UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA

FACULTY OF ARTS
THEATRE AND FULS. STUDIES DEPARTMENT

TOPIC
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC BLOSENSORS

A TERM PAPER SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT OF THE COURSE GSP 106:
INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL SCIENCE 2

BY
IDUH AKACHUKWU GODSWILL

MATRIC NUMBER
2021/245430

LECTURER
DR KEN UGWU

NOVEMBER, 2024
 TITLE PAGE
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC BLOSENSORS
 DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my mother for her love, and unending support so far.
Indeed she has been a source of hope and strength to me.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to God for his infinite support throughout
this work.
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Title Page………………………………………………………………………………..
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………..
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………
Table of Content…………………………………………………………………………
Chapter One……………………………………………………………………………..
1.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………
1.2. Advantages Of Biosensors…………………………………………………………
1.3. Disadvantages Of Biosensors……………………………………………………..
Chapter Two………………………………………………………………………………
2.1 Electrochemical Biosensors ……………………………………………………….
2.2. Electrochemical Cells ………………………………………………………………
2.3. Chronoamperometry and Chronopotentiometry………………………………….
2.4. Detection Of Analyte………………………………………………………………..
Chapter Three…………………………………………………………………………….
3.1 Immobilization Methods ……………………………………………………………..
3.2 Fiber Optic Biosensor ………………………………………………………………
Chapter Four………………………………………………………………………………
4.1 Protein Engineering For Biosensors ………………………………………………
4.2 Wireless Biosensors Networks …………………………………………………….
4.3 Wireless Sensor Biosensor Networks …………………………………………….
References…………………………………………………………………………………
 CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Biological and biochemical processes have a very important role on medicine,
biology and biotechnology. However, it is very difficult to convert directly biological
data to electrical signal, the biosensors can convert these signals and the biosensors
over this diffuculty. In recent years, thanks to improved techniques and devices, the
usage of these products have increased. The first biosensor was described in 1962
by Clark and Lyons who immobilized glucose oxidase (GOD) on an amperometric
oxygen electrode surface semipermeable dialysis membrane in order to quantify
glucose concentration in a sample directly [1, 2]. They described how "to make
electrochemical sensors (pH, polarographic, potentiometric or conductometric) more
intelligent" by adding "enzyme transducers as membrane enclosed sandwiches".
According to a recently proposed IUPAC definition, “ A biosensor is a self-contained
integrated device which is capable of providing specific quantitative or
semi-quantitative analytical information using a biological recognition element
(biochemical receptor) which is in direct spatial contact with a transducer element. A
biosensor should be clearly distinguished from a bioanalytical system, which requires
additional processing steps, such as reagent addition. Furthermore, a biosensor
should be distinguished from a bioprobe which is either disposable after one
measurement, i.e. single use, or unable to continuously monitor the analyte
concentration”.

A biosensor is a device composed of two elements:

1. A bioreceptor that is an immobilized sensitive biological element (e.g.

enzyme, DNA probe, antibody) recognizing the analyte (e.g. enzyme
substrate, complementary DNA, antigen). Although antibodies and
oligonucleotides are widely employed, enzymes are by far the most commonly
used biosensing elements in biosensors.

2. A transducer is used to convert (bio)chemical signal resulting from the

interaction of the analyte with the bioreceptor into an electronic one. The
intensity of generated signal is directly or inversely proportional to the analyte
concentration. Electrochemical transducers are often used to develop
biosensors. These systems offer some advantages such as low cost, simple
design or small dimensions. Biosensors can also be based on gravimetric,
calorimetric or optical detection.
Biosensors are categorized according to the basic principles of signal transduction
and biorecognition elements. According to the transducing elements, biosensors can
be classified as electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, and thermal sensors.
Electrochemical biosensors are also classified as potentiometric, amperometric and
conductometric sensors.
The application of biosensor areas [4] are clinic, diagnostic, medical applications,
process control, bioreactors, quality control, agriculture and veterinary medicine,
bacterial and viral diagnostic, drag production, control of industrial waste water,
mining, military defense industry, etc.

1.2. A FEW ADVANTAGES OF BIOSENSORS ARE LISTED BELOW:

They can measure nonpolar molecules that do not respond to most measurement
devices
1. Biosensors are specific due to the immobilized system used in them
2. Rapid and continuous control is possible with biosensors
3. Response time is short (typically less than a minute)
4.

1.3. THERE ARE ALSO SOME DISADVANTAGES OF BIOSENSORS:

1. Heat sterilization is not possible because of denaturaziation of biological
material,
2. Stability of biological material (such as enzyme, cell, antibody, tissue, etc.),
depends on the natural properties of the molecule that can be denaturalized
under environmental conditions (pH, temperature or ions)
3. The cells in the biosensor can become intoxicated by other molecules that are
capable of diffusing through the membrane.
 CHAPTER TWO
RECENT DEVELOPMENT TOPICS ON BIOSENSORS
In biosensor development studies, suitable bioreceptor molecule, suitable
immobilization method and transducer should be selected firstly. Biology,
biochemistry, chemistry, electrochemistry, physics, kinetics and mass transfer
knowledge is reuired for this study.
Thus we can say that developing a biosensor is related with a interdisciplinary study.
Proportional to the technological development and increase of interdisciplinary
studies biosensors are being more useful and having more usage areas day by day.

2.1 ELECTROCHEMICAL BIOSENSORS

Bioelectroanalysis with electrochemical biosensors is a new area in rapid
development within electroanalysis. In biosensor development studies, suitable
bioreceptor molecule, suitable immobilization method and transducer should be
selected firstly.
Bioelectroanalytical sensors permit the analysis of species with great Specificity, very
rapid, sensitive, highly selective and cheap cost in principle. They can be used in
clinical analysis, in online control processes for industry or environment, or even in
vivo studies. The difference between biosensor and physical or chemical sensors is
that its recognition element is biological.
The investigated bioelectrochemical reaction would generate a measurable current
(amperometric detection), a measurable potential or charge accumulation
(potentiometric detection) or measurable conductivity change of a medium
(conductometric detection) between electrodes. When the current is measured at a
constant potential this is referred to as amperometry. If an electrical current is
measured while controlled variations of the potential is being applied, this is named
as voltammetry. Potentiometric, amperometric and conductometric measurement
techniques forms the kinds of electrochemical biosensors. Potentiometric sensors
have an organic membrane or surface that is sensitive to an analyte. The reaction
between them generates a potential (emf) proportional to the logarithm of the
electrochemically active material concentration. This potential is compared with the
reference electrode potential.
Enzyme immobilized electrodes reacts with substrate and products are detected by
electrodes. Amperometric sensors measure the current change resulted by chemical
reaction of electroactive materials while a constant potential is being applied. The
change of the current is related to the concentration of the species in solution.
Generally biological compounds (glucose, urea, cholesterol, etc.) are not
electroactive, so the combination of reactions to produce an electroactive element is
needed. This electroactive element leads a change of current intensity. This change
is proportional to the concentration of analyte.
Conductometric biosensors can measure the change of the electrical conductivity of
cell solution. Most reactions involve a change in the composition of solution. Thus
conductometric biosensors can detect any reactive change occuring in a solution.
Electrochemical biosensors have advantages that they can sense materials without
damaging the system. The use of biosensors for industrial and environmental
analysis is very important. The control of food manufacturing processes, evaluation
of food quality, control of fermentation processes and for monitoring of organic
pollutants are some of the applications of biosensors. The present popularity of
analytical biosensors is due to their specific detection, simple use and low cost.

2.2. ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS

An electrochemical cell is used in electrochemical sensor studies. The electrodes
themselves play an important role in the performance of electrochemical biosensors.
The electrode material, its surface modification or its dimensions effects the
detection ability of the electrochemical biosensor.
There are three kinds of electrodes in the electrochemical cell:
Working electrode
Reference electrode
Auxilary (counter) electrode

Reference electrode:
The other electrodes in the cell are referred to this electrode.

Reference electrode types:

Type 1: the hydrogen electrode
Type 2: the calomel electrode
Type 3: glass electrodes
Reference electrode is a kind of standard hydrogen electrode. Hydrogen is
potentially explosive and is not very suitable using an electrode with hydrogen gas
for routine measurements.

Calomel electrode is consist of mercury, paste (mixture of mercury(I) chloride powder

and potassium chloride) and saturated potassium chloride solution.

Auxilary (Counter) Electrode: In a two-electrode system, when a known current or

potential is applied between the working and auxiliary electrodes, the other variables
may be measured. The auxiliary electrode functions as a cathode whenever the
working electrode is operating as an anode and vice versa. The auxiliary electrode
often has a surface area much larger than that of the working electrode. The
halfreaction occurring at the auxiliary electrode should occur fast enough not to limit
the process at the working electrode. The potential of the auxiliary electrode is not
measured against the reference electrode but adjusted to balance the reaction
occurring at the working electrode. This configuration allows the potential of the
working electrode to be measured against a known reference electrode. Auxiliary
electrode is often fabricated from electrochemically inert materials such as gold,
platinum or carbon.

Working Electrode:
It is the electrode on which the reaction occur in an electrochemical system. In an
electrochemical system with three electrodes, the working electrode can be referred
as either cathodic or anodic depending on the reaction on the working electrode is a
reduction or an oxidation. There are many kind of working electrodes. Glassy carbon
electrode, screen printed electrode, Pt electrode, gold electrode, silver electrode,
Indium Tin Oxide coated glass electrode, carbon paste electrode, carbon nanotube
paste electrode etc.
Screen printed electrodes are prepared with depositing inks on the electrode
substrate (glass, plastic or ceramic) in the form of thin films. Different inks can be
used to get different dimensions and shapes of biosensors. Screen-printed
electrochemical cells are widely used for developing amperometric biosensors
because these biosensors are cheap and can be produced at large scales. This
could be potentially used as disposable sensor that decreases the chances of
contamination and prevents loss of sensitivity. Performance factors of an
electrochemical biosensor are: Selectivity, response time, sensitivity range, accuracy,
recovery time, solution conditions and the life time of the sensor.

Cyclic voltammetry or CV
Cyclic voltammetry is a type of potentiodynamic electrochemical measurement. In a
cyclic voltammetry experiment, the working electrode potential is changed linearly
versus time.
Cyclic voltammetry experiment ends when it reaches a set potential value. When
cyclic voltammetry reaches the set potential, potential ramp of the working electrode
is inverted back. This inversion can happen multiple times during a single experiment
until a set cycle number is obtained. The plot of the current at the working electrode
vs. the applied voltage give the cyclic voltammogram of the reaction. Cyclic
voltammetry is a general way to study the electrochemical properties of an analyte in
a solution.

2.3. CHRONOAMPEROMETRY AND CHRONOPOTENTIOMETRY

A potential is applied to the working electrode and steady state current is measured
as a function of time for chronoamperometric measurement. There is a diffusion
layer between solution media and electrode surface. The concept of a diffusion layer
was introduced by Nernst. Diffusion controls the transfer of analyte from the bulk
solution of higher concentration to the electrode. Thus there is a concentration
gradient from solution media to the electrode surface. Cottrell equation can indicate
this situation better: It defines the current-time dependence for linear diffusion control
at an electrode.

Electrical resistance can be described as the ability of a circuit element to resist the
flow of electrical current. This is defined with Ohm's law: E=IxR for DC conditions
While this is a well known equation, its use is limited to only the ideal resistor. An
ideal resistor follows Ohm's Law at all current and voltage levels and its resistance
value is independent of frequency.
Impedance is a measure of the ability of a circuit to resist the flow of electrical
current Like resistance, but electrochemical impedance is usually used by applying
an AC potential to an electrochemical cell and then measuring the current through
the cell. When we apply a sinusoidal potential, the response to this potential is an AC
current signal. This current signal can be considered as a sum of sinusoidal
functions (a Fourier serie). For AC conditions: E = IxZ, where Z is the impedance of
the system. The impedance can be calculated by setting the input potential and
measuring the induced current.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a technique well suited for

evaluating coating permeability or barrier properties for corrosion control of steel
structures based on the electrical resistance of the coating. EIS has been widely
used in the lab to determine coating performance and to obtain quantitative kinetic
and mechanistic information on coating deterioration.

2.4. DETECTION OF ANALYTE

Detection principle of analytes changes according to transducer type of the
biosensor. Electrochemical biosensors use electrical signals as output datas. Thus
detection of an analyte is related with the changes of electrical signals. For example;
the intensity of the current, potential energy and electrical conductivity of the
electrode change. In cyclic voltametry studies, It is seen that scientists observe the
electrical potential vs. electrode current intensity of an electrochemical cell system.
When the analyte reacts with a biological component that coated or immobilized on
the electrode surface, a change in electrical current occur at an electrical potential
array. This current change tells us that there is an electron transfer in the
electrochemical cell during the reaction between the analyte and biological
component of biosensor electrode.
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 IMMOBILIZATION METHODS

Electrochemical detection techniques use predominant enzymes. Because enzymes
have specific binding capabilities and biocatalytic activity. Some of the other
biorecognition elements are antibodies, nucleic acids, cells and micro-organisms.
Biorecognition elements should be immobilized on the electrode surface. Adsorption,
microencapsulation, entrapment, covalent attachment and cross linking methods Are
the most well known immobilization methods.

Adsorption methods:
1.Physical adsorption (physisorption) and
2.Chemical adsorption (chemisorption).
Physisorption is weaker than chemisorption. Adsorption is the simplest way for
immobilization of organic material, however the bonding is weak and life time of
electrode is short.
Microencapsulation method is more reliable for adsorption. In this method, an inert
membrane traps the biologic material on the working electrode. Most used
membranes are cellulose acetate, collagen, gluter aldehyde, chitosan, nafion,
polyurethanes, etc.
In entrapment method, generally a solution of polymeric materials are prepared
containing biologic material that will be entrapped onto the working electrode. The
solution is coated on the electrode with various coating methods. Starch gels, nylon
and conductive polymers such as polyaniline or nafion are used for.
Covalent attachment immobilization is important particularly for the advantage that
the enzyme is not been released from the electrode surface when it is used.
However, covalent bonding should not decompose or hide the active site of the
enzyme. The functional groups that may take part in this binding are NH2, CO2H,
OH, C6H4OH and SH groups.
Cross linking is bonding two or more molecules by covalent bonds. In crosslinking
method bifunctional agents such as gluteraldehyde are used to bind the biological
materials. The disadvantage of this method is high ratio of enzyme activity loss.

3.2 FIBER OPTIC BIOSENSOR

The optical fiber is flexible and has small wires generally made out of glass or plastic
in different configuration, shape, and size. It can transmit light signals for long
distances with minimum lost value. The optical fiber is convenient for harsh and
hazardous environments, because of their remarkably strong, flexible and durable
structures. It is non-electrical; therefore, it can be used in various damaged electric
current applications. Optical fibers are commonly used because of high quality and
its low cost for sensing applications.
Particularly, the main attractive properties of optical fibers can permit transmission of
multiple signals synchronously and by this means it can obtain multiple capabilities
for sensing of analyte.
Fiber Optic is used in optical fiber biosensors that measure some biomolecules such
as proteins, nucleic acids etc.) Because of the attractive properties of fiber optic
biosensor such as low cost, efficiency, accuracy, these take place of literature and
they are preferred in many applications.
The Fiber Optic biosensor provides alternative measurements method to
conventional methods for determination of biological species.
The basic system of a fiber optic biosensor consists of a light source, an optical fiber,
sensing material and a detector. An optical fiber transmits the light and also acts as
the substrate for the sensing material. Detector measure the output signal. (Fig8)
Some light source of optical biosensors are tungsten lamp, deuterium lamp, xenon
lamp, LEDs, Laser, Laser diodes and some light detectors for optic biosensors are
avalanche photodiodes, photodiodes, photomultipliers, charge coupled devices.
When the reaction occurs between sensing element and the analyte, there is a
change both its physico-chemical and optical properties. This transduction
mechanism, generates optical signals, is related with analyte concentration. To
measure the optical signals, the difference
between incident and output light is determined at the location where the sensing
element is fixed. Output light is send to detector by fiber. Collected light (reflected,
emitted, absorbed light) is measured on the detector.

The Advantages of Fiber Optic Biosensor.

1. There is no need reference electrode in the system
2. It can be easily moved, because there is no reagent in contact of any optical
fiber
3. There are no electrical safety hazards and electrical interference
4. It is less dependent than temperature compared with electrode
5. It can be found invivo measurement applications because of easy
miniaturization
6. Multiple analytes can be determined thanks to guide the light in different
wavelengths at the same time.
7. It can be used for the most of chemical analytes because of its spectroscopic
properties.

The Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Biosensor

1. The life time of the reagents can be short under incident light
2. Because of the diffusion of analytes, it may cause slow response time
3. Fiber Optic Biosensor only works for spesific reagent.
4. Optimized commercial accessories have limited availability when using them
with optical fibers.
The Types of Fiber Optic Biosensors
1. Absorbance Fiber Optic Biosensor: An atom or a molecule absorbs light
energy is called as absorption. The molecule takes this energy and moves to
higher excited energy state from ground energy state. Practically, the optical
fibers detect the transmitted and scattered light through the fiber and then it
can be obtained absorbance values.

2. Fluorescence Fiber Optic Biosensor: Fluorescence is commonly used in fiber

optic biosensors and better than adapted by optical sensors compared to
absorption fiber optic biosensors and the other advantage is very sensitive
technique that can detect very low concentrations. When the molecule
excited, they gain some energy to move to higher energy state which is
non-stable state. After that they want to return the ground state because of
conservation their steady state. In fluorescence optic fiber biosensors,
fluorescence signals are measured by transmitting the excitation light through
an optical fiber and the light emission is measured via detector. Generally, it is
measured using the change of fluorescence intensity and related to the
analyte concentration.

3. Luminescence Fiber Optic Biosensor: Luminescence can be mainly classified

by two parts. These are chemiluminescence and bioluminescence. On the
contrary to fluorescence, excited species are obtained as yield of chemical
reaction and these excited species emit light while returning to the ground
state. Aboul- Enein et al. studied chemiluminescence in fiber optic biosensors
[21]. The bioluminescence, a biological chemi-luminescent reaction, is
produced by many living organisms in nature for mating, self-protection and
finding food.As a simple example, if a wide diversity of sequence of
biochemical reactions is used, the production of light will increase. This
enzymatic reaction is catalyzed by luciferase and liberates a compound in its
excited state while it is going back to its ground state. The mechanism of light
emission of Oxyluciferin is similar to fluorescence that can be produced by
irradiating oxyluciferin via the standard method

4. Reflectance Fiber Optic Biosensor: The reflectance fiber optic biosensor

works with Luciferase evanescence waves. Besides transmittance and
absorbance, reflectance of analyte is another measurement method. The
reason of reflectance changing is the structure of material. The effect of
bio-interface reflectance changes in a large band. In recent years, fiber optic
biosensors has been very useful for the medical technology, dramatically
improving patient care and cutting overall operating costs. Nowadays, they
are currently used in a variety of medical application such as early cancer and
AIDS detection.
3.3 CARBON NANOTUBE BIOSENSOR
The most of the scientists have claimed that a coupling of material science and
biology in the nanosize will have a remarkable effect on the many fields of science
and technology.
Particularly in the biology field, nanosize is very important scale because many
important biomacromolecules structures are in the range of 11000nm. Because of
these reasons, the focus is on nanostructured materials. It helped develop the
unique properties of new devices and sensors. These nanostructured materials have
good chemical sensitivity, biocompatibility, and good electrical sensitivity with
changes of chemical composition. The sensitive materials have played a significant
role for the chemical and biological sensor because of their sizes which are close to
biomolecules.
The performance and improvement of biosensors highly depend on the materials.
Moreover the chosen materials of making transducer are directly related to their
physicochemical characteristics.
The carbon materials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are used in making
biosensor. CNT’s are well ordered and hexagonal arrangements of Carbon atoms
which have been rolled into tubes. It can be considered as the cylindrical graphite
layer or layers which have nanometer scale of diameter. Therefore, it can be
classified as single wall (SWNT) and multiwall carbon nanotube (MWNT) as
structural. The diameter of SWNT is approximately 0.4-2 nm and the other one is
2-100 nm.
They can also be metallic conducting or semiconducting carbon nanotubes which
change with geometrical structure. The chiral angle, which determines the twisting
value of CNT, play important role on the conductivity of CNTs. It can be called as zig
zag, armchair and chiral structure.
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 PROTEIN ENGINEERING FOR BIOSENSORS

What is protein engineering?
Protein engineering is the process of controlling the development of useful or
valuable proteins. Proteins were used for specific biosensor design. Affinity between
protein and analyte is the basic principle of this study area. Scientists, firstly
determine the three dimensional crystal structure of the proteins and build a protein
data bank. Three dimensional structures of the proteins are obtained with protein
crystallization methods.
When proteins are immobilized on the electrode surface, the active site of the
proteins should be free in three dimensional structures. In some situations mutations
can be applied to the active site of the proteins. Therefore, protein structures should
be well known.
The interaction between protein and its ligand is determined with different types of
transducers. If the presence of very low amounts of biomolecules is determined,
various diseases and cancer types can be identified at early stages. Protein
engineered biosensors can specifically identify chemical substrates with
proteinbased sensors. There are three main strategies employed in the engineering
of more suitable biological components used in biosensors. These techniques do not
exclusive to each other, also they can be applied together. Rational protein design,
directed evolution and de novo protein design are the main methods. Each design
strategy has limitations, advantages and disadvantages respect to each other to be
used in a biosensor format. The three design techniques are used to modify aspects
of stability, sensitivity, selectivity, surface tethering, and signal transduction within the
biological environment.

Rational design of proteins

In rational protein design, the scientists use detailed knowledge of the structureand
function of the protein to make desired changes, since site-directed mutagenesis
techniques are welldeveloped. This has the advantage of being inexpensive and
technically easy. However, detailed structural knowledge of a protein is often
unavailable. When it is available, it can also be extremely difficult to estimate the
results of various mutations. Computational protein design algorithm aims to identify
amino acid structure sequences. While the conformational sequence structure in the
space is large, a fast and accurate energy function is required that it can distinguish
optimal sequences from similar suboptimal ones.

Directed evolution:
In directed evolution, mutagenesis method is applied on a protein, and a selection
way is used to pick out variants that are quality. This method mimics natural
evolution and generally produces superior results to rational design. An additional
technique known as DNA shuffling mixes and matches pieces of successful variants
in order to produce better results. This process mimics the recombination that occurs
naturally. The most important advantage of directed evolution is that there is no need
to know structure of protein, and predict the resultant effect of a mutation. In fact, the
results of directed evolution experiments are often surprising. Because the desired
changes are often obtained by mutations that were not expected to have that effect.
Disadvantage of the method is low throughput. This is not convenient for all proteins.

Future Biosensors Directions:

Miniaturization of developed biosensors will be important in the future. Because
miniaturization is required for small electrodes, for example measurements in vivo.
Another future approach is the combination of biological materials with a silicon chip
because it seems to be the most comprehensive integration between biology and
electronics.
Nanostructures will be important new components in recently developed
electrochemical biosensors: Nanowires, carbon nanotubes, nanoparticles and
nanorods are some of the familiar objects that are crucial elements of future
bioelectronics devices and biosensors.

4.2 WIRELESS BIOSENSORS NETWORKS

An Aspect of Sensor Communication Networks: Each sensor or device
communicating each other and a center with hierarchical protocols and/or functioning
algorithms can be defined as a network. Network system which has either wired or
wireless network system can access these sensor or device with a path. Even
though wireless systems have become common with recent effective developments;
some applications require wired network system. Beside this; topology means how
network systems connect and operate. Each network system has its own topology. In
other words; it is network architecture and is all efforts on hierarchical
communication and functions between network members. Also it can be said that it
realizes operation protocol (software).
For example; Ethernet is a network topology and TCP/IP is an access protocol.
Topology also defines maximum access distance. While physical topology describes
how the networks connected each other; logic topology describes how the network
members transmit data.

The system included point to point communication in earlier generation networks and
the sensor included point to point communication, the sensor was communicating to
a center. This communication was developed in 1980’s. There were two main
problems such as wave quality and cost. Wave quality was not enough and the cost
was very high. After that in 1990’s networks began to use micro controllers and
some kind of sensor processor systems.
The smart sensor networks use bus system. Bus systems include bus connection
system and bus system hierarchical protocol. Whole bits have two open ends. The
data speed is 100Kbit/s at standard mode, 400 Kbit/s and 3,4 Mbit/s respectively fast
and high speed wave mode.
4.3 WIRELESS SENSOR BIOSENSOR NETWORKS
In many applications, getting and monitoring information in wired way from sensors
is not possible. Therefore, the values of these sensors with wireless perception
monitoring methods are needed. When wired sensor networks compared with
wireless sensor networks, WSBN and WSN have good opportunities about security
of these networks with using cryptos, limitations, robust systems e.t.c.
On the other hand, data transmission, communication costs and low power
consumption are remarkable aspects of wireless sensor networks. Some of the
several nodes includes functioned nodes and information systems are evaluating in
the same system at the same time with the development of detection (sensing)
technology and sensors in many applications in many areas. Especially data coming
from multiple points and small
functioned nodes increases the accuracy to be perceived. So, complex networks
system has sustainable configuration.
Therefore wireless communication has been a hot topic nowadays. WSN (wireless
sensor network), the name of this book, the WBSN (Wireless Biosensor Networks) is
a wireless network system which continues its development since the 1990’s. These
network systems have widespread application areas such as military, pollution
observation, natural disaster, healthcare etc. Medical imaging, medicine releasing,
remote sensing, remote measuring, mine detection, wild life observations
technologies have been developed which requires WBSN.
A wireless network grouped the nodes in clustering and some file algorithms. Some
clustersand trees include some sub clusters. İt ensures the better communication
performance in getting and processing datas that comes from biosensor network.
This clustering system works on a base. Each cluster has a head named gateway
and includes maximum 5 grouped levels. Gateway gives performance to reach to
whole sensor in own cluster. These clusters includes sub cluster in a tree structure.
Some route algorithms restricts the number of sub groups. Each cluster has a main
point named as gateway. Whole system that consist mainly of gateway is a WSN.
In order to operate and organize the system an interface runs. This interface depend
on operation protocols that chosen. Clustering systems is built as some models that
given in literature work reach system. The communication protocol are a software
and communicates not only cluster via gateway but also to the sensor or device. The
relaying and sensing is carried on sensor nodes.
Wider-open systems can be found using these systems with classical internet,
satellites and other networks. Sensors can communicate with each other each other
using software. According to certain criterions but any nodes don’t have any
information in other nodes. This is the principle of any network. The wireless
biosensor network provides access to the information easily anytime, anywhere [61].
A transceiver device and an actuator/device that gives or performs control
commands are also available together with the sensors in network in these nodes for
structuring of perception. It can be said that these nodes are physically in the same
structures. The data
stream and processes in this system is usually carried out by a process called. If
these datas are analyzed by using different criteria and calculation algorithms, they
will be transmitted to a central system from this base. All of these processes are
handled by a network protocol and hardware. The system can be built is a WBSN
software protocol which has a high accuracy and reproducibility. Required software
and communication protocols should be installed for the operation of the network
system. The main currency protocols achieve very high speed incoming and
outgoing data traffic. Protocols can be separated Data-centric protocols, Hierarchical
Protocols, Locationbased Protocols.
Particularly, at all of WSN Technologies, the routing protocols are developed in fast
way. Some articles proposed these protocols. The routing protocols designed for
WSN/WBSN can be classified based on path selection, as proactive, reactive, and
hybrid and so on. These type of developing routines can be found in literature
detailed and can be seen state of art.

In order to perform sensor network application can be used wireless adhoc

networking. An ad-hoc is a network and it works as local area network (LAN). This
system supports the devices, sensor connect as adhoc query. The knowledge
signals is relayed from each node to other node. An adhoc network can organize this
message traffics without any router. Adhoc networking is well known procedure not
only sensors and devices but also development of data transmission and electronical
application methods is carrying out the ad-hoc network routing protocols in WBSN
systems. But this technic cannot also effort some applications [56], [53]. Otherwise it
is also partly old technic which includes much more nodes that may cause to pass
other networking system. So, entire network system receives the data, processes
them, and also analyses and transmits them. These processes are calibration,
linearization of nonlinear data, etc. Some of the nodes are equipped only with a
functionality of continuing these processes, and the others can also provide energy
to the system. In this way, an intelligent system can be achieved and operated at a
great extent. There can be some nodes which are not operating while the other
components of the system keep operating.
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