2.

Floral Diversity (30)

2.1 Introduction (1)
2.2 Fungi (3)
2.3 Lichen (1)
Unit:2

2.4 Algae (2)

2.5 Bryophyta (2)
2.6 Pteridophyta (2)
2.7 Gymnosperm (3)
2.8 Angiosperm (16)

2.2 Fungi (3)

▪ General introduction of fungi and characteristic features of phycomycetes,
ascomycetes, basidiomycetes and deuteromycetes;
▪ Structure and Reproduction of Mucor and Yeast;
▪ Introduction of Mushrooms, poisonous and non-poisonous mushrooms, Economic
importance of fungi.

General introduction of fungi

▪ According to five kingdoms classification system,
▪ Mycota is a kingdom which includes organism with eukaryotic type of cells,
multicellular body structure and heterotrophic mode a nutrition with
decomposers role in ecosystem.
▪ The branch of science that deals with study of fungi is called mycology
(Greek, mykos - Fungus and logos - study).
▪ The person which is specializes in the study of fungi is called mycologist.

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# General characteristics of mycota (Fungi).
▪ Fungi are large and diverse group of eukaryotic organism without chlorophyll.
▪ They are non-vascular, non-seeded, non- flowering, multicellular (except - Yeast)
organism.
▪ The body of fungi is thalloid i.e. body is not differentiated into root, stem and leaf.
▪ They have heterotrophic mode of nutrition that may be Saprophytic, Parasitic and
Symbiotic.
▪ The body is made of numerous filaments called hypha and the group of hypha is
called mycelium. The hyphae are of the types
➢ Aseptate hypha: The hyphae without septa or cross wall and contain many
nuclei. The aseptate multinucleate hyphae/mycelium is called coenocytic.
➢ Septate hypha: The hyphae having septa or cross wall and divided the hyphae
into segments. The segment may be a uninucleate or multinucleate

▪ Cell wall is made up of fungal cellulose or chitin.

▪ Reserve food materials is glycogen and oil. Starch is absent.
▪ Reproduction take place by vegetative, asexual and sexual method.
▪ Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation, budding, fission etc.
▪ Asexual reproductions take place by the formation of spores.
✓ Spore produces after meiosis is called meiospore. Example – Ascospores,
basidospores etc.
✓ The spore produce after mitosis is called mitospore. Examples – Zoospores,
Sporangospores (aplanospore), chlamydospore, oidia, conidia etc.

▪ Sexual reproduction takes place by Gametangial contact, Gametangial

copulation, Somatogamy etc.
▪ Sex organ are usually unicellular and non- jacketed.
▪ Embryo is not formed after fertilization.

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3
# Classification of Mycota (Fungi
The kingdom Mycota (Fungi) is classified into two divisions.
1. Myxomycotina
2. Eumycotina
Eumycotina are called true fungi which are classified on the basis of
• Organization of vegetative thallus,
• Morphology of reproductive structure,
• Way of spore production and
• Life cycle pattern
1. Phycomycetes,
2. Ascomycetes,
3. Basidiomycetes and
4. Deuteromycetes.

1. Phycomycetes (The Algal Fungi)

Phycomycetes are the most primitive or simplest type of fungi and is further
classified into oomycetes (oospore forming fungi) and zygomycetes (zygospore
forming fungi) sub class.

a. Oomycetes (Oogamous fungi)

➢ Oomycetes form diploid oospore after sexual reproduction.
They have following characters:
• They are mostly parasites.
• The body is unicellular, mycelium is aseptaed and multinucleated called
coenocytic.
• Asexual reproduction takes place by the formation of motile biflagellated
zoospores within the zoosporangium.
• Sexual reproduction is oogamous type (fussion of sperm and egg) that
takes place by gametangial contact and results in the formation of oospore
(2n).
• The flagellated gametes are not formed in higher forms.
• Albugo (=Custopus), Pythium, Plasmoporn, etc. are the examples of
oomycetes.

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b. Zygomycetes (The conjugating fungi)
➢ They are called zygomycetes due to the formation of a diploid zygospore after
sexual reproduction.
They have following characters:
• They are mostly found in saprophytic forms.
• The vegetative body is aseptate and multinucleated called coenocytic.
• The hyphal wall is made up of chitin.
• Flagellate structures are absent.
• Asexual reproduction commonly takes place by the formation of non-motile
spores within the sporangium called sporangiospores. Chlamydospores and
oidia may also formed.
• Sexual reproduction takes place by gametangial copulation or gametangial
conjugation
• Examples: Ruizopus, Mucor, Pilobolus etc.

2. Ascomycetes (The sac fungi)

➢ Ascomycota’s is a group of fungi that forms special type of sac called ascus
which enclose ascospores. This is the largest class of fungi.
They have following characters:
• They are mainly found in terrestrial habitat in saprophytic or parasitic form.
• Mycelium is branched and septate except Yeast (unicellular fungus).
• Cell wall is made up of chitin.
• Flagellate structures are absent.
• Vegetative reproduction takes place by budding, fission, fragmentation etc.
• Asexual reproduction takes place by non-motile spores like conidia, oidia
and chlamydospores.
• Sexual reproduction takes place by gametangial copulation, gametangial
contact, spermatization, somatogamy.
• Ascospores are formed in ascus after meiosis.
• Examples: Saccharomyces (Yeast), Pencillium, Morchella, Claviceps,
Neurospora, Erisyphe, etc.

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 3. Basidiomycetes (The club fungi)

➢ Basidiomycetes are a group of fungi having haploid basiospores developed in

basidium exogenously. This is the most advanced class of fungi.

They have following characters:

• They are mainly found in terrestrial habitat in saprophytic or parasitic form.

• Mycelium is branched and septate. They are two types: primary mycelium
and secondary mycelium.
• Primary mycelium consists of single haploid nucleus which is formed after
the germination of basidiospore. It is also called monokaryotic mycelium.
• Secondary mycelium is formed by the fusion of two primary mycelia of
opposite sexes. It consists of two nuclei in each cell. So, it is also called
dikaryotic mycelium.
• Cell wall is made up of chitin.
• They reproduce vegetative by fragmentation and asexually by conidia,
arthospores, uredospores, pycnispores, etc.
• The dikaiyotic cell is formed during sexual reproduction.
• Basidiospores are formed in club shaped basidia exogenously after meiosis.
• The basidia are grouped to form definite multicellular structure of fruiting
body called basidiocarp.
• Each basidiospre germinates and forms primary mycelium
• Examples: Agaricus, Amanita, Puccina, Ustilago, Lycoperdon, Pleurotus,
Ganoderma etc.

4. Deuteromycetes (The fungi imperfecti)

➢ Deuteromycetes are grouping of fungi that can not the show the process of
sexual reproduction. So, they are called imperfect fungi or fungi imperfecti.

They have following characteristics:

• They are found in terrestrial habitat in saprophytic or parasitic form.

• Mycelium is branched and septate.

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 • Cell wall is made up of chitin.
• Flagellate structures are absent.
• Sexual reproduction is totally absent.
• Reproduction takes place by fragmentation, arthospores, conidia, etc.
• Fruiting bodies are not formed.
• Examples: Cladosporium, Alternaria, Fusarium, etc.

# Structure and Reproduction of Mucor

Mucor
Classification of Mucor
Kingdom - Mycota
class - Zygomycetes
order - Mucorales
Family - Mucoraceae
Genus - Mucor
Common name - Black molud or Pin mould

Habitat of Mucor
➢ Mucor is saprophytic fungus growing generally on dead and decaying organic
matters like dung, pickles, bread, rotten fruits, leather and humus rich soil.

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Structure of Mucor
▪ The vegetative body of Mucor is composed of mass of white, delicate cottony
thread like structure called mycelium.
▪ Mycelium is long, slender, branched, aseptate and multinucleated structure. Such
type of mycelium is called coenocytic mycelium.
▪ Mycelium consists of Submerged (subterranean) or Rhizoidal hyphae, Prostrate
hyphae and Aerial hyphae.

1. Submerged (Subterranean) hyphae

▪ They are more branched hyphae that penetrate the substratum. They help in
fixation and absorption of soluble food.
2. Prostrate hyphae
▪ They are more branched hyphae that spread in all directions on the surface of
substratum.
3. Aerial hyphae or Sporangiophores
▪ They are vertically growing erect hyphae from the prostrate hyphae and bear
sporangia at their tip. They help in asexual reproduction.

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 ▪ The wall of hypha is made up of chitin and surrounded the cytoplasm.
▪ Cytoplasm consists of Golgi body, Mitochondria, Endoplasmic reticulum,
Ribosomes, Vacuoles and true Nucleus.
▪ Food reserve occurs in the form of glycogen and oil.

Reproduction of Mucor
Reproduction of Mucor takes place by vegetative, asexual and sexual method.
1. Vegetative reproduction
The vegetative plant body (hyphae) break into one or more fragments by accidentally or
its decay. Each of fragments germinates into new individuals under favorable condition.
2. Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction takes place by
▪ Sporangiospores
▪ Chlamydospores and
▪ Oidia
a. Sporangiospores
▪ They are minute, brownish black, multinucleate spores, produced in
sporangium. At maturity, the prostrate hyphae give erect aerial hyphae. This

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 is called sporangiophores. At the tip of each, sporangiophore, protoplasm is
collected and it swells up into a spherical sac called sporangium. The
peripheral protoplasm of sporangium is denser and central protoplasm is
vacuolated.
▪ The central vacuolated protoplasm produces a dome shaped structure called
columella. The columella functions for nutrient exchange between the active
protoplasm below and the developing spores inside the upper portion of the
sporangial head.
▪ The outer region with dense protoplasm undergoes cleavage and forms
multinucleate segments. Each segment rounds off and secretes a dark wall
around it. Now it is called sporangiospore.
▪ After maturity the sporangial wall breaks and the spores are liberated out.
Under suitable condition, the spore germinates and form hypha and then
mycelium.

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b.

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 b. Chlamydospore: (Thick-walled asexual resting spore)
During unfavorable conditions, the mature mycelium become septate and protoplasm of
hyphae accumulate to form a round and thick-walled structure known as
chlamydospore. During favorable condition, each chlamydospore germinates and form
hypha and then mycelium.

c. Oidia:
In liquid medium, rich in sugar, the hyphae to become septate. The cells round off and
separate to form oidia. These oidia increases in number by budding in Yeast like
fashion. This is called torula condition.

Sexual reproduction of Mucor

▪ Mucor shows sexual reproduction by isogamy that takes place by gametangial

copulation (Conjugation) during unfavorable condition.
▪ Mucor is heterothallic and consists of mycelia with two mating types + strain
(male) and – strain (female).
▪ At the time of sexual reproduction two hyphae of different strains come in contact
and become attached by small out growths. These out growth swell up at the
point of attachment by accumulating cytoplasm and nuclei to form short lateral
club-shape structure, the progametangia.

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 ▪ Each progametangia forms basal suspenser and terminal gametangia by means
of transverse wall. The gametangia have densely granular, multinucleate
protoplast, whereas the suspensor has a highly vacuolated protoplast with fewer
nuclei.
▪ At maturity the wall between two gametangia dissolves and their protoplast fuse
together to form diploid Zygospore.
▪ The zygospore is a large dark, thin walled warty (not smooth, rough) structure.

Germination of Zygospore

▪ During favourable condition the wall of zygospore rapture and endosporium

comes out in the form of vertical germ tube called promycelium. The tip of
promycelium swells up and form rounded germ sporangiums which produce non-
motile uninucleated haploid germspores.
▪ These germs are release out after breakage the germsporangium. These germ
spores are carried out by wind and reach to the suitable habitat. Each germ
spore germinates and first form hyphae and then mycelium.

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Economic importance of Mucor
▪ Mucor takes part in decaying organic matter in the soil and help to make soil
fertile.
▪ Some species of Mucor like Mucor javanicus are utilized in fermentation of
alcohol.
▪ Mucor mucedo is responsible for spoilage of jam, frozen meat, pickles and other
foodstuffs.
▪ Few Species like Mucor pusillus attacks human internal organ like alimenting
canal and lungs and caused mycosis.
▪ Many species of Mucor causing the rotting of fruits and vegetable.

# Structure and Reproduction of Yeast

Yeast (Unicellular Fungi)

Classification of Yeast
▪ Kingdom – Mycota (Fungi)
▪ Division - Ascomycota
▪ Class - Ascomycetes
▪ Order - Endomycetales
▪ Family - Saccharomycetaceae
▪ Genus – Saccharomyces
▪ Common name - Yeast

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Habitat
▪ Yeast is a saprophytic fungus which commonly found organic matter like flower
nectar, sugar solutions, surface of sweet, fruits, sugarcane juice, humus of soil
etc.
Vegetative Structure
▪ Yeast is non-mycelial unicellular fungi. In some cases, rapid budding result up to
many cell remaining in chain and look like mycelium called pseudomycelium.
▪ Each cell of Yeast is elliptical or rounded in shape.
▪ Cell wall is made up of chitin. Cell membrane is present inner to the call wall
which is lipoprotenous.
▪ Different cell organelles like mitochondria, ER, Golgi body, ribosomes etc. are
present in the cytoplasm but chloroplast is absent.
▪ Nucleus is attached at one end of large vacuole. Such type of vacuole is called
nuclear vacuole.
▪ Reserve food materials are present in the form of glycogen or fats.

Fig. – Cellular-structure of Yeast

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Reproduction
➢ Reproduction takes place by vegetation and sexual method.
Vegetative reproduction
➢ Vegetative reproduction takes place by budding and fission.
a. Budding
During this process the nucleus of mother cell divides to form two daughter
nuclei. A small protuberance appears on the surface a vegetative cell in the
form of bud. One of the daughter nuclei along with other cytoplasmic
contents passes into the bud. Wall formation occurs between bud and the
mother cell. Then the bud behaves as a new individual. During rapid growth,
the bud also gives bud while still attached to the mother cell. The results
short chains of bud are formed called as pseudo mycelium.

Fig. – Budding of Yeast

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b. Fission

During fission yeast elongates and its nucleus is divided amitotically to form two
daughter nuclei. Then a partition wall is formed at the middle of the cell and dividing
parent cell into the cell having nucleus.

Fig. – Fission of Yeast

Sexual Reproduction
In yeast distinct sex organ are absent. Conjugation is the sexual method of reproduction
during unfavorable condition. On the basis of type of vegetative cells involved in a
sexual reproduction and dominant phase in the life cycle, it is divided into three types.
1. Haplobiontic life cycles
The life cycle is characterized by long haploid (n) and short diploid (2n) phase.
2. Diplobiontic life cycles
The life cycle is characterized by long diploid (2n) and short haploid (n) phase.
3. Haplo- diplobiontic lifecycle
The life cycle is characterized by haploid (n) and diploid (2n) phase alternating regularly
in equal length.
1. Haplobiontic life cycles of Yeast

It occur in Schizosaccharomyces octosporus.

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In haplobiontic life cycle haploid phase is dominant than diploid phase. During this life
cycle two cells of similar size behave as gametangia and produce short beak like
protuberances. These come to contact and the contact wall dissolves forming a
continuous passage called conjugation tube. The nuclei of each cell pass into the
congugation tube and fusion occur between them. Two conjugating cells along with
conjugation tube form diploid zygote. It is directly functioning as ascus.

Then diploid nucleus undergoes into meiosis to form four haploid nuclei. They again
divide mitotically to form eight haploid nuclei. Cytoplasm gathers around each nucleus
and the resultant eight haploid protoplast develop into ascospores. The ascospore are
liberated out by breaking the wall of ascus and become independent yeast cell.

Fig. – Haplobiontic life cycles of Yeast

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 2. Diplobiontic life cycle of Yeast
Diplobiontic life cycle occur in Saccharomycodes ludwigii.
The somatic cells are diploid. These diploid somatic cells enlarge and function as ascus.
The nucleus of ascus undergoes meiosis division producing four haploid nuclei.
Cytoplasm gathers around each nucleus and four haploids ascospore are formed. This
is only the haploid stage of this life cycle. Ascospore, without liberating out function as
gamentagia and fuse within the ascus producing two diploid zygotes.
Zygote germinates by producing germ tube which pushes out through the ascus wall
forming sprout mycelium. From sprout mycelium diploid cells are budded off.

Fig. – Diplobiontic life cycles of Yeast

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 3. Haplo - diplobiontic life cycle of Yeast
Haplo - diplobiontic life cycle occur in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Baker’s yeast).
During life cycle, two haploid somatic cells unite to form diploid zygote. Zygote also
behaves as diploid somatic cell and multiplies by budding to produce number of diploid
somatic cells. Each of the diploid somatic cells behaves as ascus, nucleus divides
meiotically to produce four haploid nuclei. Each of these nuclei organizes into
ascospores. Ascospore on liberation from ascus multiplies by budding and produce
haploid somatic cells.

Fig. – Haplo- diplobiontic life cycles of Yeast

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Economic Importance of Yeast
1. Yeast of produce enzymes Zymase and invertase. These help to convert
carbohydrate into alcohol. So, Yeast are used in alcohol (brewing industries) as
they can ferment sugar solution resulting in the formation of alcohol.
2. Yeast is used in baking industry as it can make bread soft and porus.
3. Some Yeast is used to cure skin diseases.
4. Yeast can synthesize protein, fat and vitamin B complex, so they are used in
vitaminised food.
5. Many species of Yeast spoil cheese, tomato product and other food substance.
6. Some Yeast are parasites to higher plants and cause diseases to tomato, fruits,
beans, Cotton etc.
7. Several Yeast species are pathogenic to man and cause serious disease.
Example - Blastomycosis and Torulopiis which attack the Central Nervous
System and skin a man.

# Introduction of Mushrooms, poisonous and non-poisonous

mushrooms

Mushroom
▪ Mushroom is a saprophytic fungus with basidiocarp as a fruiting body and
forms basidiospores in basidium.
▪ It grows abundantly on humus soil, decaying organic matters of forest floors,
in the fields and lawns, wooden plugs, manure piles, moist straw, etc.

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Structure of Mushroom
The morphology of mushroom is studied in two headings:
▪ Vegetative mycelium living inside the soil
▪ Fruiting body or basidiocarp present above the soil.

1. Vegetative mycelium
➢ The mycelium of mushroom is branched multicellular and septate structure.
Vegetative mycelium is of two types: primary mycelium and secondary
mycelium.
Primary mycelium
➢ It originates by the germination of uninucleate basidiospores of either + ve or –
ve strain. It is short lived. Cells are monokaryotic.
Secondary mycelium
➢ After fusion of hyphae of two opposite strains of primary mycelia, the nucleus of
one hypha migrates to the other and forms bi -nucleate secondary mycelium. So,
it is dikaryotic. It is long lived.

2. Basidiocarp (Fruiting Body)

The mature fruiting body (basidiocarp) is differentiated into three parts: rhizomorph,
stipe and piles.

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1. Rhizomorph

It is made up of interwoven mass of secondary mycelium that lies below the substratum.
It is attached to the base of stipe.

2. Stipe

It is a stem like sterile part of basidiocarp which is attached to the rhizomorph towards
the lower side and piles towards the upper side. Hyphae run longitudinally parallel to
each other.

3. Pileus

It is the uppermost a broad fertile umbrella shaped cap like structure. Numerous strips
or plates of gills or lamellae are present on the lower side of pileus. It protects growing
basidiospore in the gills. The gills vary in number from 300 to 600 in each pileus.

Types of Mushrooms
Mushrooms are classified into two broad categories: Edible mushrooms and poisonous
mushrooms
1. Edible Mushroom
Edible mushroom species are those that do not cause health complications after their
consumption. Example Agaricus bisporus, Agaricus campestris, Pleurotus ostreatus,
Auricularia auricular-jude, Volvariella volvacea etc.
2. Poisonous Mushroom
Poisonous mushroom species are those that can cause health complications after their
consumption. They can lead to death within 3 to 6 days after ingestion. Mushroom
poisoning symptoms include dizziness, breathing problems, diarrhea, vomiting and
dehydration. As such symptoms, victim must be hospitalized as far as possible for
his/her proper treatment. Example- Amanita phalloides, Amanita virosa, Amanita
muscaria etc.

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Differences between the poisonous and non- poisonous mushrooms

Poisonous Mushrooms Non-poisonous Mushrooms

They are found under the shade of bushes They are found in open places.

They are usually colourful. They are usually white or dull in colour.

They are appear green or purple when cut. They do not stain green or purple when cut.

They burn or sting the tongue when tasted. They do not burn or sting the tongue when
tasted.
They give transparent juice when squeezed. They give milky juice when squeezed,

They have a pointed cap. They have flat with a rounded cap.

They have a cup-like vulva at the base. They have small and simple vulva.

Gills are attached to the stipe. Gills are not attached to the stipe.
They are also called toadstools. They are also called puffballs

They have a bad smell. They have a good smell.

They have scales in the cap. They do not have scales on the cap

They are harmful. They are biologically important.

Example- Amanita phalloides, Amanita Example - Agaricus bisporus, Agaricus

virosa, Amanita muscaria etc. campestris, Pleurotus ostreatus, Auricularia
auricular-jude, Volvariella volvacea etc.

# Economic Importance of Fungi

Fungi have both beneficial and harmful activities to human beings.
A. Useful activities
1. Fungi in medicine:
Many members of fungi like Penicillium produce antibiotics as penicillin.
Some antibiotics obtained from the species of various fungi are listed below:

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 Name of antibiotic Organism
Aspergillin Aspergillus niger
Penicillin Penicillium chrysogenum
▪ The extract of Aspergillus niger reduces pain and tumors.
▪ Yeast helps in the treatment of diabetes, since it contains insulin-like
substance.
▪ Some yeast has been found useful in the treatment of skin diseases.
2. Fungi in industry:
Different species of fungi are used in various kinds of industries:
a) In baking industry: Saccharomyces cerevisiae is called baking yeast, to
make it soft and spongy.
b) In brewery industry: Some yeasts like Saccharomyces ellipsoidens
bring about the alcoholic fermentation of sugar and produces alcohol and
beverages like beer, toddy, whisky, wines etc.
c) In cheese industry: Fungi like Aspergillus and Penicllium are commonly
used in cheese industry.
d) In enzyme production: Various kinds of enzymes are synthesized on
commercial scale utilizing fungi.
e) In the production of organic solvents: Yeast is used in the manufacture
of organic solvents such as acetic acid, lactic acid, glycerol etc.
3. Fungi as food
Mushroom and other fungi are mostly used as food. About 2,000 species of mushrooms
are known to edible. Some common species of fungi used as food are Agaricus
bisporus, Agaricus campestris, Pleurotus ostreatus etc.
4. Fungi in agriculture
Many fungi grow on organic matter, which are gradually decomposed by them. This
enhances the fertility of land after mixing it.
5. Fungi in study
Some fungi like Neurospora are exclusively used in different genetical studies.
B. Harmful activities of fungi
6. Fungi in food spoilage

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Several fungi are responsible for food spoilage.
a. Vegetables: Rhizopus nigricans spoils stored sweet potato. Yeast spoils
tomato.
b. Fruits: The rotting of fruits is caused by yeast, Mucor, Rhizopus,
Penicillium, Aspergillus etc.
c. Dairy products: Most of the dairy products are spoiled by different species
of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor etc.
7. Fungi cause plant diseases
Several fungi destroy many agricultural crops, fruits, nut plant, ornamental plants etc.
Some diseases and the fungal pathogens are given below.
Disease Causal organisms
Brown rust Puccinia recondita
Black or stem rust of wheat Puccinia gramini
Early blight of potato Alternaria solani
8. Fungi in timber destruction
Certain fungi like Polyporus spp, Fusarium nigundi and Fomes spp. cause
destruction of wood either in furniture and other materials or in standing trees.
9. Mushroom poisoning
Sometimes, poisonous mushrooms like Amanita phalloides, A. verna, A. virosa etc.
are mistakenly eaten by human and consequently the person dead.
10. Human diseases
A variety of fungi causes several diseases to humans and animals. Some species of
yeasts are responsible for serious diseases like a mental disorder blastomycosis,
torulosis, histoplasmosis, candidiasis etc.

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