STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Chapter-2

Discovery of fundamental particles: -

Dalton’s atomic theory was able to explain the law of conservation of mass, law of
constant composition and law of multiple proportion very successfully but it failed to
explain the results of many experiments like it was known that substances like glass or
ebonite when rubbed with silk or fur generate electricity.

Discovery of electron: -

When the pressure of the gas inside the discharge tube is reduced by working the vacuum
pump, to about 110 mm of Hg, no discharge occurs through the tube. At a pressure of
about 100 mm of Hg, the discharge of electricity through the gas begins and irregular
streaks of light appear, accompanied by a crackling sound. As the pressure is reduced to
the order of 10 mm of Hg, the irregular streaks broaden out into a luminous column
extending from the anode, almost upto the cathode. This column is known as the positive
column. With further reduction in pressure to around 0.01 mm of Hg, the positive column
disappears and Crooke's dark space fills the whole tube. At this stage, the walls of the
glass tube fluoresce with green colour. This greenish glow in the final stage of the gaseous
discharge is found to be a fluorescence of the glass produced by some invisible rays
emanating from the cathode. These rays are called cathode rays and are found to be
electrons.

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Properties of cathode rays:-

1. Cathode rays travel in a straight line.

2. Cathode rays are nothing but a stream of negatively charged particles
called electrons.
3. These negatively charged particles are an integral part of all atoms.
4. It is lighter than Hydrogen atom. Its mass is very small when compared to that
of an atom.
5. Electrons have both definite mass and definite electric charge, both of which are
independent of the nature of the gas in the discharge tube.
6. Cathode rays possess momentum and kinetic energy.
7. When cathode rays strike a solid substance of large atomic weight, X-rays are
produced Cathode rays produce heat, when allowed to fall on matter
8. Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they pass.
9. The cathode rays are deflected from their straight-line path by both electric and
magnetic fields. The direction of deflection shows that they are negatively
charged particles. Cathode rays travel with a velocity upto (1/10) th of the
velocity of light.

e/m ratio of electron:-

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 In 1897 J.J. Thomson measured e/m ratio of electron by using cathode ray tube and
applying electric and magnetic field perpendicular to each other as well as to the path of
electrons. The extent of deviation of electrons from their path in the presence of electric
and magnetic field depends on:

(a) Charge on the electron

(b) Mass of the particle
(c) The strength of electric or magnetic field

When only electric field is applied, the electrons are deflected to the point A. When only
magnetic field is applied, the electrons are deflected to the point C. By balancing the
strengths of electric or magnetic fields, the electrons are allowed to hit the screen at point
B i.e. the point where electrons hit in the absence of electric and magnetic field. By
measuring the amount of deflections Thomson was able to calculate the value of e/m as
1.758820 × 1011C/kg.

Charge on the electron:-

R.A Millikan devised a method known as oil drop experiment to determine the charge on
the electrons.
Charge on the electron is found to be = –1.6022 × 10–19 C.
The mass of an electron in kg = 9.10938356 × 10-31 kilograms.

Discovery of proton:-

• German scientist, E. Goldstein modified the discharge tube and passed an electric
current through it.
• He found that positively charged rays were emitted from the anode in the discharge
tube. These rays were called canal rays.

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 • When an electric field was applied, these rays deflected towards the negatively
charged plate. Thus, Goldstein concluded that an atom contains positively charged
particles along with the electrons.
• These positively charged particles were named as protons by a British scientist,
Ernest Rutherford.
• Canal rays were also called anode rays because they emitted from the anode
(electrode connected to the positive terminal of a high-voltage source) in the gas
discharge experiments using perforated cathode.

These rays are believed to be produced as a result of the knock out of the electrons
from the gaseous atoms by the bombardment of high speed electrons of the cathode
rays on them. These anode rays are not emitted from the anode but are produced in
the space between the anode and the cathode. The lightest charged particles were
obtained when the gas taken in the discharge tube was hydrogen. The e/m value of
these particles were maximum. They had minimum mass and unit positive charge.
The particle was called a proton.

Charge on a proton = + 1.6022 × 10–19 C

Mass of a proton = 1.672 × 10–27 kg

Properties of cathode rays:-

1. They travel in straight lines.
2. They carry a positive charge.
3. They are made up of material particles.
4. The value of the charge on the particles constituting the anode rays is found to depend
on the nature of gas taken.
5. The mass of the particles constituting the anode rays is found to depend on the nature of
gas taken.
6. The charge to mass ratio(e/m) of the particles is also found to depend on the gas taken.
7. Their behaviour in electric and magnetic field is opposite to
that observed for electron.

Discovery of neutron:-
The British physicist Sir James Chadwick discovered neutrons in the year 1932. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in the year 1935 for this discovery.

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 • James Chadwick fired alpha radiation at beryllium sheet from a polonium source.
This led to the production of an uncharged, penetrating radiation.
• This radiation was made incident on paraffin wax, a hydrocarbon having a relatively
high hydrogen content.
• The protons ejected from the paraffin wax (when struck by the uncharged radiation)
were observed with the help of an ionization chamber.
• The range of the liberated protons was measured and the interaction between the
uncharged radiation and the atoms of several gases was studied by Chadwick.
• He concluded that the unusually penetrating radiation consisted of uncharged
particles having (approximately) the same mass as a proton. These particles were later
termed ‘neutrons’.
• He measured the mass of a neutron to be nearly same as that of a proton. MN = 1.00866
u = 1.6749 X 10-27 kg

Dalton's Atomic Theory:-

Dalton’s theory is the basic theory about the nature of matter. According to his theory, all
matter, whether a solid, liquid or gas or an element, compound or mixture, is composed of
small particles called atoms.
The Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory
• All matter is made up of very tiny particles called atoms.
• Atoms are indivisible particles, which can neither be created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction.
• The atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
• Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
• Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
• The relative number and the types of atoms are constant in a given compound.

Limitations of Dalton’s Atomic Theory: -

The postulates of the atomic theory by John Dalton
• The matter is made up of tiny particles called Atoms that cannot be divided.
• Atoms are never formed or destroyed during a chemical reaction.
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 • Atoms of an element exhibit same nature. They have the same size, mass, and
character.
• Atoms of different elements exhibit variant nature. They do not have same
characteristics.
• Atoms form compounds by combining in a ratio of whole numbers.
• A compound contains a constant number and kinds of atoms
Dalton suggested that atoms can neither be created nor destroyed and are indivisible. But
the discovery of electrons and protons in atoms lead to failure of this aspect of Dalton’s
theory.

Thomson’s Atomic Model: -

(Plum – pudding model of atom)

Sir J. J. Thomson, who discovered the electron, was the first to suggest a model of atomic
structure.

(i) All atoms contain electrons.

(ii) The atom as a whole is neutral. The total positive charge and total negative
charge must be equal. He visualised all the positive charge of the atom as being
spread out uniformly throughout a sphere of atomic dimensions (i.e. approx. 10–
10 m in diameter). The electrons were smaller particles together carrying a
negative charge, equal to the positive charge in the atom. They were studded in
the atom like plums in a pudding. The charge distribution was such, that it gave
the most stable arrangement. This model of the atom was often called the plum –
pudding model. Also the raisin pudding model or watermelon model.

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Limitations of JJ Thomson’s Atomic Model: -

• It failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model of atom failed to
explain how a positive charge holds the negatively charged electrons in an atom.
Therefore, This theory also failed to account for the position of the nucleus in an
atom
• Though the model was able to explain the overall neutrality of the atom, it could not
satisfactorily explain the results of scattering experiments carried out by Rutherford.
• Thomson’s model failed to explain the scattering of alpha particles by thin metal
foils.

Rutherford’s α scattering Experiment: -

In this experiment, a stream of α particle from a radioactive source was directed on a thin
(about 0.00004 cm thick) piece of gold foil. According to Thomson’s model, it was expected
that the alpha particles would just pass straight through the gold foil and could be detected
by a photographic plate placed behind the foil. But the actual results of the experiment were
quite surprising.

He was observed that:

(i) Most of the α-particles passed straight through the gold foil.
(ii) Some of the α-particles were deflected by small angles.

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 (iii) A few particles were deflected by large angles.

(iii) About 1 in every 12000 particles experienced a rebound.

The results of α-ray scattering experiment were explained by Rutherford in 1911 and
another model of the atom was proposed. According to Rutherford’s model, an atom
contains a dense and positively charged region located at its centre; it was called as
the nucleus, all the positive charge of an atom and most of its mass was contained in the
nucleus. The rest of an atom must be empty space which contains the much smaller and
negatively charged electrons.

Observations Inferences

Alpha particles which had high speed moved

Atom contains a lot of empty space
straight through the gold foil
Positive charges in the atom are not occupying much
Some particles got diverted a by slide angles
of its space

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 The positive charges are concentrated over a particular
Only one out of 12000 particles bounced back
area of the atom.

Rutherford Atomic Model: -

(i) An atom consists of tiny positively charged nucleus at the centre and it is
surrounded by hollow portion called extra nuclear part.
(ii) The positive charge of the nucleus is due to nucleons which consist of protons
and neutrons while the electrons, present in extra nuclear portion has negligible
mass and carry a negative charge.
(iii) The atom is electrically neutral, as the number of electrons is equal to number of
protons in it. Thus, total positive charge of the nucleus is balanced by the total
negative charge of electrons.
(iv) The electrons in the extra nuclear part are revolving around the nucleus in
circular paths called orbits. Thus, an atom resembles the solar system in which
the sun plays the role of nucleus and the planets that of revolving electrons and
the model is known as planetary model.
(v) Electrons and nucleus are held together by the electrostatic force of attraction.
(vi) Forces of attraction operating on the electron are exactly balanced by centrifugal
forces.

Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model: -

Although the Rutherford atomic model was based on experimental observations it failed
to explain certain things.

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 • Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed paths
called orbits. According to Maxwell, accelerated charged particles emit
electromagnetic radiations and hence an electron revolving around the nucleus
should emit electromagnetic radiation. This radiation would carry energy from the
motion of the electron which would come at the cost of shrinking of orbits.
Ultimately the electrons would collapse in the nucleus. Calculations have shown
that as per the Rutherford model, an electron would collapse in the nucleus in less
than 10-8 seconds. So Rutherford model was not in accordance with Maxwell’s
theory and could not explain the stability of an atom.

• One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also that he did not say
anything about the arrangement of electrons in an atom which made his theory
incomplete.

• Although the early atomic models were inaccurate and failed to explain certain
experimental results, they were the base for future developments in the world of
quantum mechanics.

Atomic number (Z): -

Atomic Number of elements is defined as the Number of the protons in nucleus. It is

denoted by the Letter “Z”.

Z = Number of protons present in nucleus

For example, the number of protons in hydrogen atom is 1, So Atomic Number of

Hydrogen is 1. Similarly, the number of protons in Sodium atom is 11, So Atomic
Number of Sodium is 11.

Atomic Number of elements depends only on the number of protons in the elements. it
does not depend on number of electrons or neutron. We may use this relation when
finding atomic number based on number of electrons.

For neutral atom

Z = No. of protons present in nucleus = Number of Electrons

For positively Charge Atom (Cation or +ion i,e Electron removed)

Z = No. of protons present in nucleus =

(Number of Electrons in charged atom + Units of Charge)

For negative Charge Atom (anion, -ion i.e Electron Added)

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 Z = No. of protons present in nucleus =

(Number of Electrons in charged atom - Units of Charge)

Here is the list of atomic number of common elements.

Now if the element is X, Atomic number is Z, then it is written in chemical notation as

Note the subscript denote the Atomic Number

Importance of Atomic Numbers: -

a. Chemical properties of the element is determined by the number of electrons in the

element, which is determined by number of protons i.e atomic numbers.

b. Periodic table is arranged as per the atomic number of the elements.

c. Each element has unique number of protons, so atomic number helps in identification of
elements.

Mass number (A): -

Atomic Mass Number is defined as the sum of number of protons and Number of neutrons
in the nucleus. It is denoted by the Letter A
A = Number of protons + Number of neutrons in nucleus
Protons and Neutrons are collectively called nucleons
It can also be written as
A = Z + Number of neutrons in nucleus
or
Number of neutrons in nucleus = A – Z

It has found that all the atomic nuclei has both the neutrons and protons, except the most
common form of hydrogen which has one proton and no neutrons.
Now if the element is X, Atomic number is A, then it is written in chemical notation as

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 -
Note the superscript denote the Atomic Mass Number
Both the Atomic Number and Atomic Mass Number together is written in chemical
notation as:

Note the superscript denote the Atomic Mass number and subscript denote the Atomic
number.
Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass number are different terms and should be used carefully.
Atomic Mass is the mass of protons, electrons and neutrons in the atom while atomic mass
number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the atom

Therefore, number of neutrons (n) = Mass Number (A) –Number of protons (Z)

n=A–Z

Isotopes: -

• We have already studied Atomic Number and Atomic Mass number. Lets discuss
about Important Term Isotopes.
• Isotopes is defined as Species having same atomic number but different atomic
mass number
• Difference between the isotopes is due to the presence of different number of
neutrons present in the nucleus
• Example - Isotopes of Hydrogen
99.985% of hydrogen atoms contain only one proton called protium. 0.015%
contains two other isotopes deuterium & tritium. Tritium is radioactive in nature.
•

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 • Chemical properties of atoms are controlled by the number of electrons. Number of
neutrons present in the nucleus have very little effect on the chemical properties of
an element. So, all the isotopes of a given element show same chemical behaviour.
• Isotopes of the elements have the naming convention of Element- except for
hydrogen where specific name is given to all the isotopes.

Other Examples of Isotopes

a. Natural Carbon Isotopes

12-C and 13-C are stable, occurring in a natural proportion of approximately 93:1. 14-C is
produced by thermal neutrons from cosmic radiation in the upper atmosphere, and is
transported down to earth to be absorbed by living biological material.

b. Common Isotopes of Uranium

The firs isotope 235-U is used un nuclear reactor and atomic bombs. Second isotope does
not have much usage

c. Isotopes of Chlorine

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Isobars: -

• Species or atoms having same atomic mass number but different atomic number
For example - 146C , 147N

• They have the same number of nucleons i.e sum of protons and neutrons are same
but Number of protons and neutrons alone varies between them.

• Chemical properties depend on Atomic Number, so isobars are different chemical

elements and have different chemical properties.

Examples of Isobars:-

(i)7632Ce 7634Se

(ii)5826Fe 5828Ni

(iii) 4018Ar 4019K

(iv)2411Na 2412Mg

Difference Between Isobars & isotopes:-

Isotones:-
• Species having same number of neutrons but different number of protons are called
Isotones.
14 15
• Example 6C , 7N

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 • Other examples include boron-12 and carbon-13 nuclei both contain 7 neutrons, and
so are isotones. Similarly, 36S , 37C , 38Ar, 39K , and 40Ca nuclei are all isotones of
20 because they all contain 20 neutrons.
• the term was formed by the German physicist K. Guggenheimer by changing the
"p" in "isotope" from "p" for "proton" to "n" for "neutron".

Difference Between Isotopes,Isobars & Isotones:-

Isoelectronic: -
The species (atoms or ions) containing the same number of electrons are called
isoelectronic. Eg:
O2– , F–, Na+, Mg+2, Al+3, Ne etc
To go further into the atomic mysteries, we will have to understand the nature of
electromagnetic radiations and study Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Wave theory”.

James Maxwell was the first to give a comprehensive explanation about the interaction
between the charged bodies and the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields.

Electromagnetic Radiations: -

Electromagnetic Radiations are waves which are formed as a result of oscillating magnetic
and electric fields which are perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to
direction of motion.

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They do not require any medium and can move in vacuum unlike sound waves. Light is a
form of radiation and has wave characteristics. The various characteristics of a wave are:

Amplitude: -
It is height of the crest or trough (depth) of a wave. Units: metre (m)

Frequency (ν): -
The number of waves passing through a point in one second. Units: Hertz (Hz) or s–1

Period: -
The time taken by a wave to complete one vibration is called time period. Units: sec
Velocity: -
The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called velocity. Units: m/s
In vacuum, all types of electromagnetic radiations travel at the same speed i.e., 3 × 108
m/s. This is called speed of light.

Wavelength ( λ ) : -
The distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called wavelength. Units :
Angstrom (Å)[1 Å=10–10 m]

Wave Number (ν) :-

It is the number of wavelengths per centimetre of length. Units: m-1

ν = 1/

Velocity: -

C = ν
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where c : speed of light i.e. 3 × 108 m/s in vacuum

v : frequency

: wavelength
The electromagnetic spectrum: -

Electromagnetic waves can be classified and arranged according to their various

wavelengths/frequencies; this classification is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
The following table shows us this spectrum, which consists of all the types of
electromagnetic radiation that exist in our universe.
The visible spectrum is a subset of this spectrum (VIBGYOR) whose range of wavelength
is 380-760nm.
The wavelengths increase in the order:

Gamma Rays < X-rays < Ultra-violet rays < Visible<Infrared < Micro-waves <Radio
waves.

Electromagnetic Wave Theory:-

The main points of this theory are:

(1) A source (like the heated rod) emits energy continuously in the form of radiations (i.e.
no change in wavelength or frequency of the emitted radiations even on increasing the
energy radiated).

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(2) These radiations are Electromagnetic in nature.

Failure of EM wave theory: -

The theory failed because of 2 experiments:

1.Black Body Radiation: -

According to Maxwell’s theory on heating a body the intensity should increase, that is,
energy radiated per unit area should increase without having any effect on the
wavelength or frequency. But we observe that when we heat an iron rod, it first turns
to red then white and then becomes blue at very high temperatures. This means that
frequency of emitted radiations is changing. An ideal body, which emits and absorbs
radiations of all frequencies is called black body and radiation emitted by a
black body is called black body radiation.
So it is observed that with increasing temperature the dominant wavelength in the emitted
radiations decreases and the frequency increases. That is at higher temperatures, though
the intensity rises as predicted by Maxwell’s theory but the wavelength decreases.

2. Photoelectric Effect

It was discovered by Hertz. When a beam of light of certain frequency (threshold

frequency) strikes the metal surface, electrons are emitted or ejected from the metal
surface. this phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect. Here is Equipment for
studying the photoelectric effect.

Light of a particular frequency strikes a clean metal surface inside a vacuum chamber.
Electrons are ejected from the metal and are counted by a detector that measures their
kinetic energy.

Observations in Photoelectric Effect: -

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 1. For each metal there is a characteristic minimum frequency below which
photoelectric effect is not observed. This is called threshold frequency.
2. If frequency of light is less than the threshold frequency there is no ejection of
electrons no matter how long it falls on surface or how high is its intensity.
3. The kinetic Energy of electrons emitted is directly proportional to frequency of
striking photons & independent of their intensity.
 The no. of electrons that are ejected per second from metal surface depends upon
intensity of striking radiations and doesn’t depend upon their frequency.

Explanation of Photoelectric Effect: -

Einstein could explain photoelectric effect using Plank’s Quantum theory as follows:

(a) Photoelectrons are ejected only when incident light has threshold frequency

Ie; Energy of one quantum = Threshold Energy + Kinetic Energy (hν−hν0)

(b) If frequency of incident light is more than threshold frequency then the excess energy
is imparted to electrons in the form of kinetic energy. (E −Wo = ½mv2).

E = Wo + ½mv2

hν =hν0+½mv2

(c) Greater he frequency of incident light, greater the kinetic energy of e -.

(d) Greater the intensity of light more the no. of electrons ejected.

Plank’s quantum theory: -

The main points of this theory are:

1) The energy is emitted or absorbed not continuously but discontinuously in the form
of small discrete packets of energy. Each such packet of energy is called a
‘quantum’. In case of light this quantum of energy is called a photon.
2) One quantum cannot be divided or distributed. The energy of each quantum is
directly proportional to the frequency of radiation.

3) The total energy emitted or absorbed by a body will be in whole number quanta.

Hence E = nhν n hc/

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 This is also called “Quantisation of energy”.
Energy can also be expressed in Electron Volt (eV). The energy acquired by an electron
when it is accelerated through a potential difference of one Volt.
1eV = 1.602 × 10–19J
Light has both the Wave nature (shows the phenomena of diffraction and interference)
and Particle nature (could explain the black body radiation and photoelectric effect)
Thus, light has dual nature.

Spectrum: -

A spectrum is a group or band of wavelengths/colours and the study of emission or

absorption spectra is known as spectroscopy. When white light is passed through prism, it
splits into band of seven colours called visible spectrum.
VIBGYOR (V) = Shortest wavelength 400nm; R = Longest wavelength 450 nm

Emission Spectrum: -
The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed energy is called an
emission spectrum. It is noticed when radiations emitted from source are passed through a
prism & received on photographic plate. Emission spectrum is produced by supplying
energy to a sample by heating it or irradiating it and the wavelength (or frequency) of the
radiation emitted, as the sample gives up the absorbed energy, is recorded.
Absorption Spectrum: -
Absorption spectrum is the spectrum obtained when radiation is passed through a sample
of material. The sample absorbs radiation of certain wavelengths. The wavelengths which
are absorbed are missing and come as dark lines. An absorption spectrum is like the
photographic negative of an emission spectrum.

Line Spectrum: -

The spectrum of the visible light, is continuous as all wavelengths (red to violet) of the
visible light are represented in the spectra. The emission spectra of atoms in the gas phase,
on the other hand, do not show a continuous spread of wavelength from red to violet,
rather they emit light only at specific wavelengths with dark spaces between them. Such
spectra are called line spectra or atomic spectra. Every element has a unique line emission
spectrum. The characteristic lines in atomic spectra can be used in chemical analysis to
identify unknown atoms in the same way as fingerprints are used to identify people.

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Line Spectrum of Hydrogen: -

The light emitted by a sample of excited hydrogen atoms (or any other element) can be
passed through a prism and separated into certain discrete wavelengths. Thus, an emission
spectrum, which is a photographic recording of the separated wavelengths is called as line
spectrum. Any sample of reasonable size contains an enormous number of atoms.
Although a single atom can be in only one excited state at a time, the collection of atoms
contains all possible excited states. The light emitted as these atoms fall to lower energy
states is responsible for the spectrum.

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 Series of lines n1 n2 Spectral region Wavelength
Lyman Series 1 >1 UV < 4000
Balmer Series 2 >2 Visible 4000 to 7000
Paschen Series 3 >3 Near IR > 7000
Brackett Series 4 >4 Far IR > 7000
Pfund Series 5 >5 Far IR > 7000

Lymen seires:-
When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the ground state or first state
(n = 1), the series of spectral
lines emitted lies in the ultra violet region and are called as Lyman series. Therefore, in
Rydberg’s formula n1= 1, n2= 2,3,4,5...

Balmer Series: -
When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with n=2,the series of
spectral lines emitted lies in the visible region and are called as Balmer series.Therefore ,
in Rydberg’s formula n1= 2, n2= 3,4,5,6....

Paschen Series: -
When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with n=3, the series of
spectral lines emitted lies in the infrared region and are called as Paschen series.
Therefore, in Rydberg’s formula n1= 3, n2= 4,5,6...

Brackett Series: -
When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with n = 4, the series of
spectral lines emitted lies in the infrared region and are called as Brackett series.
Therefore, in Rydberg’s formula n1= 4, n2= 5,6,7...
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Pfund Series:-
When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with n = 4, the series of
spectral lines emitted lies in the infrared region and are called as Pfund series.
Therefore, in Rydberg’s formula n1= 5, n2= 6,7...

On the basis of experimental observations, Balmer proposed the formula for correlating
the wave number of the spectral lines emitted and the energy shells involved. This formula
is given as:

This series of the hydrogen emission spectrum is known as the Balmer series. This is the
only series of lines in the electromagnetic spectrum that lies in the visible region. The
value, 109,677 cm-1, is called the Rydberg constant for hydrogen. The Balmer series is
basically the part of the hydrogen emission spectrum responsible for the excitation of
an electron from the second shell to any other shell.

Johannes Rydberg, a Swedish spectroscopist, derived a general formula for the calculation
of wave number of hydrogen spectral line emissions due to the transition of an electron
from one orbit to another. The general formula for the hydrogen emission spectrum is
given by:

This is known as Rydberg’s formula.

Were,
n1 = 1,2,3,4 …
n2 = n1 +1
ν= wave number of electromagnetic radiation. The value 109,677 cm-1 is known as
Rydberg constant for hydrogen.

BOHR MODEL OF ATOM

Postulates: -

1. An atom consists of a small, heavy, positively charged nucleus in the centre and the
electrons revolve around it in circular orbits.

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 2. An electron can transition from a non-radiating orbit to another of a lower energy
level. In doing so, a photon is emitted whose energy is equal to the energy difference
between the two states. Hence, the frequency of the emitted photon is:

hν = Ei – Ef

3. When transition occurs between two stationary states that differ in energy, the
frequency of the radiation absorbed or emitted can be calculated.

hν = Ei – Ef = ∆E

ν = ∆E /h

This expression is known as Bohr’s frequency rules.

4. An electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular momentum is an
integral multiple of h/2π.

mever = n h/2π n = 1,2,3,4 …

me = mass of electron =9.1 × 10 -31 kg
ve = velocity of electron
r = Radius of electron

Bohr Model of Hydrogen atom:-

1. Electrons revolve only in those orbits which have a fixed value of energy. Hence,
these orbits are called energy levels or stationary states. They are numbered as
1,2,3,...... These numbers are known as Principal quantum Numbers.
2. Radii of Bohr’s stationary orbits are expressed as

rn = n2 a0 where a0 = 52.9 pm

r1 = 1 × a0 = 1 ×52.9 pm = 52.9 pm
For H-atom (Z = 1), the radius of first stationary state is called Bohr orbit (52.9 pm)

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 3. Bohr theory also can be applied to the ions containing only one electron, which is
similar to H atom .Eg: He+, Li2+, Be3+ and so on.

rn = 52.9 pm x n2 pm

4. Energy of an electron is given by:

E = hc/λ = hcῡ = RH
–
En = RH (Z2/n2) where n = 1,2,3.......

Z = atomic number

RH = – 2.18 × 10–18 J.

Energy for first orbital of hydrogen atom

–
E1 = RH (12/12)

= –
2.18 × 10–18 J.

Energy for 2nd orbital of hydrogen atom

–
E2 = RH (12/22)

= –
2.18 × 10–18 J. = –
0.545× 10–18 J

22

It shows that the energy of electron is more -ve and that of radius become smaller with
increase of atomic number.

5. Velocity of an electron is given by:

meve r = n h/2π

ve = nh/2πmer

Energy for first orbital of hydrogen atom

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 Ve= 2.18 × 106 m/s

Velocity of electron in nth orbit an atom with atomic number Z is

ve = nh/2πmer /n

ve = 2.18 × 106 × Z m/s

As atomic number increases energy of electron decreases and velocity of electron

decreases. Also, as the “n” value increases the velocity of electron decreases.

Limitations of Bohr Model of atom: -

1. Inability to explain line spectra of multi-electron atoms.

2. It fails to account for the finer details (doublet-two closely spaced lines) of the
hydrogen spectra.
3. Inability to explain splitting of lines in the magnetic field (Zeeman Effect) and in
the electric field (Stark Effect)- If the source emitting the radiation is placed in
magnetic or electric field, it is observed that each spectral line splits up into a
number of lines. Splitting of spectral lines in magnetic field is known as Zeeman
Effect while splitting of spectral lines in electric field is known as Stark Effect.
4. It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by covalent bonds.
5. He ignores dual behaviour of matter and also contradicts Heisenberg uncertainty
principle.

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