters.

Space needed by the program can be divided into two parts.

i. Fixed part independent of instance characteristics. E.g., code space, simple
variables, fixed size component variables etc.
ii. Variable part. Space for component variables with space depends on particular
instance. Value of local and formal variables.
Hence we can write the space complexity as
S(P) = c + Sp (instance characteristics)

Example 1.1
Refer Program 1.1
One word for variables a,b,c. No instance characteristics. Hence Sp(TC) = 0

Example 1.2
Program 1.3
int Aadd (int *a, int n)
1 {
2 int s=0;
3 for (i=0; i<n; i++)
4 s+ = a[i];
5 return s;
6 }
One word for variables n and i. Space for a[] is address of a[0]. Hence it requires one
word. No instance characteristics. Hence Sp(TC) = 0

Example 1.3
Refer Program 1.2
Instance characteristics depend on values of n. Recursive stack space includes space
for formal parameters, local variables and return address. So one word each for a[],n,
return address and return variables. Hence for each pass it needs 4 words. Total recursive
stack space needed is 4(n).
Hence Sp(TC) = 4(n).

1.4.2 Time Complexity

Time complexity of an algorithm is the amount of time needed by the program for its
completion. Time taken is the sum of the compile time and the execution time. Compile
time does not depend on instantaneous characteristics. Hence we can ignore it.

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 6

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Program step: A program step is syntactically or semantically meaningful segment of a

program whose execution time is independent of instantaneous characteristics. We can
calculate complexity in terms of

1. Comments:
No executables, hence step count = 0

2. Declarative Statements:
Define or characterize variables and constants like (int , long, enum, …)
Statement enabling data types (class, struct, union, template)
Determine access statements ( public, private, protected, friend )
Character functions ( void, virtual )
All the above are non executables, hence step count = 0

3. Expressions and Assignment Statements:

Simple expressions : Step count = 1. But if expressions contain function call, step
count is the cost of the invoking functions. This will be large if parameters are passed
as call by value, because value of the actual parameters must assigned to formal
parameters.

Assignment statements : General form is <variable> = <expr>. Step count = expr,

unless size of <variable> is a function of instance characteristics. eg., a = b, where a
and b are structures. In that case, Step count = size of <variable> + size of < expr >

4. Iterative Statements:

While <expr> do
Do .. While <expr>
Step count = Number of step count assignable to <expr>

For (<init-stmt>; <expr1>; <expr2>)

Step count = 1, unless the <init-stmt>, <expr1>,<expr2> are function of instance
characteristics. If so, first execution of control part has step count as sum of count of
<init-stmt> and <expr1>. For remaining executions, control part has step count as
sum of count of <expr1> and <expr2>.

5. Switch Statements:
Switch (<expr>) {
Case cond1 : <statement1>
Case cond2 : <statement2>
.
.
Default : <statement>
}

Switch (<expr>) has step count = cost of <expr>

Cost of Cond statements is its cost plus cost of all preceding statements.

6. If-else Statements:
If (<expr>) <statement1>;

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 7

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Else <statement2>;
Step count of If and Else is the cost of <expr>.

7. Function invocation:
All function invocation has Step count = 1, unless it has parameters passed as called
by value which depend s on instance characteristics. If so, Step count is the sum of the
size of these values.
If function being invoked is recursive, consider the local variables also.

8. Memory management Statements:

new object, delete object, sizeof(object), Step count =1.

9. Function Statements:
Step count = 0, cost is already assigned to invoking statements.

10. Jump Statements:

continue, break, goto has Step count =1
return <expr>: Step count =1, if no expr which is a function of instance
characteristics. If there is, consider its cost also.

Example 1.4
Refer Program 1.2
Introducing a counter for each executable line we can rewrite the program as

int Radd (int a[], int n)

{
count++ // if
If (n>0)
{
count++ // return
return Radd (a, n-1) + a[n-1];
}
else
{
count++ // return
return 0;
}
}
Case 1: n=0
tRadd = 2

Case 2: n>0
2 + tRadd (n-1)
= 2 + 2 + tRadd (n-2)
= 2 * 2 + tRadd (n-2)
.
.
= 2n + tRadd (0)
= 2n + 2

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 8

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Example 1.5
Program 1.4
int Madd (int a[][], int b[][], int c[][], int n)
1 {
2 For (int i=0; i<m; i++)
3 For (int j=0; j<n; j++)
4 c[i][j] = a[i][j] + b[i][j];
5 }

Introducing a counter for each executable line we can rewrite the program as
int Madd (int a[][], int b[][], int c[][], int n)
{
For (int i=0; i<m; i++)
{
count++ //for i
For (int j=0; j<n; j++)
{
count++ //for j
c[i][j] = a[i][j] + b[i][j];
count++ //for assignment
}
count++ //for last j
}
count++ //for last i
}
Step count is 2mn + 2m +1.

Step count does not reflect the complexity of statement. It is reflected in step per
execution (s/e).

Refer Program 1.2

Line s/e Frequency Total Steps
n=0 n>0 n=0 n>0
1 0 1 1 0 0
2 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 + tRadd (n-1) 0 1 0 1 + tRadd (n-1)
4 0 1 0 0 0
5 1 1 0 1 0
Total no. of steps 2 2 + tRadd (n-1)

Refer Program 1.3

Line s/e Frequency Total Steps
1 0 1 0
2 1 1 1
3 1 n+1 n+1
4 1 n n
5 1 1 1
6 0 1 0
Total no. of steps 2n + 3

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 9

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Refer Program 1.4

Line s/e Frequency Total Steps
1 0 1 0
2 1 m+1 m+1
3 1 m(n+1) m(n+1)
4 1 mn mn
5 0 1 0
Total no. of steps 2mn + 2m + 1

1.5 Asymptotic Notations

Step count is to compare time complexity of two programs that compute same
function and also to predict the growth in run time as instance characteristics changes.
Determining exact step count is difficult and not necessary also. Since the values are not
exact quantities we need only comparative statements like c1n2 ≤ tp(n) ≤ c2n2.

For example, consider two programs with complexities c1n2 + c2n and c3n
respectively. For small values of n, complexity depend upon values of c1, c2 and c3. But
there will also be an n beyond which complexity of c3n is better than that of c1n2 +
c2n.This value of n is called break-even point. If this point is zero, c3n is always faster (or
at least as fast). Common asymptotic functions are given below.

Function Name
1 Constant
log n Logarithmic
n Linear
n log n n log n
n2 Quadratic
n3 Cubic
2n Exponential
n! Factorial

1.5.1 Big ‘Oh’ Notation (O)

O(g(n)) = { f(n) : there exist positive constants c and n0 such that 0 ≤ f(n) ≤ cg(n) for all n
≥ n0 }
It is the upper bound of any function. Hence it denotes the worse case complexity of any
algorithm. We can represent it graphically as

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 10

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Fig 1.1

Find the Big ‘Oh’ for the following functions:

Linear Functions
Example 1.6
f(n) = 3n + 2

General form is f(n) ≤ cg(n)

When n ≥ 2, 3n + 2 ≤ 3n + n = 4n
Hence f(n) = O(n), here c = 4 and n0 = 2

When n ≥ 1, 3n + 2 ≤ 3n + 2n = 5n
Hence f(n) = O(n), here c = 5 and n0 = 1

Hence we can have different c,n0 pairs satisfying for a given function.

Example 1.7
f(n) = 3n + 3
When n ≥ 3, 3n + 3 ≤ 3n + n = 4n
Hence f(n) = O(n), here c = 4 and n0 = 3

Example 1.8
f(n) = 100n + 6
When n ≥ 6, 100n + 6 ≤ 100n + n = 101n
Hence f(n) = O(n), here c = 101 and n0 = 6

Quadratic Functions
Example 1.9
f(n) = 10n2 + 4n + 2
When n ≥ 2, 10n2 + 4n + 2 ≤ 10n2 + 5n
When n ≥ 5, 5n ≤ n2, 10n2 + 4n + 2 ≤ 10n2 + n2 = 11n2
Hence f(n) = O(n2), here c = 11 and n0 = 5

Example 1.10
f(n) = 1000n2 + 100n - 6

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 11

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

f(n) ≤ 1000n2 + 100n for all values of n.

When n ≥ 100, 5n ≤ n2, f(n) ≤ 1000n2 + n2 = 1001n2
Hence f(n) = O(n2), here c = 1001 and n0 = 100

Exponential Functions
Example 1.11
f(n) = 6*2n + n2
When n ≥ 4, n2 ≤ 2n
So f(n) ≤ 6*2n + 2n = 7*2n
Hence f(n) = O(2n), here c = 7 and n0 = 4

Constant Functions
Example 1.12
f(n) = 10
f(n) = O(1), because f(n) ≤ 10*1

1.5.2 Omega Notation (Ω)

Ω (g(n)) = { f(n) : there exist positive constants c and n0 such that 0 ≤ cg(n) ≤ f(n) for all
n ≥ n0 }
It is the lower bound of any function. Hence it denotes the best case complexity of any
algorithm. We can represent it graphically as

Fig 1.2
Example 1.13
f(n) = 3n + 2
3n + 2 > 3n for all n.
Hence f(n) = Ω(n)
Similarly we can solve all the examples specified under Big ‘Oh’.

1.5.3 Theta Notation (Θ)

Θ(g(n)) = {f(n) : there exist positive constants c1,c2 and n0 such that c1g(n) ≤f(n) ≤c2g(n)
for all n ≥ n0 }
If f(n) = Θ(g(n)), all values of n right to n0 f(n) lies on or above c1g(n) and on or below
c2g(n). Hence it is asymptotic tight bound for f(n).

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 12

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Fig 1.3
Example 1.14
f(n) = 3n + 2
f(n) = Θ(n) because f(n) = O(n) , n ≥ 2.

Similarly we can solve all examples specified under Big’Oh’.

1.5.4 Little ‘Oh’ Notation (o)

o(g(n)) = { f(n) : for any positive constants c > 0, there exists n0>0, such that 0 ≤ f(n) <
cg(n) for all n ≥ n0 }

It defines the asymptotic tight upper bound. Main difference with Big Oh is that Big Oh
defines for some constants c by Little Oh defines for all constants.

1.5.5 Little Omega (ω)

ω(g(n)) = { f(n) : for any positive constants c>0 and n0>0 such that 0 ≤ cg(n) < f(n) for
all n ≥ n0 }
It defines the asymptotic tight lower bound. Main difference with Ω is that, ω defines for
some constants c by ω defines for all constants.

1.6 Recurrence Relations

Recurrence is an equation or inequality that describes a function in terms of its value on

smaller inputs, and one or more base cases
e.g., recurrence for Merge-Sort

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 13

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm


(1) if n = 1
T(n)  

2T(n/2) + (n) if n > 1

• Useful for analyzing recurrent algorithms

• Make it easier to compare the complexity of two algorithms
• Methods for solving recurrences
– Substitution method
– Recursion tree method
– Master method
– Iteration method

1.6.1 Substitution Method

 Use mathematical induction to derive an answer
 Derive a function of n (or other variables used to express the size of the problem)
that is not a recurrence so we can establish an upper and/or lower bound on the
recurrence
 May get an exact solution or may just get upper or lower bounds on the solution

Steps
 Guess the form of the solution
 Use mathematical induction to find constants or show that they can be found and
to prove that the answer is correct

Example 1.15
Find the upper bound for the recurrence relation
T(n) = 2 T( n/2 ) + n

Guess the solution as T(n) = O(n.lg(n))

Then T(n) = c.n.lgn
Substituting in T(n), we get
T(n) =
= c n lg(n/2) + n
= cn lg(n) – cnlg(2) + n
= cn lg(n) – cn + n
= cn lg(n), c >=1
To prove using mathematical induction, we have to show that the solution holds for
boundary condition also. We select boundary condition as n>=2 (Because for n = 1,
T(1) = c.1.lg(1) = 0 which is false according to the definition of T(n))

Example 1.16
Find the worse case complexity of Binary Search
T(n) = c + T(n/2)

• Guess: T(n) = O(lgn)

– Induction goal: T(n) ≤ d lgn, for some d and n ≥ n0

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 14

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

– Induction hypothesis: T(n/2) ≤ d lg(n/2)

• Proof of induction goal:
T(n) = T(n/2) + c ≤ d lg(n/2) + c
= d lgn – d + c ≤ d lgn
if: – d + c ≤ 0, d ≥ c

Example 1.17
T(n) = T(n-1) + n

• Guess: T(n) = O(n2)

– Induction goal: T(n) ≤ c n2, for some c and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: T(n-1) ≤ c(n-1)2 for all k < n
• Proof of induction goal:
T(n) = T(n-1) + n ≤ c (n-1)2 + n
= cn2 – (2cn – c - n) ≤ cn2
if: 2cn – c – n ≥ 0  c ≥ n/(2n-1)  c ≥ 1/(2 – 1/n)
– For n ≥ 1  2 – 1/n ≥ 1  any c ≥ 1 will work

Example 1.17
T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n
• Guess: T(n) = O(nlgn)
– Induction goal: T(n) ≤ cn lgn, for some c and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: T(n/2) ≤ cn/2 lg(n/2)
• Proof of induction goal:
T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n ≤ 2c (n/2)lg(n/2) + n
= cn lgn – cn + n ≤ cn lgn
if: - cn + n ≤ 0  c ≥ 1

1.6.2 Recursion tree Method

 Main disadvantage of Substitution method is that it is always difficult to come up
with a good guess
 Recursion tree method allows you make a good guess for the substitution method
 Allows to visualize the process of iterating the recurrence

Steps
 Convert the recurrence into a tree.
 Each node represents the cost of a single sub problem somewhere in the set of
recursive function invocations
 Sum the costs within each level of the tree to obtain a set of per-level costs
 Sum all the per-level costs to determine the total cost of all levels of the recursion

Example 1.18
T(n) = 3T(n/4) + (n2)
T(n) = 3T(n/4) + cn2

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 15

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

• The sub problem size for a node at depth i is n/4i

– When the sub problem size is 1, n/4i = 1, i=log4n
– The tree has log4n+1 levels (0, 1, 2,.., log4n)
• The cost at each level of the tree (0, 1, 2,.., log4n-1)
– Number of nodes at depth i is 3i
– Each node at depth i has a cost of c(n/4i)2
– The total cost over all nodes at depth i is 3i c(n/4i)2=(3/16)icn2
• The cost at depth log4n
– Number of nodes is 3log 4 n  nlog 4 3
– Each contributing cost T(1)
– The total cost n log 4 3T (1)  (n log 4 3 )

3 2 3 3
T (n)  cn 2  cn  ( ) 2 cn 2  ...  ( ) log 4 n 1 cn 2  (n log 4 3 )
16 16 16
log 4 n 1
3
 
i 0
( )i cn 2  (n log 4 3 )
16

3 i 2
 ( ) cn  (n log 4 3 )
i 0 16
1 16 2
 cn 2  (n log 4 3 )  cn  (n log 4 3 )
3 13
1
16
 O(n 2 )

Prove T(n)=O(n2) is an upper bound by the substitution method

T(n)  dn2 for some constant d > 0

T (n)  3T ( n / 4)  cn 2
 3d n / 4  cn 2
2

 3d (n / 4) 2  cn 2
3 2
 dn  cn 2
16
 dn 2

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 16

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Example 1.19
W(n) = 2W(n/2) + (n2)

• Subproblem size at level i is: n/2i

• Subproblem size hits 1 when 1 = n/2i  i = lgn
• Cost of the problem at level i = (n/2i)2 No. of nodes at level i = 2i
• Total cost:
lg n 1 2 lg n 1  i i
n 1 1 1
W (n)   i  2 lg n W (1)  n 2     n  n 2     O(n) n 2  O ( n)  2n 2
i 0 2 i 0  2  i 0  2  1 1
2
 W(n) = O(n2)

Example 1.20
W(n) = W(n/3) + W(2n/3) + O(n)

• The longest path from the root to a leaf is: n  (2/3)n  (2/3)2 n  …  1
• Subproblem size hits 1 when 1 = (2/3)in  i=log3/2n
• Cost of the problem at level i = n
• Total cost:
log 3 / 2 n log 3 / 2 n
lg n 1
n  n  ...  n  n
i 0
 1  n log
i 0
3/ 2 nn 
lg 3 / 2 lg 3 / 2
n lg n

 W(n) = O(nlgn)

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 17

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Example 1.21
T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 18

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

1.6.3 Master Method

 The master method applies to recurrences of the form T(n) = a T(n/b) + f (n) ,
where a  1, b > 1, and f is asymptotically positive.
 Describe the running time of an algorithm that divides a problem of size n into a
sub problems, each of size n/b

 There are three common cases

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 19

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Case 1
 Compare f (n) with nlogba
 If f (n) = O(nlogba – e) for some constant e > 0.
i.e., f (n) grows polynomially slower than nlogba
i.e., f(n) is asymptotically smaller by an ne factor.
Then Solution: T(n) = Θ(nlogba) .

Case 2
 Compare f (n) with nlogba
 If f (n) = Θ (nlogba)
i.e., f (n) and nlogba grow at similar rates.
Then Solution: T(n) = Θ(nlogba lgn) .

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 20

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Case 3
 Compare f (n) with nlogba
 If f (n) = Ω(nlogba+e) for some constant e > 0
i.e., f (n) grows polynomially faster than nlogba
i.e., f(n) is asymptotically larger by an ne factor.
Then Solution: T(n) = Θ(f(n)) .

Example 1.22
T(n)=9T(n/3) + n
a=9, b=3, f(n) = n
CASE 1: n log b a  n log 3 9  (n 2 ), f (n)  O(n log 3 91 )
T(n) = (n2)

Example 1.23
T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n
a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n.
CASE 1: f (n) = O(n2 – e) for e = 1.
 T(n) = Θ(n2).

Example 1.24
T(n) = T(2n/3) + 1
a=1, b=3/2,logf(n)=1
Case 2: n
ba
 n log 3 / 2 1  1, f (n)  1  (1)
T(n) = (lg n)

Example 1.25
T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n2
a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n2.
CASE 2: f (n) = Q(n2lg0n), that is, k = 0.

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 21

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

 T(n) = Θ(n2lg n).

Example 1.26
T(n) = 3T(n/4) + n lg n (Case 3)
a=3, b=4, f(n) = n lg n
Case3: n log a  n log 3  O(n 0.793 )
b 4
f (n)  (n log 4 3 ) e = 0.2

For sufficiently large n, af(n/b) = 3(n/4)lg(n/4)  (3/4)n lg n=cf(n) for c=3/4

T(n) = (n lg n)

Example 1.27
T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n3
a = 4, b = 2  nlogba = n2; f (n) = n3.
CASE 3: f (n) = Ω(n2 + e) for e = 1 and 4(cn/2)3 £ cn3 (reg. cond.) for c = 1/2.
 T(n) = Θ(n3).

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 22

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Set Representation:

The set will be represented as the tree structure where all children will store the address
of parent / root node. The root node will store null at the place of parent address. In the given
set of elements any element can be selected as the root node, generally we select the first node
as the root node.
Example:
S1={1,7,8,9} S2={2,5,10} s3={3,4,6}

Then these sets can be represented as

Disjoint Union:

To perform disjoint set union between two sets Si and Sj can take any one root and
make it sub-tree of the other. Consider the above example sets S1 and S2 then the union of S1
and S2 can be represented as any one of the following.

Find:

To perform find operation, along with the tree structure we need to maintain the name
of each set. So, we require one more data structure to store the set names. The data structure
contains two fields. One is the set name and the other one is the pointer to root.

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 23

 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Prepared by S.Rakesh, Asst.Prof. , IT Dept, CBIT 24