Cobe satellite(1992)-first discovered

WMAP-full sky measurements

Observation from antartica

Cmb is used to verify the cosmological model

Cosmological model names /\CDM – universe described on larg scales – spatially flat ,homogenous
and istropic background

Cooled down to 2.725 k but retains a perfect black body spectrum

 Wien’s displacement law: It is derived from Planck’s law. It states that the maximum frequency
of the peak of emission fmax is related to absolute temperatureT, i.e.fmax∝ T
 Stefan Boltzmann law: This law is also derived from Planck’s law. It states that the total energy
emittedE is related to the fourth power of absolute temperatureT, i.e., E ∝ T4

Baryons and leptons – 4.5% of current energy density

22% -- cold dark matter (gravitataional interactions) and 73%-dark energy

Cmb carries an imprint of the primordial perturbation via small temperature anisotropies at the
O(10^-15)

curvature perturbation

the universe was filled with an opaque fog of dense, hot plasma of sub-atomic particles.
The CMB is not completely smooth and uniform, showing a faint anisotropy that can be
mapped by sensitive detectors.
Temperature inhomogeneities –cobe wmap plank
Cmb has black body spectrum .The blackbody temperature uniquely characterizes the
intensity of the radiation at all wavelengths
Angular variation in polairzation
Dicke’s cyclic universe—contracts and expands..the heavier elments must form and
dissociate(preventing buildup of heavier elements cycle after cycle) ..for their dissociation
high temperature is required..thus the dense phase when each cycle of contraction ends.

in the expanding Universe, while the temperature of the radiation decreases adiabatically, it
maintains its thermal spectrum

cosmic origin

2 observational tests – black body spectrum and isotropy of tempertarue

In hot bigbang—thermall eq.]

Baryonic acoustic oscillations

Hidden patterns of galaxies that echo the reverberations of matter and light even before galaxies are
formed

They are the fossils of the first universe ,imprinted on the distribution of galaxies.

BAO:

first models—isotropic and homogenous universe however universe contains inhomogenities(cause

of lss)..need to develop a cosmological perturbation theory.

Cosmological perturbations.

These inhomogeneities occur on an idealized universe(isotropic and homogenous)

Ideal universe—depicted by Freidmann equations:

where a is the scale factor, which only depends on cosmological time, t, Λ is the cosmological
constant, rho_bar( ) and P_bar( ) are the average density and pressure respectively.

Parameters:

Hubble rate(speed of universe expansion),H =a’/a , hubble radius(distance for which the H is
greater than c),RH=c/H , tH=H^-1(HUBBLE TIME).

The inhomogenities are due to the perturbation in the universe.

Defining the cosmological perturbation:

Two diff space times—ideal universe and real universe..can associaite a point p of real space time
with a point of ideal space time p_bar via a mapping p=phi(p_bar)(one to one mapping).

Perturbations can be defined as the difference b/w two space times…

Temperature perturbations:

Temperature perturbations can now be observed in cmb and perturbations are of the order of
some 10^−5. perturbations refer to small deviations from a perfectly homogeneous and isotropic
universe
Formation of BAO

Physical conditions : Early universe-filled with hydrogen and helium plasma form and still hot no
atoms could form yet. The electrons are free of their nuclei.(ions are formed).A billion photons for
every electron.

Due to high thermal velocities of these atoms …they are constantly moving restricting the photons
from travelling a distance. These electrons scatter any wavelength of light .photons could barely
travel any distance before colliding with an electron.(Thomson scattering(elastic --- k.e is conserved))

Over dense region pulled gravitationally on its surrounding (particulary darkmatter) toward the
density peak. But at the density peak the imprisoned photons exerted enormous outward pressure
—radiation pushed outward and carried baryons with it—a true sound wave in the form of
expanding shell of increased density. shell expanded fast.

Baryon photon plasma(fluid)**--light was coupled with matter(electrons can interact with any
frequency of light) and also dark matter

Properties of BPP

1. Opaque—there exits no line of sight

2. Light was able to exert an enormous pressure on this plasma—formed sound waves
3. These sound waves travelled fast –>0.58*c

Dark matter is 5 times heavier than baryons.Dominant gravitational influence in early universe and
even now. light doesn’t interact with dark matter—no pressure from light on DM.

Density fluctuations—remnants of random quantum fluctuations when universe in subatomic in

size…then cosmic inflation lead to the expansion of these fluctuations.

There are some over dense regions less dense regions at this point in time(before 380,000yr).

Equations of BAO:

Here a(t) is the scaling factor---how universe expanded over time…

1/a(t’) is rate of change in time since t’ as universe expanded…the use of conformal time allows us to
treat the equations of motion in a way that is independent of the specific expansion history of the
universe. It effectively "stretches" time to account for the expansion, making it easier to analyze
phenomena like Baryon Acoustic Oscillations (BAO) and other cosmological perturbations.

Thus, (6) is a second order linear differential equation for baryon fractional perturbation del_b( ).

using wave number(k) allows to focus on the patterns and sizes of the waves instead of their exact
locations. K---no of waves in unit distance.

Eqn 6 can be written as :

The term md2xdt2 represents the inertial force, which depends on the acceleration of the oscillator.

In the context of a damped forced harmonic oscillator, this term reflects how the mass of the
oscillator resists changes to its motion due to acceleration. Hence, as the system accelerates or
decelerates, the inertial force becomes a crucial factor in determining the dynamics of the oscillator

The second term, bdxdt, refers to the damping force, which acts in opposition to the velocity of the
oscillator, causing a reduction in amplitude over time.

The damping force is illustrated by the term bdxdt, where b is known as the damping coefficient.
This force opposes the motion of the oscillator and is proportional to its velocity(friction)

Finally, the term kx denotes the restoring force exerted by the spring, proportional to the
displacement from the equilibrium position. this force is critical for establishing the periodic motion
characteristic of harmonic oscillators, as it drives the system to oscillate around a stable point

Inertial force refers to a fictitious or apparent force that arises in a non-inertial (accelerating)
reference frame. It acts in the opposite direction to the acceleration experienced by an object. In the
context of Newton's laws, this concept allows observers in non-inertial frames to apply Newton's
second law of motion as if they were in an inertial frame

This is an equation of damped forced harmonic oscillator .(forced term for gravitatinal potential and
damped bcoz as they travel they lose energy )…can consider this bcozzzz BAO is produced by a
competition between pressure force(due to thomson scattering,seperates the baryons) and
graviational potential which gathers baryons.

It creates oscillations which propagate on the photon baryon fluid(analogus to propagation of

pressure waves ).

The baryonic matter perturbation propagates in an oscillatory movement given by:

Propagatin follows a cosine form around a perturbation del_bini

Distance reached by the propagation (sound horizon):

The sound horizon is the maximum distance these waves could travel
before the universe expanded too much.

DAMPING given by:

Where lamda_d is the avg length traveled by a photon in hubble time.

In the early universe, baryons and photons were constantly colliding. Each time they collided, some
energy from the sound waves was absorbed or scattered, which weakened the waves. If the baryon
is moving, the photon may scatter in a direction that results in a longer wavelength, which
corresponds to lower energy. This change in wavelength signifies that the photon has lost energy,
even though the scattering itself is elastic.

The density waves sloshed inwards and outwards …density oscillated with a rate of oscillation
depending on the size of the initial density fluctuation (how large the overdensity was).

In Some region the overdensity was so large that matter only had time to get to the centre before
recombination.

In some regions the density was less …the density wave had time to go to the centre and
reverberate out and again captured by gravitational field and back to the centre….can repeat
multiple time until the recombination.

The pull of gravity fought against the radiation pressure causing density oscillations of all sizes.

Recombination : the temperatures dropped to 3000k as the universe was expanding as a result
atoms formed(ionization of hydrogen happens at 3000k)

These oscillation were frozen at the moment of recombination((hubble rate becomes higher than
scattering rate) as electrons are restricted to the energy level transition of their corresponding
atoms---baryons and photons no longer coupled..(opaque to transparent ).Light began to stream
freely thorugh the universe as the cosmic background radiation.the speed of sound dropped due to
the atoms.The radius of each shell became fixed to the rate of expansion of the universe.The
acoustic shells at recombination overlapped in a complex web.those rings futher blend over
thousands of years for the universe to fully transition from plasma to gas. these complex web
collapse into galaxies over the age of the universe.

*******Density peak and overlapping regions reach equilibrium from gravitational pull from dark
matter. darkmatter and baryons in density peak and those in overlapping region form lss
**********

Now those rings should be 500 million light years across(150 mega parsecs)We can still see those
rings …but made of galaxies.

This messy overlapping network of oscillation resulted in cmb(temperature map). Cmb—the image
of the universe at the moment of recombination.
The temperature fluctuations in the CMB at an angular separation of about 1° are
also caused by sound waves, but these sound waves are not the same as the BAO
seen in the distribution of galaxies. The temperature fluctuations in the CMB are
caused by sound waves that were present in the primordial plasma before the
universe became transparent to light. The size of the temperature fluctuations in the
CMB at an angular separation of about 1° corresponds to the maximum compression
of the sound waves in the primordial plasma.(go to page 11)
 Can we untangle that mess??

Can consider complex oscillations as bunch of simple oscillations of different sizes(each layer certain
size) layered on top of each other .This works bcoz the difference in highest and lowest density
fluctuation is very small so we model the universe as overlapping layers of many simple density
fluctuations defined by spherical harmonics(sin wave of different frequency but on a 2d surface of a
sphere).fluctuations in each layer oscillate independently…..by adding them can calculate the
complex fluctuations of the early universe.

At recombination most of the oscillation froze midway….but the interesting ones are –completely
Collapsed(maximum density) and complete spread out(min density, max rare fraction) oscillations.

These associate with the prominent parts of the CMB as they are frozen in their extremes.

Oscillation speed is same …so the no.of oscillation depends on the density fluctuation.

Max compression – 1 collapse or 1 exp and 1 collapse or 1E1C1E1C or so forth lly for min
compression.the no. of half oscillations can be calculated by…

(speed of sound(0.58*c)*age of universe at recombination(380000yr))/(radius of density fluctuation)

If result is whole number then – extreme state at the recombination time else midway.

These sizes of the special spots should follow a harmonic series.best way to show this—power
spectrum.

Plots the number of spots of every possible size

Consider the graph formed by the red line. This is the best fit WMAP temperature power spectrum.

moment corresponds to the angular separation, 𝜃 of the correlated fluctuations on the sky: ℓ ≈ 𝜋 /
It measures the fluctuations in temperature as a function of multipole moment, ℓ . The multipole

theta. So in this plot, scales on the order of the present-day horizon are at the far left, and smaller
length scales are at the far right. The broad central peak is the first acoustic peak.

1st peak—collapse once before recombination(large spot size)

2nd peak—full compression and full expansion(2nd large..),3rd peak—comp exp comp and so on…..

What info do we get from thissss……

1st peak--- standard ruler(measuring tape)

Considering the dense region on cmb and taking a spot

0.58*c*380000*expansion of universe over 380,000yr=size of the spot at

recombination(half a million LY)

When we measure the spot on the sky (now).can use trigonometry (need flat surface(II be II and
triangle 180 deg))

Assumed – presence of Matter and energy as well as cosmic expansion caused the geometry to be
curved …(refer previous notes).but if we get correct calculations as per theory from trigonometry….it
means that the geometry is flat and indeed we get it(1 deg angle ---- half amillion LY). The first peak
corresponds to a very special length scale in the early universe -- namely, its angular separation gives
the size of the horizon at the time of decoupling. Astronomers measure distances by measuring the
angle subtended by an object of known size. In our case, theory tells us how big the horizon was at
the time of decoupling, and we know how long ago the CMB was emitted. From the figure above, it's
simple geometry to relate the angle, , to the horizon distance at decoupling. If the geometry is flat,
well, you get the usual Euclidean result.

Consequence of flat surface--- If the overall density of matter in the universe is sufficiently great,
space time – positively curved.(like sphere that turns on itself).which means that the gravity exerted
by all the matter in the universe is enough ot slow down the expansion and eventually reverse
it .the universe collapses on itself(big crunch)
If density low—negative curve like surface of the saddle..sooo expansion goes onnnn
It means that the density of matter or energy is right amount to have flatness in geometry..
1st peak ----universe is flattttt********

2nd peak— the second peak represents the second compression of this plasma, after the first
expansion and compression that forms the first acoustic peak. Introduces new kind of matter

More baryons---wants to go towards over density region---compression…having more baryons

enhance the odd numbered peaks and the even numbered peaks represents the expanded state.

height of 2nd peak less w.r.t 1st peak---baryons only constitute 5% of universe…need of additional and
invisible baryons—dark baryons(dark matter).

Dark baryons significantly affect the second acoustic peak observed in the Cosmic Microwave
Background (CMB) by altering its depth and height in the power spectrum. These effects arise
because dark baryons contribute additional gravitational potential which modifies the behavior of
the oscillations in the primordial plasma that generated the acoustic peaks during the early universe.
The presence of this peak indicates that there is more baryonic matter in the universe than what can
be accounted for through visible means.

3rd peak—dark matter content –26%

The third acoustic peak in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) provides key insights into the
density of dark matter in the universe. Its height relative to the second peak indicates that dark
matter must dominate the matter density in the early universe, particularly during the epoch before
recombination.

Damping tail

The primary causes of the damping tail in the CMB are photon diffusion prior to recombination . As a
result, small temperature fluctuations known as anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background
(CMB) were smeared out, leading to the damping of these fluctuations at small scales and the
reduction in scattering increased the mean free path of photons, enhancing the onset of diffusion
damping as more fluctuations were smoothed out after recombination and CMB photons that
traversed this medium experienced rescatters. The rescattering further dampened existing small-
scale anisotropies in the CMB, contributing to the softening or damping tail effect in the power
spectrum observed today during a period of late reionization.

The power spectrum and correlation function contain the same information in principle, as they are
Fourier transforms of one another.

Polarization

The CMB is linearly polarized at about 10% due to the aforementioned scattering processes

E-mode polarization arises primarily from scalar perturbations, such as density fluctuations in the
early universe18. In contrast, B-mode polarization can be generated by tensor perturbations, which
are associated with gravitational waves that emerged during cosmic inflation.

E-modes have a specific symmetry under reflection, where their patterns appear unchanged3. This
contrasts with the B-modes, which do not maintain this symmetry; flipping the pattern results in a
distinct configuration3. This difference in parity is essential for distinguishing between the two types
of polarization in observational data

Detecting CMB polarization presents significant challenges due to the faintness of the signal and
contamination by astrophysical foregrounds, particularly from galactic dust which can obscure the
pure CMB signal

Galaxy redshift surveys

How to compare current galaxies and complex web

We expect that galaxies should mostly form in the centre of those primordial density
fluctuaitons,but they also form at the overlapping region in the web(slight excess galaxies over 150
mega parsecs)
Take the distances between the galaxies and plot them w.r.t their occurrence..slight bump at 150
mega parsecs can be observed

dark energy was first discovered by using distant supernova as distance measurements for rate of
expansion of universe. Observations revealed that the expansion is accelerated..due to an unknown
source –dark energy .

but how to confirm it?

We know how far the acoustic wave should have travelled before being frozen by recombination.can
also confirm with cmb and we know how big those rings were when they formed and comparing it
with modern cosmos(using redshift surveys)…we can say that the rate of expansion is accelerating.

Dark energy behavessjust as is predicted by einsteins cosmological constant.

PRIMORDIAL POWER SPECTRUM:

Primordial Power Spectrum: This spectrum illustrates the amplitude of

density fluctuations as a function of scale (or wavelength) in the early
universe. It typically shows a nearly scale-invariant feature, indicating that
fluctuations are similar across different scales, which is a hallmark of
inflationary models.
 Power Spectrum Representation: The standard single field inflation model is depicted by the
dashed blue line, while the new spatial condensation model is shown as the solid red line in
Fig. 2.

 Single field model: Considers a single scalar field (the inflaton) as the source of inflation.

 Spatial condensation model: Considers a triad of scalar fields (σa) that are symmetric under
SO(3).

 During the expansion of the universe, the physical wavelength of a perturbation increases
proportionally to the scale factor a(t).

 Comoving coordinates are a coordinate system that expands along

with the expansion of the universe.
 The comoving wavelength, denoted as λ_c, is the wavelength of a
perturbation measured in comoving coordinates.
 The comoving wavenumber k remains constant as the universe expands.Comoving wave
numbers are defined as k = 2π/λ_c, where λ_c is the comoving wavelength of the
perturbation.As the universe expands, the physical wavelength λ increases as λ = a(t) λ_c,
while the comoving wavenumber k remains fixed.

Large k (k >> 1):

This corresponds to small physical scales or high frequencies.

For large comoving wavenumbers, the perturbations are well within the cosmological horizon
during inflation.The cosmological horizon is the maximum distance from which information can
propagate to a given point in the universe at a given time. It is related to the Hubble radius 1/H,
where H is the Hubble parameter.H=a_dot(t)/a(t).During inflation, the universe undergoes rapid
exponential expansion, and the Hubble radius 1/H decreases in physical size.Perturbations with
large comoving wavenumbers k have wavelengths much smaller than the Hubble radius during
inflation.

This means these perturbations are well within the cosmological horizon - they can interact
causally and their evolution is governed by the microphysics of the inflaton field.

On these small scales, the power spectrum of the perturbations tends to be close to the scale-
invariant form predicted by standard slow-roll inflation.

This is because on these sub-horizon scales, the perturbations simply evolve as quantum
mechanical fluctuations of the inflaton field, not affected by the large-scale expansion of the
universe.

Small k (k << 1):

This corresponds to large physical scales or low frequencies.

In contrast, perturbations with small comoving wavenumbers (k << 1) have wavelengths larger
than the Hubble radius during inflation, and their evolution can be affected by the background
expansion and other pre-inflationary effects.

For small comoving wavenumbers, the perturbations are superhorizon during inflation.

On these large scales, the power spectrum can deviate from the simple scale-invariant form due
to various pre-inflationary effects.

 Behavior at Large Scales: The spatial condensation model exhibits significant suppression of
the power spectrum at lower comoving wave numbers (k), indicating a reduction in the
amplitude of fluctuations on large scales. In contrast, the single field model does not show
this suppression .

 Suppression of Power Spectrum: The spatial condensation model introduces a

significant suppression of the scalar power spectrum at large scales, which is crucial for
addressing discrepancies observed in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) data
from Planck and BICEP2 missions. This suppression allows for a better fit to the observed
data, which previously showed anomalies that could not be explained by standard
 models .suggests that certain inflationary dynamics can lead to fewer fluctuations on
large scales. This aligns with the observed low power in the CMB.
 Asymptotic Behavior: As the comoving wave number k increases, the power spectrum of
the spatial condensation model approaches that of the single field model. This suggests that
while the new model modifies the spectrum at large scales, it aligns with the traditional
model at smaller scales .

BAO Power Spectrum: This spectrum depicts the distribution of galaxies

and the characteristic peaks that arise from sound waves in the early
universe. The first peak corresponds to the scale of BAO, which acts as a
standard ruler for measuring cosmic distances.
Figure 2 illustrates the best-fitting models of the primordial power spectrum, specifically the
'sawtooth' and 'top-hat' models, in comparison to the observed data from the cosmic microwave
background (CMB) measurements.

while the top-hat model provides a simplified view of the primordial power spectrum, the fixed
parameters reveal limitations in accurately representing the observed CMB data, suggesting the
need for more flexible models to account for the complexities of the universe's early conditions.

Using fixed parameters we get the graph same as top hat soo need more flexible models.