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 Chapter 9
Evaluating and Institutionalizing
Organization Development Interventions

Learning Objectives

• Illustrate the research design and measurement issues associated with evaluating organization
development (OD) interventions.
• Explain the key elements in the process of institutionalizing OD interventions.

Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes

This chapter focuses on the final stage of the organization development cycle—evaluation and
institutionalization. Evaluation is concerned with providing feedback to practitioners and
organization members about the progress and impact of interventions. Institutionalization is a
process for maintaining a particular change for an appropriate period of time. It ensures that the
results of successful change programs persist over time.

9-1 Evaluating Organization Development Interventions

There are two types of evaluation efforts. The first involves collecting information about
how well an intervention is progressing so that modifications in the implementation can
take place. The second involves a determination about the impact of the intervention on
the organization. To isolate the impact, the OD practitioner must find ways to rule out
alternative explanations. This is not often an easy task and requires the practitioner to
understand research design issues and to apply them creatively.

9-1a Implementation and Evaluation Feedback

Evaluation should include during-implementation assessments and after-

implementation evaluation. Evaluation focused on guiding implementation may
be called implementation feedback and assessment intended to discover
intervention outcomes may be called evaluation feedback. Figure 9.1 shows the
two kinds of feedback fit with diagnostic and intervention stages of OD.
After an invention has been in place for a period of time such as 3 months,
members use implementation feedback to see how the intervention is progressing.
Additional implementation feedback sessions may be used at other time periods
further in the process. Once the intervention is fully implemented, evaluation
feedback is used to assess overall effectiveness of the program. The evaluation
feedback includes all the data from the measures used during the implementation
feedback as well as additional measures.

©2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 9-1b Measurement

Providing useful implementation and evaluation feedback involves two activities:

(1) selecting the appropriate variables, and (2) designing good measures for them.

1. Selecting Appropriate Variables

The variables should derive from the theory or model underlying the
intervention. Historically, OD assessment has focused on attitudinal outcomes
more so than performance outcomes.

2. Designing Good Measures

The measures used should be operationally defined, reliable, and valid.

a. Operational Definition. This means that the empirical data needed is

specified along with how the data will be collected and how it will be
converted to information. Table 9.1 includes several operational
definitions.
b. Reliability. This concerns the extent to which a measure represents the
true value of the variable. It assesses accuracy of the operational
definition.
c. Validity. This concerns the extent to which the measure actually reflects
the variable it is intended to measure. Validity can be assessed in several
ways including face (or content) validity, criterion (or convergent)
validity, and predictive validity.

9-1c Research Design

In addition to measurement, OD practitioners must make choices about how to

design the evaluation to achieve valid results. The key issue is how to design the
assessment to show whether the intervention did in fact produce the observed
results. This is called internal validity. The second question is whether the
intervention would work similarly in other situations and this is called external
validity. Practitioners have used quasi-experimental designs to assess OD
interventions. Table 9.3 provides an example of a quasi-experimental design
having the following three features.
• Longitudinal measurement involves measuring results repeatedly over
relatively long periods of time.
• Comparison unit means measuring outcomes at a location with the
intervention and one without any intervention.
• Statistical analysis will be used to rule out the possibility that the results are
caused by random error or chance.

Application 9.1: Evaluating Change at Alegent Health

This application describes the implementation and evaluation feedback that were
developed for the Alegent Health project. It is a detailed example of how data can be
used to guide current implementation and evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention.

©2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Get students to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the assessment? How could it
have been improved? Ask how much confidence they have in the lessons learned for this
organization?

9-2 Institutionalizing Organizational Changes

Recall that Lewin described change as occurring in three stages: unfreezing, moving, and
refreezing. Institutionalizing interventions means to refreeze. Refreezing ensures that the
change lasts. Figure 9.2 provides a framework for identifying the factors and processes
that contribute to the institutionalization of OD interventions including the process of
change itself.

9-2a Institutionalization Framework

The model shows that two key antecedents—organization and intervention

characteristics—affect different institutionalization processes operating in
organizations. These processes then affect various indicators of
institutionalization.

9-2b Organization Characteristics

Organization characteristics include three specific dimensions which can affect

intervention.
• Congruence is the degree to which an intervention is perceived as being in
harmony with the organization’s managerial philosophy, strategy, and
structure; its current environment; and other changes.
• Stability of environment and technology refers to the degree to which the
organization’s environment and technology are changing. The persistence of
change is favored with environments are stable.
• Unionization tends to make interventional institutionalization more difficult.

9-2c Intervention Characteristics

Intervention characteristics include five features that affection the

institutionalization process.
• Goal specificity involves the extent to which intervention goals are specific
rather than broad. Specificity helps direct socializing activities to particular
behaviors required to implement the intervention.
• Programmability involves the degree to which the changes can be
programmed or the extent to which the different intervention characteristics
can be specified clearly in advance.
• Level of change target at total organization, department, or small work group
levels.
• Internal support refers to the degree to which there is an internal support
system to guide the change process.

©2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 • Sponsorship concerns the presence of a powerful sponsor who can initiate,
allocate, and legitimize the resources for the intervention.

9-2d Institutionalization Processes

Institutionalization processes include five processes which directly affect the

degree to which OD interventions are institutionalized.
• Socialization concerns the transmission of information about beliefs,
preferences, norms, and values with respect to the intervention.
• Commitment binds people to behaviors associated with the intervention.
• Reward allocation involves linking rewards to the new behaviors required by
an intervention.
• Diffusion refers to the process of transferring changes from one system to
another.
• Sensing and calibration involves detecting deviations from desired
intervention behaviors and taking corrective action.

9-2e Indicators of Institutionalization

Indicators of institutionalization reveal the extent of an intervention’s persistence.

• Knowledge is the extent to which the organization members have knowledge
of the behaviors associated with the intervention.
• Performance is the degree to which the intervention behaviors are actually
performed.
• Preference involves the degree to which organization members privately
accept the organizational changes.
• Normative consensus focuses on the extent to which people agree about the
appropriateness of the organizational changes.
• Value consensus is concerned with social consensus on values relevant to the
organizational changes.

Application 9.2: Institutionalizing Structural Change at Hewlett-Packard

HP is one of the premier companies in the U.S. and has implemented several major large-
scale changes. The application helps students to see that change can occur at many
different levels and that institutionalizing change is a difficult undertaking. It describes
how culture and reward systems can play a strong role in both supporting and
constraining change.

Summary

This chapter explores the final two stages of planned change—evaluating interventions
and institutionalizing them. Evaluation was discussed in terms of two kinds of necessary
feedback: implementation feedback, concerned with whether the intervention is being
implemented as intended, and evaluation feedback, indicating whether the intervention is
producing expected results. Evaluation of interventions also involves decisions about
measurement and research design. Measurement issues focus on selecting variables and

©2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 designing good measures. Research design focuses on setting up the conditions for
making valid assessments of an intervention’s effects. OD interventions are
institutionalized when the change program persists and becomes part of the
organization’s normal functioning.

©2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
melancholious dremeth of sorrow, the Cholarike, of firy things, and
the Flematike, of Raine, Snow,' &c.; id. lib. vi. c. 27.

4123. the humour of malencolye. 'The name (melancholy) is

imposed from the matter, and disease denominated from the
material cause, as Bruel observes, μελαγχολία quasi μελαιναχόλη,
from black choler.' Fracastorius, in his second book of Intellect, calls
those melancholy 'whom abundance of that same depraved humour
of black choler hath so misaffected, that they become mad thence,
and dote in most things or in all, belonging to election, will, or other
manifest operations of the understanding.'—Burton's Anat. of
Melancholy, p. 108, ed. 1805.

4128. 'That cause many a man in sleep to be very distressed.'

4130. Catoun. Dionysius Cato, de Moribus, l. ii. dist. 32: somnia ne

cures. 'I observe by the way, that this distich is quoted by John of
Salisbury, Polycrat. l. ii. c. 16, as a precept viri sapientis. In another
place, l. vii. c. 9, he introduces his quotation of the first verse of dist.
20 (l. iii.) in this manner:—"Ait vel Cato vel alius, nam autor incertus
est."'—Tyrwhitt. Cf. note to G. 688.

4131. do no fors of = take no notice of, pay no heed to. Skelton, i.

118, has 'makyth so lytyll fors,' i. e. cares so little for.

4153. 'Wormwood, centaury, pennyroyal, are likewise magnified and

much prescribed, especially in hypochondrian melancholy, daily to be
used, sod in whey. And because the spleen and blood are often
misaffected in melancholy, I may not omit endive, succory,
dandelion, fumitory, &c., which cleanse the blood.'—Burton's Anat. of
Mel. pp. 432, 433. See also p. 438, ed. 1845. 'Centauria abateth
wombe-ache, and cleereth sight, and vnstoppeth the splene and the
reines'; Batman upon Bartholomè, lib. xvii. c. 47. 'Fumus terre
[fumitory] cleanseth and purgeth Melancholia, fleme, and cholera';
id. lib. xvii. c. 69. 'Medicinal herbs were grown in every garden, and
were dried or made into decoctions, and kept for use'; Wright,
Domestic Manners, p. 279.
4154. ellebor. Two kinds of hellebore are mentioned by old writers;
'white hellebore, called sneezing powder, a strong purger upward'
(Burton's Anat. of Mel. pt. 2. § 4. m. 2. subsec. 1.), and 'black
hellebore, that most renowned plant, and famous purger of
melancholy.'—Ibid. subsec. 2.

4155. catapuce, caper-spurge, Euphorbia Lathyris. gaytres (or

gaytrys) beryis, probably the berries of the buck-thorn, Rhamnus
catharticus; which (according to Rietz) is still called, in Swedish
dialects, the getbärs-trä (goat-berries tree) or getappel (goat-apple).
I take gaytre to stand for gayt-tre, i. e. goat-tree; a Northern form,
from Icel. geit (gen. geitar), a goat. The A. S. gāte-trēow, goat-tree,
is probably the same tree, though the prov. Eng. gaiter-tree, gatten-
tree, or gatteridge-tree is usually applied to the Cornus sanguinea or
cornel-tree, the fruits of which 'are sometimes mistaken for those of
the buck-thorn, but do not possess the active properties of that
plant'; Eng. Cyclop., s. v. Cornus. The context shews that the buck-
thorn is meant. Langham says of the buck-thorn, that 'the beries do
purge downwards mightily flegme and choller'; Garden of Health,
1633, p. 99 (New E. Dict., s. v. Buckthorn). This is why Chanticleer
was recommended to eat them.

4156. erbe yve, herb ive or herb ivy, usually identified with the
ground-pine, Ajuga chamæpitys. mery, pleasant, used ironically; as
the leaves are extremely nauseous.

4160. graunt mercy, great thanks; this in later authors is corrupted

into grammercy or gramercy.

4166. so mote I thee, as I may thrive (or prosper). Mote = A. S.

mōt-e, first p. s. pr. subj.

4174. Oon of the gretteste auctours. 'Cicero, De Divin. l. i. c. 27,

relates this and the following story, but in a different order, and with
so many other differences, that one might be led to suspect that he
was here quoted at second-hand, if it were not usual with Chaucer,
in these stories of familiar life, to throw in a number of natural
circumstances, not to be found in his original authors.'—Tyrwhitt.
Warton thinks that Chaucer took it rather from Valerius Maximus,
who has the same story; i. 7. He has, however, overlooked the
statement in l. 4254, which decides for Cicero. I here quote the
whole of the former story, as given by Valerius. 'Duo familiares
Arcades iter una facientes, Megaram venerunt; quorum alter ad
hospitem se contulit, alter in tabernam meritoriam devertit. Is, qui in
hospitio venit, vidit in somnis comitem suam orantem, ut sibi
cauponis insidiis circumvento subveniret: posse enim celeri ejus
accursu se imminenti periculo subtrahi. Quo viso excitatus, prosiluit,
tabernamque, in qua is diversabatur, petere conatus est. Pestifero
deinde fato ejus humanissimum propositum tanquam supervacuum
damnavit, et lectum ac somnum repetiit. Tunc idem ei saucius
oblatus obsecravit, ut qui auxilium vitae suae ferre neglexisset, neci
saltem ultionem non negaret. Corpus enim suum à caupone
trucidatum, tum maxime plaustro ad portam ferri stercore
coöpertum. Tam constantibus familiaris precibus compulsus, protinus
ad portam cucurrit, et plaustrum, quod in quiete demonstratum erat,
comprehendit, cauponemque ad capitale supplicium perduxit.' Valerii
Maximi, lib. i. c. 7 (De Somniis). Cf. Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 27.

4194. oxes; written oxe in Hl. Cp. Ln; where oxe corresponds to the
older English gen. oxan, of an ox—oxe standing for oxen (as in
Oxenford, see note on l. 285 of Prologue). Thus oxes and oxe are
equivalent.

4200. took of this no keep, took no heed to this, paid no attention to

it.

4211. sooth to sayn, to say (tell) the truth.

4232. gapinge. The phrase gaping upright occurs elsewhere (see

Knightes Tale, A. 2008), and signifies lying flat on the back with the
mouth open. Cf. 'Dede he sate uprighte,' i. e. he lay on his back
dead. The Sowdone of Babyloyne, l. 530.
4235. Harrow, a cry of distress; a cry for help. 'Harrow! alas! I swelt
here as I go.'—The Ordinary; see vol. iii. p. 150, of the Ancient
Drama. See F. haro in Godefroy and Littré; and note to A. 3286.

4237. outsterte (Elles., &c.); upsterte (Hn., Harl.)

4242. A common proverb. Skelton, ed. Dyce, i. 50, has 'I drede
mordre wolde come oute.'

4274. And preyde him his viáge for to lette, And prayed him to
abandon his journey.

4275. to abyde, to stay where he was.

4279. my thinges, my business-matters.

4300. 'Kenelm succeeded his father Kenulph on the throne of the

Mercians in 821 [Haydn, Book of Dates, says 819] at the age of
seven years, and was murdered by order of his aunt, Quenedreda.
He was subsequently made a saint, and his legend will be found in
Capgrave, or in the Golden Legend.'—Wright.

St. Kenelm's day is Dec. 13. Alban Butler, in his Lives of the Saints,
says:—[Kenulph] 'dying in 819, left his son Kenelm, a child only
seven years old [see l. 4307] heir to his crown, under the tutelage of
his sister Quindride. This ambitious woman committed his person to
the care of one Ascobert, whom she had hired to make away with
him. The wicked minister decoyed the innocent child into an
unfrequented wood, cut off his head, and buried him under a thorn-
tree. His corpse is said to have been discovered by a heavenly ray of
light which shone over the place, and by the following inscription:—

In Clent cow-pasture, under a thorn,

Of head bereft, lies Kenelm, king born.'

Milton tells the story in his History of Britain, bk. iv. ed. 1695, p. 218,
and refers us to Matthew of Westminster. He adds that the
'inscription' was inside a note, which was miraculously dropped by a
dove on the altar at Rome. Our great poet's verson of it is:—

'Low in a Mead of Kine, under a thorn,

Of Head bereft, li'th poor Kenelm King-born.'

Clent is near the boundary between Staffordshire and

Worcestershire.

Neither of these accounts mentions Kenelm's dream, but it is given in

his Life, as printed in Early Eng. Poems, ed. Furnivall (Phil. Soc.
1862), p. 51, and in Caxton's Golden Legend. St. Kenelm dreamt that
he saw a noble tree with waxlights upon it, and that he climbed to
the top of it; whereupon one of his best friends cut it down, and he
was turned into a little bird, and flew up to heaven. The little bird
denoted his soul, and the flight to heaven his death.

4307. For traisoun, i. e. for fear of treason.

4314. Cipioun. The Somnium Scipionis of Cicero, as annotated by

Macrobius, was a favourite work during the middle ages. See note to
l. 31 of the Parl. of Foules.

4328. See the Monkes Tale, B. 3917, and the note, p. 246.

4331. Lo heer Andromacha. Andromache's dream is not to be found

in Homer. It is mentioned in chapter xxiv. of Dares Phrygius, the
authority for the history of the Trojan war most popular in the middle
ages. See the Troy-book, ed. Panton and Donaldson (E.E.T.S.), l.
8425; or Lydgate's Siege of Troye, c. 27.

4341. as for conclusioun, in conclusion.

4344. telle ... no store, set no store by them; reckon them of no

value; count them as useless.

4346. never a del, never a whit, not in the slightest degree.

4350. This line is repeated from the Compleynt of Mars, l. 61.

4353-6. 'By way of quiet retaliation for Partlet's sarcasm, he cites a

Latin proverbial saying, in l. 344, 'Mulier est hominis confusio,' which
he turns into a pretended compliment by the false translation in ll.
345, 346.'—Marsh. Tyrwhitt quotes it from Vincent of Beauvais, Spec.
Hist. x. 71. Chaucer has already referred to this saying above; see p.
207, l. 2296. 'A woman, as saith the philosofre [i. e. Vincent], is the
confusion of man, insaciable, &c.'; Dialogue of Creatures, cap. cxxi.
'Est damnum dulce mulier, confusio sponsi'; Adolphi Fabulae, x. 567;
pr. in Leyser, Hist. Poet. Med. Aevi, p. 2031. Cf. note to D. 1195.

4365. lay, for that lay. Chaucer omits the relative, as is frequently
done in Middle English poetry; see note to l. 4090.

4377. According to Beda, the creation took place at the vernal

equinox; see Morley, Eng. Writers, 1888, ii. 146. Cf. note to l. 4045.

4384. See note on l. 4045 above.

4395. Cf. Man of Lawes Tale, B. 421, and note. See Prov. xiv. 13.

4398. In the margin of MSS. E. and Hn. is written 'Petrus Comestor,'

who is probably here referred to.

4402. See the Squieres Tale, F. 287, and the note.

4405. col-fox; explained by Bailey as a 'coal-black fox'; and he seems

to have caught the right idea. Col- here represents M. E. col, coal;
and the reference is to the brant-fox, which is explained in the New
E. Dict. as borrowed from the G. brand-fuchs, 'the German name of
a variety of the fox, chiefly distinguished by a greater admixture of
black in its fur; according to Grimm, it has black feet, ears, and tail.'
Chaucer expressly refers to the black-tipped tail and ears in l. 4094
above. Mr. Bradley cites the G. kohlfuchs and Du. koolvos, similarly
formed; but the ordinary dictionaries do not give these names. The
old explanation of col-fox as meaning 'deceitful fox' is difficult to
establish, and is now unnecessary.

4412. undern; see note to E. 260.

4417. Scariot, i. e. Judas Iscariot. Genilon; the traitor who caused

the defeat of Charlemagne, and the death of Roland; see Book of
the Duchesse, 1121, and the note in vol. i. p. 491.

4418. See Vergil, Æn. ii. 259.

4430. bulte it to the bren, sift the matter; cf. the phrase to boult the
bran. See the argument in Troilus, iv. 967; cf. Milton, P. L. ii. 560.

4432. Boece, i. e. Boethius. See note to Kn. Tale, A. 1163.

Bradwardyn. Thomas Bradwardine was Proctor in the University of

Oxford in the year 1325, and afterwards became Divinity Professor
and Chancellor of the University. His chief work is 'On the Cause of
God' (De Causâ Dei). See Morley's English Writers, iv. 61.

4446. colde, baneful, fatal. The proverb is Icelandic; 'köld eru opt
kvenna-ráð,' cold (fatal) are oft women's counsels; Icel. Dict. s. v.
kaldr. It occurs early, in The Proverbs of Alfred, ed. Morris, Text 1, l.
336:—'Cold red is quene red.' Cf. B. 2286, and the note.

4450-6. Imitated from Le Roman de la Rose, 15397-437.

4461. Phisiologus. 'He alludes to a book in Latin metre, entitled

Physiologus de Naturis xii. Animalium, by one Theobaldus, whose
age is not known. The chapter De Sirenis begins thus:—

Sirenae sunt monstra maris resonantia magnis

Vocibus, et modulis cantus formantia multis,
Ad quas incaute veniunt saepissime nautae,
Quae faciunt sompnum nimia dulcedine vocum.'—Tyrwhitt.
See The Bestiary, in Dr. Morris's Old English Miscellany, pp. 18, 207;
Philip de Thaun, Le Bestiaire, l. 664; Babees Book, pp. 233, 237;
Mätzner's Sprachproben, i. 55; Gower, C.A. i. 58; and cf. Rom. Rose,
Eng. Version, 680 (in vol. i. p. 122).

4467. In Douglas's Virgil, prol. to Book xi. st. 15, we have—

'Becum thow cowart, craudoun recryand,

And by consent cry cok, thi deid is dycht';

i. e. if thou turn coward, (and) a recreant craven, and consent to cry

cok, thy death is imminent. In a note on this passage, Ruddiman
says—'Cok is the sound which cocks utter when they are beaten.'
But it is probable that this is only a guess, and that Douglas is
merely quoting Chaucer. To cry cok! cok! refers rather to the
utterance of rapid cries of alarm, as fowls cry when scared. Brand
(Pop. Antiq., ed. Ellis, ii. 58) copies Ruddiman's explanation of the
above passage.

4484. Boethius wrote a treatise De Musica, quoted by Chaucer in the

Hous of Fame; see my note to l. 788 of that poem (vol. iii. p. 260).

4490. 'As I hope to retain the use of my two eyes.' So Havelok, l.

2545:—

'So mote ich brouke mi Rith eie!'

And l. 1743:—'So mote ich brouke finger or to.'

And l. 311:—'So brouke i euere mi blake swire!'

swire = neck. See also Brouke in the Glossary to Gamelyn.

4502. daun Burnel the Asse. 'The story alluded to is in a poem of

Nigellus Wireker, entitled Burnellus seu Speculum Stultorum, written
in the time of Richard I. In the Chester Whitsun Playes, Burnell is
used as a nickname for an ass. The original word was probably
brunell, from its brown colour; as the fox below is called Russel, from
his red colour.'—Tyrwhitt. The Latin story is printed in The Anglo-
Latin Satirists of the Twelfth Century, ed. T. Wright, i. 55; see also
Wright's Biographia Britannica Literaria, Anglo-Norman Period, p.
356. There is an amusing translation of it in Lowland Scotch, printed
as 'The Unicornis Tale' in Small's edition of Laing's Select Remains of
Scotch Poetry, ed. 1885, p. 285. It tells how a certain young
Gundulfus broke a cock's leg by throwing a stone at him. On the
morning of the day when Gundulfus was to be ordained and to
receive a benefice, the cock took his revenge by not crowing till
much later than usual; and so Gundulfus was too late for the
ceremony, and lost his benefice. Cf. Warton, Hist. E. P., ed. 1871, ii.
352; Lounsbury, Studies in Chaucer, ii. 338. As to the name Russel,
see note to l. 4039.

4516. See Rom. of the Rose (E. version), 1050. MS. E. alone reads
courtes; Hn. Cm. Cp. Pt. have court; Ln. courte; Hl. hous.

4519. Ecclesiaste; not Ecclesiastes, but Ecclesiasticus, xii. 10, 11, 16.
Cf. Tale of Melibeus, B. 2368.

4525. Tyrwhitt cites the O. F. form gargate, i. e. (throat), from the

Roman de Rou. Several examples of it are given by Godefroy.

4537. O Gaufred. 'He alludes to a passage in the Nova Poetria of

Geoffrey de Vinsauf, published not long after the death of Richard I.
In this work the author has not only given instructions for composing
in the different styles of poetry, but also examples. His specimen of
the plaintive style begins thus:—

'Neustria, sub clypeo regis defensa Ricardi,

Indefensa modo, gestu testare dolorem;
Exundent oculi lacrimas; exterminet ora
Pallor; connodet digitos tortura; cruentet
Interiora dolor, et verberet aethera clamor;
Tota peris ex morte sua. Mors non fuit eius,
Sed tua, non una, sed publica mortis origo.
O Veneris lacrimosa dies! O sydus amarum!
Illa dies tua nox fuit, et Venus illa venenum.
Illa dedit vulnus,' &c.

These lines are sufficient to show the object and the propriety of
Chaucer's ridicule. The whole poem is printed in Leyser's Hist. Poet.
Med. Ævi, pp. 862-978.'—Tyrwhitt. See a description of the poem,
with numerous quotations, in Wright's Biographia Britannica Literaria,
Anglo-Norman Period, p. 400; cf. Lounsbury, Studies, ii. 341.

4538. Richard I. died on April 6, 1199, on Tuesday; but he received

his wound on Friday, March 26.

4540. Why ne hadde I = O that I had.

4547. streite swerd = drawn (naked) sword. Cf. Aeneid, ii. 333, 334:
—

'Stat ferri acies mucrone corusco

Stricta, parata neci.'

4548. See Aeneid, ii. 550-553.

4553. Hasdrubal; not Hannibal's brother, but the King of Carthage

when the Romans burnt it, B.C. 146. Hasdrubal slew himself; and his
wife and her two sons burnt themselves in despair; see Orosius, iv.
13. 3, or Ælfred's translation, ed. Sweet, p. 212. Lydgate has the
story in his Fall of Princes, bk. v. capp. 12 and 27.

4573. See note to Ho. Fame, 1277 (in vol. iii. p. 273). 'Colle furit';
Morley, Eng. Writers, 1889, iv. 179.

4584. Walsingham relates how, in 1381, Jakke Straw and his men
killed many Flemings 'cum clamore consueto.' He also speaks of the
noise made by the rebels as 'clamor horrendissimus.' See Jakke in
Tyrwhitt's Glossary. So also, in Riley's Memorials of London, p. 450, it
is said, with respect to the same event—'In the Vintry was a very
great massacre of Flemings.'
4590. houped. See Piers Plowman, B. vi. 174; 'houped after Hunger,
that herde hym,' &c.

4616. Repeated in D. 1062.

4633. 'Mes retiengnent le grain et jettent hors la paille'; Test. de

Jean de Meun, 2168.

4635. my Lord. A side-note in MS. E. explains this to refer to the

Archbishop of Canterbury; doubtless William Courtenay, archbishop
from 1381 to 1396. Cf. note to l. 4584, which shews that this Tale is
later than 1381; and it was probably earlier than 1396. Note that
good men is practically a compound, as in l. 4630. Hence read good,
not gōd-e.

Epilogue to the Nonne Preestes Tale.

4641. Repeated from B. 3135.

4643. Thee wer-e nede, there would be need for thee.

4649. brasil, a wood used for dyeing of a bright red colour; hence
the allusion. It is mentioned as being used for dyeing leather in
Riley's Memorials of London, p. 364. 'Brazil-wood; this name is now
applied in trade to the dye-wood imported from Pernambuco, which
is derived from certain species of Cæsalpinia indigenous there. But it
originally applied to a dye-wood of the same genus which was
imported from India, and which is now known in trade as Sappan.
The history of the word is very curious. For when the name was
applied to the newly discovered region in S. America, probably, as
Barros alleges, because it produced a dye-wood similar in character
to the brazil of the East, the trade-name gradually became
appropriated to the S. American product, and was taken away from
that of the E. Indies. See some further remarks in Marco Polo, ed.
Yule, 2nd ed. ii. 368-370.
'This is alluded to also by Camoẽs (Lusiad, x. 140). Burton's
translation has:—

"But here, where earth spreads wider, ye shall claim

Realms by the ruddy dye-wood made renowned;
These of the 'Sacred Cross' shall win the name,
By your first navy shall that world be found."

'The medieval forms of brazil were many; in Italian, it is generally

verzi, verzino, or the like.'—Yule, Hobson-Jobson, p. 86.

Again—'Sappan, the wood of Cæsalpinia sappan; the baqqam of the

Arabs, and the Brazil-wood of medieval commerce. The tree appears
to be indigenous in Malabar, the Deccan, and the Malay peninsula.'—
id. p. 600. And in Yule's edition of Marco Polo, ii. 315, he tells us that
'it is extensively used by native dyers, chiefly for common and cheap
cloths, and for fine mats. The dye is precipitated dark-brown with
iron, and red with alum.'

Cf. Way's note on the word in the Prompt. Parv. p. 47.

Florio explains Ital. verzino as 'brazell woode, or fernanbucke

[Pernambuco] to dye red withall.'

The etymology is disputed, but I think brasil and Ital. verzino are
alike due to the Pers. wars, saffron; cf. Arab. warīs, dyed with saffron
or wars.

greyn of Portingale. Greyn, mod. E. grain, is the term applied to the

dye produced by the coccus insect, often termed, in commerce and
the arts, kermes; see Marsh, Lectures on the E. Language, Lect. III.
The colour thus produced was 'fast,' i. e. would not wash out; hence
the phrase to engrain, or to dye in grain, meaning to dye of a fast
colour. Various tones of red were thus produced, one of which was
crimson, and another carmine, both forms being derivatives of
kermes. Of Portingale means 'imported from Portugal.' In the Libell
of English Policy, cap. ii. (l. 132), it is said that, among 'the
commoditees of Portingale' are:—'oyl, wyn, osey [Alsace wine], wex,
and graine.'

4652. to another, to another of the pilgrims. This is so absurdly

indefinite that it can hardly be genuine. Ll. 4637-4649 are in
Chaucer's most characteristic manner, and are obviously genuine;
but there, I suspect, we must stop, viz. at the word Portingale. The
next three lines form a mere stop-gap, and are either spurious, or
were jotted down temporarily, to await the time of revision. The
former is more probable.

This Epilogue is only found in three MSS.; (see footnote, p. 289). In

Dd., Group G follows, beginning with the Second Nun's Tale. In the
other two MSS., Group H follows, i. e. the Manciple's Tale;
nevertheless, MS. Addit. absurdly puts the Nunne, in place of
another. The net result is, that, at this place, the gap is complete;
with no hint as to what Tale should follow.

It is worthy of note that this Epilogue is preserved in Thynne and the

old black-letter editions, in which it is followed immediately by the
Manciple's Prologue. This arrangement is obviously wrong, because
that Prologue is not introduced by the Host (as said in l. 4652).

In l. 4650, Thynne has But for Now; and his last line runs—'Sayd to
a nother man, as ye shal here.' I adopt his reading of to for unto (as
in the MSS.).

NOTES TO GROUP C.
The Phisiciens Tale.

For remarks on the spurious Prologues to this Tale, see vol. iii. p.
434. For further remarks on the Tale, see the same, p. 435, where its
original is printed in full.
1. The story is told by Livy, lib. iii.; and, of course, his narrative is the
source of all the rest. But Tyrwhitt well remarks, in a note to l. 12074
(i. e. C. 140):—'In the Discourse, &c., I forgot to mention the Roman
de la Rose as one of the sources of this tale; though, upon
examination, I find that our author has drawn more from thence,
than from either Gower or Livy.' It is absurd to argue, as in Bell's
Chaucer, that our poet must necessarily have known Livy 'in the
original,' and then to draw the conclusion that we must look to Livy
only as the true source of the Tale. For it is perfectly obvious that
Tyrwhitt is right as regards the Roman de la Rose; and the belief that
Chaucer may have read the tale 'in the original' does not alter the
fact that he trusted much more to the French text. In this very first
line, he is merely quoting Le Roman, ll. 5617, 8:—

'Qui fu fille Virginius,

Si cum dist Titus Livius.'

The story in the French text occupies 70 lines (5613-5682, ed.

Méon); the chief points of resemblance are noted below.

Gower has the same story, Conf. Amant. iii. 264-270; but I see no
reason why Chaucer should be considered as indebted to him. It is,
however, clear that, if Chaucer and Gower be here compared, the
latter suffers considerably by the comparison.

Gower gives the names of Icilius, to whom Virginia was betrothed,

and of Marcus Claudius. But Chaucer omits the name Marcus, and
ignores the existence of Icilius. The French text does the same.

11. This is the 'noble goddesse Nature' mentioned in the Parl. of

Foules, ll. 368, 379. Cf. note to l. 16.

14. Pigmalion, Pygmalion; alluding to Ovid, Met. x. 247, where it is

said of him:—

'Interea niueum mira feliciter arte

Sculpit ebur, formamque dedit, qua femina nasci
Nulla potest; operisque sui concepit amorem.'

In the margin of E. Hn. is the note—'Quere in Methamorphosios';

which supplies the reference; but cf. note to l. 16 below, shewing
that Chaucer also had in his mind Le Roman de la Rose, l. 16379. So
also the author of the Pearl, l. 750; see Morris, Allit. Poems.

16. In the margin of E. Hn. we find the note:—'Apelles fecit mirabile

opus in tumulo Darii; vide in Alexandri libro .1.º [Hn. has .6.º]; de
Zanze in libro Tullii.' This note is doubtless the poet's own; see
further, as to Apelles, in the note to D. 498.

Zanzis, Zeuxis. The corruption of the name was easy, owing to the
confusion in MSS. between n and u.[26] In the note above, we are
referred to Tullius, i. e. Cicero. Dr. Reid kindly tells me that Zeuxis is
mentioned, with Apelles, in Cicero's De Oratore, iii. § 26, and Brutus,
§ 70; also, with other artists, in Academia, ii. § 146; De Finibus, ii. §
115; and alone, in De Inventione, ii. § 52, where a long story is told
of him. Cf. note to Troil. iv. 414.

However, the fact is that Chaucer really derived his knowledge of

Zeuxis from Le Roman de la Rose (ed. Méon, l. 16387); for
comparison with the context of that line shews numerous points of
resemblance to the present passage in our author. Jean de Meun is
there speaking of Nature, and of the inability of artists to vie with
her, which is precisely Chaucer's argument here. The passage is too
long for quotation, but I may cite such lines as these:—

'Ne Pymalion entaillier' (l. 16379),

'voire Apelles
Que ge moult bon paintre appelles,
Biautés de li james descrive
Ne porroit,' &c. (l. 16381).

'Zeuxis neis par son biau paindre

Ne porroit a tel forme ataindre,' &c. (l. 16387).
Si cum Tules le nous remembre
Ou livre de sa retorique'; (l. 16398).

Here the reference is to the passage in De Oratore, iii. § 26.

'Mes ci ne péust-il riens faire

Zeuxis, tant séust bien portraire,
Ne colorer sa portraiture,
Tant est de grant biauté Nature.' (l. 16401).

A little further on, Nature is made to say (l. 16970):—

'Cis Diex méismes, par sa grace,...

Tant m'ennora, tant me tint chere,
Qu'il m'establi sa chamberiere ...
Por chamberiere! certes vaire,
Por connestable, et por vicaire.'

20. See just above; and cf. Parl. of Foules, 379—'Nature, the vicaire
of thalmighty lord.'

32-4. Cf. Le Rom. de la Rose, 16443-6.

35. From this line to l. 120, Chaucer has it all his own way. This fine
passage is not in Le Roman, nor in Gower.

37. I. e. she had golden hair; cf. Troil. iv. 736, v. 8.

49. Perhaps Chaucer found the wisdom of Pallas in Vergil, Aen. v.

704.—

'Tum senior Nautes, unum Tritonia Pallas

Quem docuit, multaque insignem reddidit arte.'

50. fácound, eloquence; cf. facóunde in Parl. Foules, 558.

54. Souninge in, conducing to; see A. 307, B. 3157, and notes.
58. Bacus, Bacchus, i. e. wine; see next note.

59. youthe, youth; such is the reading in MSS. E. Hn., and edd. 1532
and 1561. MS. Cm. has lost a leaf; the rest have thought, which
gives no sense. It is clear that the reading thought arose from
misreading the y of youthe as þ (th). How easily this may be done
appears from Wright's remark, that the Lansdowne MS. has youthe,
whilst, in fact, it has þouht.

Tyrwhitt objects to the reading youthe, and proposes slouthe, wholly

without authority. But youthe, meaning 'youthful vigour,' is right
enough; I see no objection to it at all. Rather, it is simply taken from
Ovid, Ars Amat. i. 243:—

'Illic saepe animos iuuenum rapuere puellae;

Et Venus in uinis, ignis in igne fuit.'

Only a few lines above (l. 232), Bacchus occurs, and there is a
reference to wine, throughout the context. Cf. the Romaunt of the
Rose, l. 4925:—

'For Youthe set man in al folye ...

In leccherye and in outrage.'

Cf. note to l. 65.

60. Alluding to a proverbial phrase, occurring in Horace, Sat. ii. 3.

321, viz. 'oleum adde camino'; and elsewhere.

65. This probably refers to the same passage in Ovid as is mentioned

in the note to l. 59. For we there find (l. 229):—

'Dant etiam positis aditum conuiuia mensis;

Est aliquid, praeter uina, quod inde petas ...
Vina parant animos, faciuntque caloribus aptos'; &c.
79. See A. 476, and the note. Chaucer is here thinking of the same
passage in Le Roman de la Rose. I quote a few lines (3930-46):—

'Une vielle, que Diex honnisse!

Avoit o li por li guetier,
Qui ne fesoit autre mestier
Fors espier tant solement
Qu'il ne se maine folement....
Bel-Acueil se taist et escoute
Por la vielle que il redoute,
Et n'est si hardis qu'il se moeve,
Que la vielle en li n'aperçoeve
Aucune fole contenance,
Qu'el scet toute la vielle dance.'

See the English version in vol. i. p. 205, ll. 4285-4300.

82. See the footnote for another reading. The line there given may
also be genuine. It is deficient in the first foot.

85. This is like our proverb:—'Set a thief to catch [or take] a thief.'
An old poacher makes a good gamekeeper.

98. Cf. Prov. xiii. 24; P. Plowman, B. v. 41.

101. See a similar proverb in P. Plowman, C. x. 265, and my note on

the line. The Latin lines quoted in P. Plowman are from Alanus de
Insulis, Liber Parabolarum, cap. i. 31; they are printed in Leyser, Hist.
Poet. Med. Aevi, 1721, p. 1066, in the following form:—

'Sub molli pastore capit lanam lupus, et grex

Incustoditus dilaceratur eo.'

117. The doctour, i. e. the teacher; viz. St. Augustine. (There is here
no reference whatever to the 'Doctor' or 'Phisicien' who is supposed
to tell the tale.) In the margin of MSS. E. Hn. is written 'Augustinus';
and the matter is put beyond doubt by a passage in the Persones
Tale, l. 484:—'and, after the word of seint Augustin, it [Envye] is
sorwe of other mannes wele, and Ioye of othere mennes harm.' See
note to l. 484.

The same idea is exactly reproduced in P. Plowman, B. v. 112, 113.

Cf. 'Inuidus alterius macrescit rebus opimis'; Horace, Epist. i. 2. 57.

135. From Le Roman, l. 5620-3; see vol. iii. p. 436.

140. cherl, dependant. It is remarkable that, throughout the story,

MSS. E. Hn. and Cm. have cherl, but the rest have clerk. In ll. 140,
142, 153, 164, the Camb. MS. is deficient; but it at once gives the
reading cherl in l. 191, and subsequently.

Either reading might serve; in Le Roman, l. 5614, the dependant is

called 'son serjant'; and in l. 5623, he is called 'Li ribaus,' i. e. the
ribald, which Chaucer Englishes by cherl. But when we come to C.
289, the MSS. gives us the choice of 'fals cherl' and 'cursed theef';
very few have clerk (like MS. Sloane 1685). Cf. vol. iii. p. 437.

153, 154. The 'churl's' name was Marcus Claudius, and the 'judge'
was 'Appius Claudius.' Chaucer simply follows Jean de Meun, who
calls the judge Apius; and speaks of the churl as 'Claudius li
chalangieres' in l. 5675.

165. Cf. Le Roman, l. 5623-7; see vol. iii. p. 436.

168-9. From Le Roman, 5636-8, as above.

174. The first foot is defective; read—Thou | shalt have | al, &c. al
right, complete justice. MS. Cm. has alle.

184. Cf. Le Roman, l. 5628-33.

203. From Le Roman, 5648-54.

207-253. The whole of this fine passage appears to be original.

There is no hint of it in Le Roman de la Rose, except as regards l.
225, where Le Roman (l. 5659) has:—'Car il par amors, sans haïne.'
We may compare the farewell speech of Virginius to his daughter in
Webster's play of Appius and Virginia, Act iv. sc. 1.

240. Iepte, Jephtha; in the Vulgate, Jephte. See Judges, xi. 37, 38.
MSS. E. Hn. have in the margin—'fuit illo tempore Jephte Galaandes'
[error for Galaadites]. This reference by Virginia to the book of
Judges is rather startling; but such things are common enough in old
authors, especially in our dramatists.

255. Here Chaucer returns to Le Roman, 5660-82. The rendering is

pretty close down to l. 276.

280. Agryse of, shudder at; 'nor in what kind of way the worm of
conscience may shudder because of (the man's) wicked life'; cf. 'of
pitee gan agryse,' B. 614. When agryse is used with of, it is
commonly passive, not intransitive; see examples in Mätzner and in
the New E. Dictionary. Cf. been afered, i. e. be scared, in l. 284.

'Vermis conscientiae tripliciter lacerabit'; Innocent III., De Contemptu

Mundi, l. iii. c. 2.

286. Cf. Pers. Tale, I. 93:—'repentant folk, that stinte for to sinne,
and forlete [give up] sinne er that sinne forlete hem.'

Words of the Host.

In the Six-text Edition, pref. col. 58, Dr. Furnivall calls attention to
the curious variations in this passage, in the MSS., especially in ll.
289-292, and in 297-300; as well as in ll. 487, 488 in the Pardoneres
Tale. I note these variations below, in their due places.

287. wood, mad, frantic, furious; esp. applied to the transient

madness of anger. See Kn. Tale, A. 1301, 1329, 1578; also Mids. Nt.
Dr. ii. 1. 192. Cf. G. wüthend, raging.

288. Harrow! also spelt haro; a cry of astonishment; see A. 3286,

3825, B. 4235, &c. 'Haro, the ancient Norman hue and cry; the
exclamation of a person to procure assistance when his person or
property was in danger. To cry out haro on any one, to denounce his
evil doings'; Halliwell. Spenser has it, F. Q. ii. 6. 43; see Harrow in
Nares, and the note above, to A. 3286.

On the oaths used by the Host, see note to l. 651 below.

289. fals cherl is the reading in E. Hn., and is evidently right; see
note to l. 140 above. It is supported by several MSS., among which
are Harl. 7335, Addit. 25718, Addit. 5140, Sloane 1686, Barlow 20,
Hatton 1, Camb. Univ. Lib. Dd. 4. 24 and Mm. 2. 5, and Trin. Coll.
Cam. R. 3. 3. A few have fals clerk, viz. Sloane 1685, Arch. Seld. B.
14, Rawl. Poet. 149, Bodley 414. Harl. 7333 has a fals thef, Acursid
Iustise; out of which numerous MSS. have developed the reading a
cursed theef, a fals Iustice, which rolls the two Claudii into one. It is
clearly wrong, but appears in good MSS., viz. in Cp. Pt. Ln. Hl. See
vol. iii. pp. 437-8, and the note to l. 291 below.

290. shamful. MSS. Ln. Hl. turn this into schendful, i. e. ignominious,
which does not at all alter the sense. It is a matter of small moment,
but I may note that of the twenty-five MSS. examined by Dr.
Furnivall, only the two above-named MSS. adopt this variation.

291, 292. Here MSS. Cp. Ln. Hl., as noted in the footnote, have two
totally different lines; and this curious variation divides the MSS. (at
least in the present passage) into two sets. In the first of these we
find E. Hn. Harl. 7335, Addit. 25718, Addit. 5140, Sloane 1685 and
1686, Barlow 20, Arch. Seld. B. 14, Rawl. Poet. 149, Hatton 1,
Bodley 414, Camb. Dd. 4. 24, and Mm. 2. 5, Trin. Coll. Cam. R. 3. 3.
In the second set we find Cp. Ln. Hl., Harl. 1758, Royal 18. C. 2,
Laud 739, Camb. Ii. 3. 26, Royal 17. D. 15, and Harl. 7333.

There is no doubt as to the correct reading; for the 'false cherl' and
'false justice' were two different persons, and it was only because
they had been inadvertently rolled into one (see note to l. 289) that
it became possible to speak of 'his body,' 'his bones,' and 'him.'
Hence the lines are rightly given in the text which I have adopted.
There is a slight difficulty, however, in the rime, which should be
noted. We see that the t in advocats was silent, and that the word
was pronounced (ad·vokaa·s), riming with allas (alaa·s), where the
raised dot denotes the accent. That this was so, is indicated by the
following spellings:—Pt. aduocas, and so also in Harl. 7335, Addit.
5140, Bodl. 414; Rawl. Poet. 149 has advocas; whilst Sloane 1685,
Sloane 1686, and Camb. Mm. 2. 5 have aduocase, and Barlow 20,
advocase. MS. Trin. Coll. R. 3. 3 has aduocasse. The testimony of ten
MSS. may suffice; but it is worth noting that the F. pl. aduocas
occurs in Le Roman de la Rose, 5107.

293. 'Alas! she (Virginia) bought her beauty too dear'; she paid too
high a price; it cost her her life.

297-300. These four lines are genuine; but several MSS., including E.
Hn. Pt., omit the former pair (297-8), whilst several others omit the
latter pair. Ed. 1532 contains both pairs, but alters l. 299.

299. bothe yiftes, both (kinds of) gifts; i. e. gifts of fortune, such as
wealth, and of nature, such as beauty. Compare Dr. Johnson's poem
on the Vanity of Human Wishes, imitated from the tenth satire of
Juvenal.

303. is no fors, it is no matter. It must be supplied, for the sense.

Sometimes Chaucer omits it is, and simply writes no fors, as in E.
1092, 2430. We also find I do no fors, I care not, D. 1234; and They
yeve no fors, they care not, Romaunt of the Rose, 4826. Palsgrave
has—'I gyue no force, I care nat for a thing, Il ne men chault.'

306. Ypocras is the usual spelling, in English MSS., of Hippocrates;

see Prologue A. 431. So also in the Book of the Duchess, 571, 572:—

'Ne hele me may physicien,

Noght Ypocras, ne Galien.'

In the present passage it does not signify the physician himself, but
a beverage named after him. 'It was composed of wine, with spices
and sugar, strained through a cloth. It is said to have taken its name
from Hippocrates' sleeve, the term apothecaries gave to a strainer';
Halliwell's Dict. s. v. Hippocras. In the same work, s. v. Ipocras, are
several receipts for making it, the simplest being one copied from
Arnold's Chronicle:—'Take a quart of red wyne, an ounce of
synamon, and half an unce of gynger; a quarter of an ounce of
greynes, and long peper, and halfe a pounde of sugar; and brose all
this, and than put them in a bage of wullen clothe, made therefore,
with the wyne; and lete it hange over a vessel, tyll the wyne be rune
thorowe.' Halliwell adds that—'Ipocras seems to have been a great
favourite with our ancestors, being served up at every
entertainment, public or private. It generally made a part of the last
course, and was taken immediately after dinner, with wafers or some
other light biscuits'; &c. See Pegge's Form of Cury, p. 161; Babees
Book, ed. Furnivall, pp. 125-128, 267, 378; Skelton, ed. Dyce, ii. 285;
and Nares's Glossary, s. v. Hippocras.

Galianes. In like manner this word (hitherto unexplained as far as I

am aware) must signify drinks named after Galen, whose name is
spelt Galien (in Latin, Galienus) not only in Chaucer, but in other
authors. See the quotation above from the Book of the Duchess.
Speght guessed the word to mean 'Galen's works.'

310. lyk a prelat, like a dignitary of the church, like a bishop or

abbot. Mr. Jephson, in Bell's edition, suggests that the Doctor was in
holy orders, and that this is why we are told in the Prologue, l. 438,
that 'his studie was but litel on the bible.' I see no reason for this
guess, which is quite unsupported. Chaucer does not say he is a
prelate, but that he is like one; because he had been highly
educated, as a member of a 'learned profession' should be.

Ronyan is here of three syllables and rimes with man; in l. 320 it is

of two syllables, and rimes with anon. It looks as if the Host and
Pardoner were not very clear about the saint's name, only knowing
him to swear by. In Pilkington's Works (Parker Society), we find a
mention of 'St. Tronian's fast,' p. 80; and again, of 'St. Rinian's fast,'
p. 551, in a passage which is a repetition of the former. The forms
Ronyan and Rinian are evidently corruptions of Ronan, a saint whose
name is well known to readers of 'St. Ronan's Well.' Of St. Ronan
scarcely anything is known. The fullest account that can easily be
found is the following:—

'Ronan, B. and C. Feb. 7.—Beyond the mere mention of his

commemoration as S. Ronan, bishop at Kilmaronen, in Levenax, in
the body of the Breviary of Aberdeen, there is nothing said about
this saint.... Camerarius (p. 86) makes this Ronanus the same as he
who is mentioned by Beda (Hist. Ecc. lib. iii. c. 25). This Ronan died
in A. D. 778. The Ulster annals give at [A. D.] 737 (736)—"Mors Ronain
Abbatis Cinngaraid." Ængus places this saint at the 9th of February,'
&c.; Kalendars of Scottish Saints, by Bp. A. P. Forbes, 1872, p. 441.
Kilmaronen is Kilmaronock, in the county and parish of Dumbarton.
There are traces of St. Ronan in about seven place-names in
Scotland, according to the same authority. Under the date of Feb. 7
(February vol. ii. 3 B), the Acta Sanctorum has a few lines about St.
Ronan, who, according to some, flourished under King Malduin, A. D.
664-684; or, according to others, about 603. The notice concludes
with the remark—'Maiorem lucem desideramus.' Beda says that
'Ronan, a Scot by nation, but instructed in ecclesiastical truth either
in France or Italy,' was mixed up in the controversy which arose
about the keeping of Easter, and was 'a most zealous defender of the
true Easter.' This controversy took place about A. D. 652, which does
not agree with the date above.

311. Tyrwhitt thinks that Shakespeare remembered this expression

of Chaucer, when he describes the Host of the Garter as frequently
repeating the phrase 'said I well': Merry Wives of Windsor, i. 3. 11; ii.
1. 226; ii. 3. 93, 99.

in terme, in learned terms; cf. Prol. A. 323.

312. erme, to grieve. For the explanation of unusual words, the

Glossary should, in general, be consulted; the Notes are intended,
for the most part, to explain only phrases and allusions, and to give
illustrations of the use of words. Such illustrations are, moreover,
often omitted when they can easily be found by consulting such a
work as Stratmann's Old English Dictionary. In the present case, for
example, Stratmann gives twelve instances of the use of earm or
arm as an adjective, meaning wretched; four examples of ermlic,
miserable; seven of earming, a miserable creature; and five of
earmthe, misery. These twenty-eight additional examples shew that
the word was formerly well understood. We may further note that a
later instance of ermen or erme, to grieve, occurs in Caxton's
translation of Reynard the Fox, A. D. 1481; see Arber's reprint, p. 48,
l. 5: 'Thenne departed he fro the kynge so heuyly that many of them
ermed,' i. e. then departed he from the king so sorrowfully that
many of them mourned, or were greatly grieved.

313. cardiacle, pain about the heart, spasm of the heart; more
correctly, cardiake, as the l is excrescent. See Cardiacle and Cardiac
in the New E. Dictionary. In Batman upon Bartholomè, lib. vii. c. 32,
we have a description of 'Heart-quaking and the disease Cardiacle.'
We thus learn that 'there is a double manner of Cardiacle,' called
'Diaforetica' and 'Tremens.' Of the latter, 'sometime melancholy is the
cause'; and the remedies are various 'confortatives.' This is why the
host wanted some 'triacle' or some ale, or something to cheer him
up.

314. The Host's form of oath is amusingly ignorant; he is confusing

the two oaths 'by corpus Domini' and 'by Christes bones,' and
evidently regards corpus as a genitive case. Tyrwhitt alters the
phrase to 'By corpus domini,' which wholly spoils the humour of it.

triacle, a restorative remedy; see Man of Lawes Tale, B. 479.

315. moyste, new. The word retains the sense of the Lat. musteus
and mustus. In Group H. 60, we find moysty ale spoken of as
differing from old ale. But the most peculiar use of the word is in the
Prologue, A. 457, where the Wyf of Bath's shoes are described as
being moyste and newe.

corny, strong of the corn or malt; cf. l. 456. Skelton calls it 'newe ale
in cornys'; Magnificence, 782; or 'in cornes,' Elynour Rummyng, 378.
Baret's Alvearie, s. v. Ale, has: 'new ale in cornes, ceruisia cum
recrementis.' It would seem that ale was thought the better for
having dregs of malt in it.

318. bel amy, good friend; a common form of address in old French.
We also find biaus douz amis, sweet good friend; as in—

'Charlot, Charlot, biaus doux amis';

Rutebuef; La Disputoison de Charlot et du Barbier, l. 57.

Belamy occurs in an Early Eng. Life of St. Cecilia, MS. Ashmole 43, l.
161; and six other examples are given in the New Eng. Dictionary.
Similar forms are beau filtz, dear son, Piers Plowman, B. vii. 162;
beau pere, good father; beau sire, good sir. Cf. beldame.

321. ale-stake, inn-sign. Speght interprets this by 'may-pole.' He was

probably thinking of the ale-pole, such as was sometimes set up
before an inn as a sign; see the picture of one in Larwood and
Hotten's History of Signboards, Plate II. But the ale-stakes of the
fourteenth century were differently placed; instead of being
perpendicular, they projected horizontally from the inn, just like the
bar which supports a painted sign at the present day. At the end of
the ale-stake a large garland was commonly suspended, as
mentioned by Chaucer himself (Prol. 667), or sometimes a bunch of
ivy, box, or evergreen, called a 'bush'; whence the proverb 'good
wine needs no bush,' i. e. nothing to indicate where it is sold; see
Hist. Signboards, pp. 2, 4, 6, 233. The clearest information about
ale-stakes is obtained from a notice of them in the Liber Albus, ed.
Riley, where an ordinance of the time of Richard II. is printed, the
translation of which runs as follows: 'Also, it was ordained that
whereas the ale-stakes, projecting in front of the taverns in Chepe
and elsewhere in the said city, extend too far over the king's
highways, to the impeding of riders and others, and, by reason of
their excessive weight, to the great deterioration of the houses to
which they are fixed,... it was ordained,... that no one in future
should have a stake bearing either his sign or leaves [i. e. a bush]
extending or lying over the king's highway, of greater length than 7
feet at most,' &c. And, at p. 292 of the same work, note 2, Mr. Riley
rightly defines an ale-stake to be 'the pole projecting from the
house, and supporting a bunch of leaves.'

The word ale-stake occurs in Chatterton's poem of Ælla, stanza 30,

where it is used in a manner which shews that the supposed 'Rowley'
did not know what it was like. See my note on this; Essay on the
Rowley Poems, p. xix; and cf. note to A. 667.

322. of a cake; we should now say, a bit of bread; the modern sense
of 'cake' is a little misleading. The old cakes were mostly made of
dough, whence the proverb 'my cake is dough,' i. e. is not properly
baked; Taming of the Shrew, v. 1. 145. Shakespeare also speaks of
'cakes and ale,' Tw. Nt. ii. 3. 124. The picture of the 'Simnel Cakes' in
Chambers' Book of Days, i. 336, illustrates Chaucer's use of the word
in the Prologue, l. 668.

324. The Pardoner was so ready to tell some 'mirth or japes' that the
more decent folks in the company try to repress him. It is a curious
comment on the popular estimate of his character. He has, moreover,
to refresh himself, and to think awhile before he can recollect 'some
honest (i. e. decent) thing.'

327, 328. The Harleian MS. has—

'But in the cuppe wil I me bethinke

Upon some honest tale, whil I drinke.'

The Pardoneres Prologue.

Title. The Latin text is copied from l. 334 below; it appears in the
Ellesmere and Hengwrt MSS. The A. V. has—'the love of money is
the root of all evil'; 1 Tim. vi. 10. It is well worth notice that the
novel by Morlinus, quoted in vol. iii. p. 442, as a source of the
Pardoner's Tale, contains the expression—'radice malorum cupiditate
affecti.'

336. bulles, bulls from the pope, whom he here calls his 'liege lord';
see Prol. A. 687, and Piers the Plowman, B. Prol. 69. See also
Wyclif's Works, ed. Arnold, iii. 308.

alle and somme, one and all. Cf. Clerkes Tale, E. 941, and the note.

337. patente; defined by Webster as 'an official document, conferring

a right or privilege on some person or party'; &c. It was so called
because 'patent' or open to public inspection. 'When indulgences
came to be sold, the pope made them part of his ordinary revenue;
and, according to the usual way in those, and even in much later
times, of farming the revenue, he let them out usually to the
Dominican friars'; Massingberd, Hist. Eng. Reformation, p. 126.

345. 'To colour my devotion with.' For saffron, MS. Harl. reads
savore. Tyrwhitt rightly prefers the reading saffron, as 'more
expressive, and less likely to have been a gloss.' And he adds
—'Saffron was used to give colour as well as flavour.' For example, in
the Babees Book, ed. Furnivall, p. 275, we read of 'capons that ben
coloured with saffron.' And in Winter's Tale, iv. 3. 48, the Clown says
—'I must have saffron to colour the warden-pies.' Cf. Sir Thopas, B.
1920. As to the position of with, cf. Sq. Ta., F. 471, 641.

346. According to Tyrwhitt, this line is, in some MSS. (including

Camb. Dd. 4. 24. and Addit. 5140), replaced by three, viz.—

'In euery village and in euery toun,

This is my terme, and shal, and euer was,
Radix malorum est cupiditas.'

Here terme is an error for teme, a variant of theme; so that the last
two lines merely repeat ll. 333-4.
347. cristal stones, evidently hollow pieces of crystal in which relics
were kept; so in the Prologue, A. 700, we have—

'And in a glas he hadde pigges bones.'

348. cloutes, rags, bits of cloth. 'The origin of the veneration for
relics may be traced to Acts, xix. 12. Hence clouts, or cloths, are
among the Pardoner's stock'; note in Bell's edition.

349. Reliks. In the Prologue, we read that he had the Virgin Mary's
veil and a piece of the sail of St. Peter's ship. Below, we have
mention of the shoulder-bone of a holy Jew's sheep, and of a
miraculous mitten. See Heywood's impudent plagiarism from this
passage in his description of a Pardoner, as printed in the note to l.
701 of Dr. Morris's edition of Chaucer's Prologue. See also a curious
list of relics in Chambers' Book of Days, i. 587; and compare the
humorous descriptions of the pardoner and his wares in Sir David
Lyndesay's Satyre of the Three Estates, ll. 2037-2121. Chaucer
probably here took several hints from Boccaccio's Decamerone, Day
6, Nov. 10, wherein Frate Cipolla produces many very remarkable
relics to the public gaze. See also the list of relics in Political,
Religious, and Love Poems, ed. Furnivall (E. E. T. S.), pp. xxxii, 126-
9.

350. latoun. The word latten is still in use in Devon and the North of
England for plate tin, but as Halliwell remarks, that is not the sense
of latoun in our older writers. It was a kind of mixed metal,
somewhat resembling brass both in its nature and colour, but still
more like pinchbeck. It was used for helmets (Rime of Sir Thopas, B.
2067), lavers (P. Pl. Crede, 196), spoons (Nares), sepulchral
memorials (Way in Prompt. Parv.), and other articles. Todd, in his
Illustrations of Chaucer, p. 350, remarks that the escutcheons on the
tomb of the Black Prince are of laton over-gilt, in accordance with
the Prince's instructions; see Nichols's Royal Wills, p. 67. He adds
—'In our old Church Inventories a cross of laton frequently occurs.'
See Prol. A. 699, and the note. I here copy the description of this
metal given in Batman upon Bartholomè; lib. xvi. c. 5. 'Of Laton.
Laton is called Auricalcum, and hath that name, for, though it be
brasse or copper, yet it shineth as gold without, as Isidore saith; for
brasse is calco in Greeke. Also laton is hard as brasse or copper; for
by medling of copper, of tinne, and of auripigment [orpiment] and
with other mettal, it is brought in the fire to the colour of gold, as
Isidore saith. Also it hath colour and likenesse of gold, but not the
value.'

351. The expression 'holy Jew' is remarkable, as the usual feeling in

the middle ages was to regard all Jews with abhorrence. It is
suggested, in a note to Bell's edition, that it 'must be understood of
some Jew before the Incarnation.' Perhaps the Pardoner wished it to
be understood that the sheep was once the property of Jacob; this
would help to give force to l. 365. Cp. Gen. xxx.

The best comment on the virtues of a sheep's shoulder-bone is

afforded by a passage in the Persones Tale (De Ira), I. 602, where
we find—'Sweringe sodeynly withoute avysement is eek a sinne. But
lat us go now to thilke horrible swering of adiuracioun and
coniuracioun, as doon thise false enchauntours or nigromanciens in
bacins ful of water, or in a bright swerd, in a cercle, or in a fyr, or in
a shulder-boon of a sheep'; &c. Cf. also a curious passage in
Trevisa's tr. of Higden's Polychronicon, lib. i. cap. 60, which shews
that it was known among the Flemings who had settled in the west
of Wales. He tells us that, by help of a bone of a wether's right
shoulder, from which the flesh had been boiled (not roasted) away,
they could tell what was being done in far countries, 'tokens of pees
and of werre, the staat of the reeme, sleynge of men, and
spousebreche.' Selden, in his notes to song 5 of Drayton's Polyolbion,
gives a curious instance of such divination, taken from Giraldus, Itin.
i. cap. 11; and a writer in the Retrospective Review, Feb. 1854, p.
109, says it is 'similar to one described by Wm. de Rubruquis as
practised among the Tartars.' And see spade-bone in Nares. Cf.
Notes and Queries, 1 S. ii. 20.
In Part I. of the Records of the Folk-lore Society is an article by Mr.
Thoms on the subject of divination by means of the shoulder-bone of
a sheep. He shews that it was still practised in the Scottish Highlands
down to the beginning of the present century, and that it is known in
Greece. He further cites some passages concerning it from some
scarce books; and ends by saying—'let me refer any reader desirous
of knowing more of this wide-spread form of divination to Sir H.
Ellis's edition of Brand's Popular Antiquities, iii. 179, ed. 1842, and to
much curious information respecting Spatulamancia, as it is called by
Hartlieb, and an analogous species of divination ex anserino sterno,
to Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie, 2nd ed. p. 1067.'

355. The sense is—'which any snake has bitten or stung.' The
reference is to the poisonous effects of the bite of an adder or
venomous snake. The word worm is used by Shakespeare to
describe the asp whose bite was fatal to Cleopatra; and it is
sometimes used to describe a dragon of the largest size. In
Icelandic, the term 'miðgarðsormr,' lit. worm of the middle-earth,
signifies a great sea-serpent encompassing the entire world.

363. Fastinge. This word is spelt with a final e in all seven MSS.; and
as it is emphatic and followed by a slight pause, perhaps the final e
should be pronounced. Cp. A. S. fæstende, the older form of the
present participle. Otherwise, the first foot consists of but one
syllable.

366. For heleth, MS. Hl. has kelith, i. e. cooleth.

379. The final e in sinne must not be elided; it is preserved by the

caesura. Besides, e is only elided before h in the case of certain
words.

387. assoile, absolve. In Michelet's Life of Luther, tr. by W. Hazlitt,

chap. ii, there is a very similar passage concerning Tetzel, the
Dominican friar, whose shameless sale of indulgences roused Luther
to his famous denunciations of the practice. Tetzel 'went about from
town to town, with great display, pomp, and expense, hawking the
commodity [i. e. the indulgences] in the churches, in the public
streets, in taverns and ale-houses. He paid over to his employers as
little as possible, pocketing the balance, as was subsequently proved
against him. The faith of the buyers diminishing, it became
necessary to exaggerate to the fullest extent the merit of the
specific.... The intrepid Tetzel stretched his rhetoric to the very
uttermost bounds of amplification. Daringly piling one lie upon
another, he set forth, in reckless display, the long list of evils which
this panacea could cure. He did not content himself with
enumerating known sins; he set his foul imagination to work, and
invented crimes, infamous atrocities, strange, unheard of, unthought
of; and when he saw his auditors stand aghast at each horrible
suggestion, he would calmly repeat the burden of his song:—Well, all
this is expiated the moment your money chinks in the pope's chest.'
This was in the year 1517.

390. An hundred mark. A mark was worth about 13s. 4d., and 100
marks about £66 13s. 4d. In order to make allowance for the
difference in the value of money in that age, we must at least
multiply by ten; or we may say in round numbers, that the Pardoner
made at least £700 a year. We may contrast this with Chaucer's own
pension of 20 marks, granted him in 1367, and afterwards increased
till, in the very last year of his life, he received in all, according to Sir
Harris Nicolas, as much as £61 13s. 4d. Even then his income did not
quite attain to the 100 marks which the Pardoner gained so easily.

397. dowve, a pigeon; lit. a dove. See a similar line in the Milleres
Tale, A. 3258.

402. namely, especially, in particular; cf. Kn. Ta. 410 (A. 1068).

406. blakeberied. The line means—'Though their souls go a-

blackberrying'; i. e. wander wherever they like. This is a well-known
crux, which all the editors have given up as unintelligible. I have
been so fortunate as to obtain the complete solution of it, which was
printed in Notes and Queries, 4 S. x. 222, xii. 45, and again in my
preface to the C-text of Piers the Plowman, p. lxxxvii. The simple
explanation is that, by a grammatical construction which was
probably due (as will be shewn) to an error, the verb go could be
combined with what was apparently a past participle, in such a
manner as to give the participle the force of a verbal substantive. In
other words, instead of saying 'he goes a-hunting,' our forefathers
sometimes said 'he goes a-hunted.' The examples of this use are at
least seven. The clearest is in Piers Plowman, C. ix. 138, where we
read of 'folk that gon a-begged,' i. e. folk that go a-begging. In
Chaucer, we not only have 'goon a-begged,' Frank. Tale, F. 1580, and
the instance in the present passage, but yet a third example in the
Wyf of Bath's Tale, Group D. 354, where we have 'goon a-
caterwawed,' with the sense of 'to go a-caterwauling'; and it is a
fortunate circumstance that in two of these cases the idiomatic forms
occur at the end of a line, so that the rime has preserved them from
being tampered with. Gower (Conf. Amant. bk. i. ed. Chalmers, pp.
32, 33, or ed. Pauli, i. 110) speaks of a king of Hungary riding out 'in
the month of May,' adding—

'This king with noble purueiance

Hath for him-selfe his chare [car] arayed,
Wherein he wolde ryde amayed,' &c.

that is, wherein he wished to ride a-Maying. Again (in bk. v, ed.
Chalmers, p. 124, col. 2, or ed. Pauli, ii. 132) we read of a drunken
priest losing his way:—

'This prest was dronke, and goth a-strayed';

i. e. he goes a-straying, or goes astray.

The explanation of this construction I take to be this; the -ed was

not really a sign of the past participle, but a corruption of the ending
-eth (A. S.-að) which is sometimes found at the end of a verbal
substantive. Hence it is that, in the passage from Piers Plowman
above quoted, one of the best and earliest MSS. actually reads 'folk
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