UNIT-II

knowledge representation: Humans are best at understanding,

reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things, which is
knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in
the real world. But how machines do all these things comes under
knowledge representation and reasoning

o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of

Artificial intelligence which concerned with AI agents thinking
and how thinking contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real
world so that a computer can understand and can utilize this
knowledge to solve the complex real world problems such as
diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with humans in
natural language.
o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge
in artificial intelligence. Knowledge representation is not just
storing data into some database, but it also enables an
intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and
experiences so that it can behave intelligently like a human.
Types of knowledge :

1. Declarative Knowledge:

o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in
declarativesentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge

o It is also known as imperative knowledge.

o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is
responsible for knowing how to do something.
 o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be
applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:

o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-

knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:

o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts

in a filed or subject.
o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous
experiences, awareness of approaches, and which are good to
work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:

o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.

o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind
of, part of, and grouping of something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or
objects.

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for
displaying intelligent behavior:
 o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution

The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the
real world and what components help it to show intelligence. AI
system has Perception component by which it retrieves information
from its environment. It can be visual, audio or another form of
sensory input. The learning component is responsible for learning
from data captured by Perception comportment. In the complete
cycle, the main components are knowledge representation and
Reasoning. These two components are involved in showing the
intelligence in machine-like humans. These two components are
independent with each other but also coupled together. The planning
and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation and
reasoning

Reasoning in Artificial intelligence :

The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion and

making predictions from available knowledge, facts, and beliefs. Or we
can say, "Reasoning is a way to infer facts from existing data." It is
a general process of thinking rationally, to find valid conclusions.

In artificial intelligence, the reasoning is essential so that the machine

can also think rationally as a human brain, and can perform like a
human.

Types of Reasoning :
In artificial intelligence, reasoning can be divided into the following
categories:

o Deductive reasoning
o Inductive reasoning
o Abductive reasoning
o Common Sense Reasoning
o Monotonic Reasoning
o Non-monotonic Reasoning

Deductive reasoning:
Deductive reasoning is deducing new information from logically
related known information. It is the form of valid reasoning, which
means the argument's conclusion must be true when the premises are
true.

Deductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic in AI, and it

requires various rules and facts. It is sometimes referred to as top-
down reasoning, and contradictory to inductive reasoning.

In deductive reasoning, the truth of the premises guarantees the truth

of the conclusion.

Deductive reasoning mostly starts from the general premises to the

specific conclusion, which can be explained as below example.

Example:

Premise-1: All the human eats veggies

Premise-2: Suresh is human.

Conclusion: Suresh eats veggies.

2. Inductive Reasoning:
Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning to arrive at a conclusion
using limited sets of facts by the process of generalization. It starts
with the series of specific facts or data and reaches to a general
statement or conclusion.
Inductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic, which is also
known as cause-effect reasoning or bottom-up reasoning.

In inductive reasoning, we use historical data or various premises to

generate a generic rule, for which premises support the conclusion.

In inductive reasoning, premises provide probable supports to the

conclusion, so the truth of premises does not guarantee the truth of
the conclusion.

Example:

Premise: All of the pigeons we have seen in the zoo are white.

Conclusion: Therefore, we can expect all the pigeons to be white.

3. Abductive reasoning:
Abductive reasoning is a form of logical reasoning which starts with
single or multiple observations then seeks to find the most likely
explanation or conclusion for the observation.

Abductive reasoning is an extension of deductive reasoning, but in

abductive reasoning, the premises do not guarantee the conclusion.

Example:

Implication: Cricket ground is wet if it is raining

Axiom: Cricket ground is wet.

Conclusion It is raining.

4. Common Sense Reasoning

Common sense reasoning is an informal form of reasoning, which can
be gained through experiences.

Common Sense reasoning simulates the human ability to make

presumptions about events which occurs on every day.

It relies on good judgment rather than exact logic and operates

on heuristic knowledge and heuristic rules.

Example:

1. One person can be at one place at a time.

2. If I put my hand in a fire, then it will burn.

The above two statements are the examples of common sense

reasoning which a human mind can easily understand and assume.

5. Monotonic Reasoning:
In monotonic reasoning, once the conclusion is taken, then it will
remain the same even if we add some other information to existing
information in our knowledge base. In monotonic reasoning, adding
knowledge does not decrease the set of prepositions that can be
derived.

To solve monotonic problems, we can derive the valid conclusion from

the available facts only, and it will not be affected by new facts.

Monotonic reasoning is not useful for the real-time systems, as in real

time, facts get changed, so we cannot use monotonic reasoning.
Monotonic reasoning is used in conventional reasoning systems, and a
logic-based system is monotonic.

Any theorem proving is an example of monotonic reasoning.

Example:

o Earth revolves around the Sun.

It is a true fact, and it cannot be changed even if we add another

sentence in knowledge base like, "The moon revolves around the
earth" Or "Earth is not round," etc

6. Non-monotonic Reasoning
In Non-monotonic reasoning, some conclusions may be invalidated if
we add some more information to our knowledge base.

Logic will be said as non-monotonic if some conclusions can be

invalidated by adding more knowledge into our knowledge base.

Non-monotonic reasoning deals with incomplete and uncertain

models.

"Human perceptions for various things in daily life, "is a general

example of non-monotonic reasoning.

Example: Let suppose the knowledge base contains the following

knowledge:

o Birds can fly

o Penguins cannot fly
o Pitty is a bird
So from the above sentences, we can conclude that Pitty can fly.

However, if we add one another sentence into knowledge base "Pitty

is a penguin", which concludes "Pitty cannot fly", so it invalidates the
above conclusion.

Logical agent : Logical agents are those that reason logically. They are
the basis for many AI applications. They are able to draw inferences from
a set of premises. For example, a logical agent might be able to deduce
that all men are mortal, from the premises that Socrates is a man and
Socrates is mortal.

It deduces what to do from the knowledge base of words in a world with a

predetermined order of events. In the first step, we will look at the
immutable aspects of the world of Zeus before moving on to the mutable
aspects. These are general information about how the universe operates
combined with sentences from the agent’s experience in a specific reality to
form the knowledge base, and they are similar to axiosms. We assert for
both steps t and square at the same time. If we add the time step to the
knowledge base instead of the name of the object, we do so as part of the
CREATE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE method (as stated in the TIME-STEPS.
Percepts of wind, bumps, sparkle, and screams may also be considered.
By using location fluent, we can quickly and directly link stink and wind
percepts to the attributes of the squares where they are found.

The term representational frame problem is used to describe this specific

type of frame problem. A set of frame axioms, as represented by the
number o (mn), with m distinct actions and n fluents, is the order of the
actions and n fluents in a universe. It was clear from the moment the agent
began that the arrow remained in the agent’s possession, but we would
have to explicitly state that all of the remaining variables remained
unchanged. The representational frame problem has long been an area of
contention in AI research. The difficulty can be solved by shifting one’s
focus from writing actions to writing axioms about fluents. Each axiom for
each fluent describes the truth value of that fluent in terms of fluents
(including itself) at the time of the axiom.
Patterns propositional logic : Propositional logic (PL) is the
simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by
propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either
true or false. It is a technique of knowledge representation in logical
and mathematical form.

Example:
a) It is Sunday.
b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
d) 5 is a prime number.

Syntax of propositional logic:

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for

the knowledge representation. There are two types of Propositions:

a. Atomic Propositions

b. Compound propositions

o Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple

propositions. It consists of a single proposition symbol. These are
the sentences which must be either true or false.

Example:
a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by
combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and
logical connectives.

Example:
a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."
b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Following is the summarized table for Propositional

Logic Connectives:

Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of
propositions in all possible scenarios. We can combine all the possible
combination with logical connectives, and the representation of these
combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table. Following are
the truth table for all logical connectives:
Truth table with three propositions:
We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R.
This truth table is made-up of 8n Tuples as we have taken three
proposition symbols.