Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 543–550

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Applications of variable speed drive (VSD) in electrical motors energy savings

R. Saidur a,∗ , S. Mekhilef b , M.B. Ali a , A. Safari b , H.A. Mohammed c
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Km 7, Jalan Kajang-Puchong, 43009 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Most motors are designed to operate at a constant speed and provide a constant output; however, mod-
Received 29 January 2011 ern technology requires different speeds in many applications where electric motors are used. A variable
Accepted 23 August 2011 speed drive (VSD) is a device that regulates the speed and rotational force, or output torque of mechan-
Available online 20 October 2011
ical equipment. Effects of applying VSDs are in both productivity improvements and energy savings in
pumps, fans, compressors and other equipment. Variable speed drive technology and the importance
Keywords:
of controlling the speed of existing motors have fascinated many attentions in the last years with the
Variable speed drive
advent of new power devices and magnetic materials. This paper is a comprehensive review on applica-
Electrical motors
Energy savings
tions of VSD in electrical motors energy savings. The aim is to identify energy saving opportunities and
Applications of VSD incorporated costs of applying variable speed drives to the existing applications of electrical motors. Sub-
sequently, economic analysis, payback period and the effect of current and voltage harmonics generated
by VSDs are presented. Authors are hopeful to provide useful information for future variable speed drive
applications like fans, pumps, chillers, ventilators and heaters.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
2. Methods of speed control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
2.1. Mechanical VSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
2.2. Hydraulic VSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
2.3. Electrical VSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
3. Variable speed drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
4. Components of VSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
4.1. Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
4.2. Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
4.3. Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
5. VSDs’ applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
5.1. Electrical motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
5.1.1. DC motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
5.1.2. AC motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
5.2. Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
5.3. Pumping systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
5.4. Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
5.5. Air compressor system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
6. Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
7. Installation costs of VSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
8. Energy savings through VSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
9. Quantification of energy savings through VSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
10. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 3 79674462; fax: +60 3 79675317.

E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (R. Saidur).

1364-0321/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.08.020
544 R. Saidur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 543–550

Nomenclature

VSD variable speed drive

DC direct current
AC alternating current
GHG greenhouse gas
ASD adjustable speed drive
Hp horsepower
PWM pulse width modulation
IGBT insulated gate bipolar transistor
HVAC heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
MOV motor operating value
EMS energy management control system Fig. 1. Adjustable sheave belt-type mechanical VSD [14].

losses affiliated with mechanical or electromechanical adjustable

1. Introduction
speed technologies and expensive energy-wasting. Other benefits
of VSDs include prolonging the life of the equipment, by adjusting
In the past years, various control methods has been employed
motor speed to meet load requirements. Generally, energy savings
to enhance the flexibility and consistency of manufacturing pro-
translate into cost savings and reduction in GHG emissions for a
cesses such as controlling the speed of the equipment, changing
given level of production [10].
gear ratios or pulleys, and using hydraulic drives [1]. In many cases,
motors are controlled by means of a valve that regulates the flow
of fuel or a vane that controls the airflow while the speed of the 2. Methods of speed control
motor itself remains unchanged. Conventional methods, such as
controlling motor by switching it on and off in two-speed motors VSDs and VFDs are electronic motor speed controllers that allow
are inefficient ways that wastes a huge amount of energy. One of the speed of any electric motor to be varied. Over the last decade,
the main reasons that make motor drives popular is that they save there have been substantial technological advancements in the
energy by changing the speed of an electrical motor and control field of variable speed drives. During this time, the market was
the power that is fed into the machine. Furthermore, using motor constantly driven by the desire to reduce the amount of power
drives reduce the amounts of carbon dioxide emissions by millions squandered by motors, centrifugal pumps and fans [3]. There are
tons per year [2]. several methods used in industrial sector that can be classified into
A variable speed drive (VSD) is a device that regulates the speed three main categories: electrical, hydraulic, and mechanical drives.
and rotational force, or output torque of mechanical equipment.
Some examples of mechanical equipment that incorporate with 2.1. Mechanical VSDs
VSD technology are pumps, fans, compressors and conveyors. There
are many types of equipment currently in use that needs to be Mechanical VSDs are still favored by many engineers for some
retrofitted because they are running inefficiently; however, man- applications due to simplicity and low cost. Mechanical variable
ufactures are introducing VSDs technology to save the losses of speed control has a number of methods including belt drives, idler
mechanical equipment [3]. VSD increases efficiency by allowing wheel drives, chain drive and gear box [6]. All of these methods
motors to be operated at the ideal speed for every load condition. exhibit similar characteristics. Motor operates at constant speed
In many applications VSDs reduce motor electricity consumption and the coupling ratio alters the speed of the driven load. Increasing
by 30–60%. The potential for electrical motor energy savings is the torque load on the output of the coupling device will increase
enormous since motor systems use more than 60% of the electrical the torque load on the motor [13,14].
power consumed by industry [2,4]. There are millions of motors in Mechanical variable speed control usually uses a belt drive
industries and offices around the world employed in a wide variety which is controlled by moving conical pulleys manually or with
of applications such as motors, pumps, conveyors, ski lifts, saw mills positioning motors as shown in Fig. 1 [14,15].
and hospital ventilation systems. They can effectively improve the
process efficiency particularly where flow control is involved.
Currently, VSD is the most effective controller and energy saver 2.2. Hydraulic VSDs
for mechanical machines in industries. Modern VSDs are afford-
able, reliable, flexible, and offer significant electrical energy savings Hydraulic coupling working principles are based on turbines.
through greatly reduced electric bills. Changing the volume of oil in the coupling will change the speed
Almost all the industrial processes require adjustment for nor- difference between the driving and driven shafts. Volume of the
mal operation and optimum performance. Such adjustments are oil is controlled with pumps and valves. There are two types of
usually accomplished with a VSD. They are an important part of hydraulic VSDs including hydraulic pump and motor, and fluid
automation and help to optimize the process while reducing invest- coupling [13,15].
ment costs, energy consumption, energy cost and greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions [5]. 2.3. Electrical VSDs
Most motors are designed to operate at a constant speed and
provide a constant output. The benefits of applying VSDs are in Typical electric VSD systems are consist of three basic compo-
both productivity improvements and energy savings in pumps, nents: the electric motor, the power converter, and the control
fans, compressors and other equipment [6–12]. VSDs installation system. The electric motor is connected directly or indirectly
increases energy efficiency, saves energy consumption, improve (through gears) to the load. The power converter controls the power
power factor and process precision, soft start up and over speed flow from an AC supply (often via a supply transformer), to the
capability. They also eliminate throttling mechanisms and frictional motor by appropriate control of power semiconductor switches
 R. Saidur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 543–550 545

Table 1
Potential savings from variable speed drives for fans and pumps [11,19].

Average percent Potential energy Annual energy Annual energy

speed reduction savings cost savings for cost savings for a
a 5 Hp motor 10 Hp motor

10% 22% USD272 USD543

20% 44% USD543 USD1087
30% 61% USD753 USD1506
40% 73% USD901 USD1806
Fig. 2. Electrical VSD basic components [5]. Variable speed drives (VSDs). 50% 83% USD1025 USD2050
60% 89% USD1099 USD2198

(part of the power converter). Fig. 2 is the block diagram of electrical Components of VSDs.
VSDs’ basic components.
speed can save a lot of energy. For example, reducing a fan’s speed
3. Variable speed drives by 20% can reduce its energy requirements by nearly 50%. Installing
a VSD on the fan motor allows the fan to automatically match this
Nowadays, technology requires different speeds in many appli- reduced capacity, slowing down in response to reduced demand,
cations where electric motors are used. Electric motors using thereby saving energy [7].
traditional control methods have mainly two states; stop and oper- The needs for speed and torque control are usually fairly obvi-
ate at maximum speed. In most motor installation, motors are sized ous. Modern electrical VSDs can be used to accurately maintain the
to provide the maximum power output required. If the rotational speed of a driven machine within ±0.1%, independent of load, com-
speed is constant at its maximum value to provide the maximum pared to the speed regulation possible with a conventional fixed
designed load, the power input to the motor remains constant at the speed squirrel cage induction motor, where the speed can vary by
maximum value. However, if the load decreases, significant energy as much as 3% from no load to full load.
savings can be achieved when the rotational speed of the motor is Most adjustable frequency drives today use pulse width mod-
decreased to match with the load requirement [16]. Nevertheless, ulation (PWM) to create a variable output voltage, current and
the majority of motors operate only at 100% speed for short periods frequency. Some examples of potential VSD savings are provided
of time. This often results in many systems operating inefficiently in Table 1.
during long periods of time. Consequently, there are significant
energy losses during the operation time. System loss reduction can 4. Components of VSDs
be achievable by installing VSD systems to match the speed of the
motor with the related load. VSD has become very popular because 4.1. Rectifier
of their advantages over traditional control methods. By using VSD,
the speed of a motor or generator can be controlled and adjusted to Rectifiers are used to convert alternative current (AC) to direct
any desired speed. Besides adjusting the speed of an electric motor, current (DC) [20]. There are two main topologies for medium power
VSD can also keep an electric motor speed at a constant level where rectifier units: the diode and the IGBT rectifiers. The diode recti-
the load is variable [17]. There are several terms used to describe fier (also known as the six-pulse uncontrolled rectifier) is the most
devices with capability of controlling the speed [8]: commonly used AC-to-DC power converter to produce a fixed DC
voltage. The power circuit of the rectifier consists of six power
1. Variable frequency drive (VFD) that uses power electronic com- diodes in a three-phase bridge configuration. This means the DC
ponents to control the motor speed by changing the frequency link voltage is fully depending on the AC supply voltage. Diode rec-
of input power of the motor. tifiers are non-linear loads and a non-sinusoidal current is taken
2. VSD that control the speed of either the motor or the equipment from the feeding line [10].
driven by the motor (fan, pump, compressor, etc.). This device
can be electrical or mechanical. 4.2. Regulator
3. Adjustable speed drives (ASD) are devices that use both mechan-
ical and electrical means to control the motor speed. Typically a regulator controls the VSD, enables exchange of data
between VSD and peripherals, gathers and reports fault messages
There are different reasons for using VSDs. Some applications, and carries out protective functions of the VSD [10,21].
such as paper making machines, cannot run without them while
others, such as centrifugal pumps, can benefit from energy savings. 4.3. Inverter
In general, VSDs are used to match the speed or torque of a drive
to the process requirements as well as save energy and improve Inverters generate an AC by sequentially switching a DC in alter-
efficiency [14]. nate directions through the load [22]. Nowadays, all inverters are
VSDs and VFDs are electronic devices, which match motor speed equipped with IGBT components. The structure of IGBT results in
to the required speed of the application [18]. The output voltage a lack of parasitic body diode. Therefore, the IGBT required a free-
and frequency are determined by input power of the motor. Most wheeling diode often placed across it. PWM control is widely used
motors can benefit from VSD to provide different frequency out- for control of the IGBT switches. PWM control consists in rapidly
puts; whether the speed of the drive is set manually by an operator switching on and off the IGBT switches in such a way that pulses
or automatically by a control system. with variable width constitute a variable waveform. The common
VSDs are an efficient and economical retrofit option that should circuit for variable speed drives is shown in Fig. 3 [10].
be considered for all variable speed systems. VSDs allow the motor
speed to vary depending on actual operating conditions, rather 5. VSDs’ applications
than operating continuously at full speed. Varying speed allows
it to match changing load requirements more closely, and because VSDs provide continuous control by matching motor speed
the power draw is proportional to the cube of its speed, reducing to the specific demands of work being performed. They are an
546 R. Saidur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 543–550

Speed variation from no-load to full load (rated) can be quite small.
It depends on the armature resistance [20,26].
In all applications of DC motors a mechanical switch or commu-
tator is employed to turn the terminal current, which is constant
or DC into alternating current in the armature of the machine. DC
motors have usually been applied in two broad types of applica-
tion. One of these categories is when the power source is DC such as
automobile motors. These motors drive fans for engine cooling and
passenger compartment ventilation to the engine starter motor.
Another reason for using DC motors is that torque-speed character-
Fig. 3. Rectifier–inverter AC variable speed drive circuit [10]. istic is easier to tailor than all of the AC motor categories. Therefore,
most traction and servo motors are using DC machines. For exam-
ple, motors for driving rail vehicles are exclusively DC machines
excellent choice for adjustable-speed drive users because they [27].
allow operators to fine-tune processes while reducing costs for DC motors are widely used in various applications due to sim-
energy and equipment maintenance [21,23,24]. plicity of construction and ease of controlling motor performance.
Nowadays, although the AC machines are the preferred choice, the
DC machines are still valued for their wide speed and torque range
5.1. Electrical motors
as well as high overall efficiency [13]. There are several advantages
for using DC motors including simplicity of design, high starting
Electrical motors convert electrical energy into mechanical
torque, near-linear performance, ease of controlling speed and low
energy. They play an important role as electromechanical energy
cost drives. On the other hand DC motors are bulky and expensive
is used in various manufacturing operations such as transporta-
and require high maintenance. They are not suitable to be used in
tion, material handling and most production processes. The ease
explosive or very clean environment or high-speed operations due
of controlling electrical motors provides a significant opportu-
to commutator and brushes [26,28].
nity in meeting user demands that include the need for flexibility
and precision, which is often the result of advances in technol-
5.1.2. AC motors
ogy within industry. Motors use approximately one third of the
AC motors work by setting up a magnetic field pattern that
electrical energy consumption in industrial sector. They have dom-
rotates with respect to the stator and then employing electro-
inated fixed speed applications for many years but with the help
magnetic forces to entrain the rotor in the rotating magnetic field
of VSDs they are also establishing themselves in controlled speed
pattern [27]. AC motors are simple, low cost, reliable and easily
applications [7]. The need for energy conservation in order to
replaceable with variety of mounting styles and many different
save the environment is also a key driver for improving efficiency
environmental enclosures. Nonetheless, they need expensive speed
when employing VSDs [13]. Improvement in motor efficiency offers
control, are unable to operate at low speeds, perform poor position-
major energy saving, reduces GHG emissions and decreases the
ing control and limited in range of applications [28].
payback time [9].
Electric motors’ efficiency is 90% and even more when running
5.2. Fans
at rated loads; however, they are not efficient at load-following or
part load operating. Conventional electric motors typically use 60%
An on-off switch is a simple method to control the amount of
to 80% of rated input energy; even when they run at less than 50%
time that fans are required to operate by continuously turn them
load. It is very important to select an electric motor with suitable
on and off; however, they are not common ways to control a pro-
power in order to work efficiently. In general, motors are chosen
cess since continues on and off switching decrease the motor’s
in high capacities to meet extra load demands which lead to inef-
lifetime considerably. Fans are the main part of a building’s ven-
ficient operation of motors at low load. Normally, motors operate
tilation system. Varying a fan’s speed allows it to match changing
more efficiently when they are performing at loads over 75% of
load requirements more closely, and because fan power draw is
rated load. In addition, power factor of motors decrease when oper-
proportional to the cube of its speed, reducing speed can save a lot
ating at loads lower than 50% of rated load. These kinds of motors
of energy [7].
waste a huge amount of energy because they have been chosen for
large power demands. They should be replaced with new suitable
5.3. Pumping systems
capacity motors. Hence energy saving motors should be preferred
when purchasing new motors [25]. Electric motors are generally
Pumping systems account for nearly 20% of the world’s energy
divided into two categories DC and AC motors.
consumption by electric motors and 25–50% of the total electrical
energy usage in industrial facilities. Significant opportunities exist
5.1.1. DC motors to reduce pumping system energy consumption through smart
DC motors extensively use VSDs and position control systems design, retrofitting, and operating practices. In particular, many
where good dynamic response and steady state performance are pumping applications with variable-duty requirements offer great
required [5]. DC motors are commonly used in industrial applica- potential for energy savings. The savings often go well beyond
tions because the speed–torque relationship can be varied to almost energy, and may include improved performance, reliability, and
any useful form for both DC motor and regeneration applications. reduced life cycle costs. Most existing systems require flow con-
DC motors are often applied where momentarily deliver of three trol of bypass lines, throttling valves, or pump speed adjustments
or more times of rated torque is required. DC motors feature a as shown in Fig. 4. The most efficient way is pump speed control.
speed, which can be controlled smoothly down to zero, immedi- When a pump’s speed is reduced, less energy is imparted to the
ately followed by acceleration in the opposite direction without fluid and less energy needs to be throttled or bypassed. Speed can
power circuit switching. They respond quickly to changes in con- be controlled in a number of ways, with the most popular type of
trol signals due to the DC motor’s high ratio of torque to inertia. The VSD [9]. There are many types of pump prime movers available such
speed of DC motor can simply be set by applying the proper voltage. as diesel engines and steam turbines, but the majority of pumps are
 R. Saidur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 543–550 547

Fig. 4. Pump schematic with traditional control [7].

driven by electric motors [20]. The schematic of pump using VSDs Fig. 6. Components of a variable speed drives [11].
is shown in Fig. 5.
Variable speed pumping has become more popular in recent 5.5. Air compressor system
years due to improvements in speed control technology for pumps
and the reduction in the initial cost of such devices [2]. A centrifugal Air compressor is the mechanical device that takes in ambient
pump runs with AC induction motor which is a single speed device air and increases its pressure. The compressed air system utilizes a
due to the fixed frequency of the applied power to the motor. VSD huge amount of electrical energy. Fig. 7 is a graph that shows the
allows the frequency of the power to be controlled and the speed running cost of a compressed air system is far higher than the cost of
of the motor’s shaft to be adjusted [29]. a compressor itself [35]. A VSD air compressor is an air compressor
that takes advantage of VSD technology. This type of compressor
uses a special drive to control the speed of the system, which in
5.4. Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems turn saves energy compared to a fixed speed system. VSD is the
most effective way to improve the compressors and compressed
Building ventilation systems are designed to operate at maxi- air systems. They provide energy savings of more than 30% in com-
mum load conditions; however, they operate at full load only for pressor applications [36,37]. The benefits of using VSD technology
short periods of time which results in inefficient operation during in compressors are reducing power cost, decreasing power surges
long periods of time. Most inefficient operations in buildings are (from starting AC motors), and delivering more constant pressure.
encountered in heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems However, the down side of this technology is the heavy expense and
that are normally sized to meet peak load conditions, which are sensitivity of drives to heat and moisture [38]. For many facilities
experienced only for short periods of day. The efficiency of such this is equivalent to thousands, or even hundreds of thousands of
systems can be improved by varying the capacity to match actual expenditures. A properly managed compressed air system can save
load requirements. In variable torque applications, the power con- energy, reduce maintenance, decrease downtime, increase produc-
sumption (to drive the pumps or fans) is related to the cube of the tion output, and improve product quality.
speed. The most common method is to modulate the speed of the
motors of pumps, fans and air conditioning systems to vary their 6. Harmonics
capacity using VSDs [30].
The load in HVAC systems varies throughout the day and from Current and voltage harmonics in the AC supply are created by
day to day. Typical HVAC systems run at partial-load conditions VSD (as a nonlinear load) connected on the power distribution sys-
during most of operation time. Therefore, methods of reducing the tem. Harmonics pollute the electric plant, which cause problems
output level to matches with demands are required [31]. According if harmonic level increases beyond a certain level. Harmonic cur-
to the study conducted by Nadel et al. [32], VSDs can save 15–40% of rents provide useless power [39,40]. The effects of harmonics are
energy in HVAC application. Qureshi and Tassou [33] have reviewed
the VSD in refrigeration application to reduce energy consumption.
VFDs are used to vary a pump and fan speed in HVAC systems
in buildings as it is shown in Fig. 6. In these applications, speed
control is used to regulate the flow of water or air because speed
adjustment is an energy efficient method to control the flow. Per-
formance of the VFDs has developed due to rapid improvements
in semiconductor technology such as improvement in electrical
characteristics, ability to handle higher power levels, easy program-
ming of desired control, steadily response, increasing reliability,
ruggedness and decreasing size of units [34].

Fig. 5. Pump schematic with variable speed drive [7]. Fig. 7. Cost components in a typical compressed air system [35].
548 R. Saidur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 543–550

overheating of transformers, cables, motors, generators, and

capacitors [8,11,41,42]. Large harmonics lead to increase factory
downtime and operating costs. There are significant changes in
waveform distortion at different speeds and torque levels in the
operation of VSDs. Current waveform distortion is injected back
into the power supply system creating several problems such as
increase in the electrical losses on the network side of the trans-
former, decrease efficiency of motor, nuisance tripping of circuit
breakers, malfunction or failure of electronic circuits, erroneous
reading of metering devices, de-rating of fuses as a result of addi-
tional heat generated, and decrease life expectancy of equipment
[24,39].
Current and the voltage harmonic distortion have devastating
effects on a power distribution system and its connected equip-
ment. Present methods to reduce harmonics are line reactors, multi
pulsed systems, tuned or broadband passive filters, and active
filters. They are often only moderately effective, too costly, and
Fig. 8. Relationship between motor power reduction and rated speed [35].
somewhat unreliable. The harmonic filter is an innovation in pas-
sive harmonic mitigation. It is an easy to apply harmonic filter
capable of reducing VSD harmonics with none of the inherent prob- The cost of an adjustable speed motor varies depending on the
lems of conventional filters [43]. A harmonic filter has various particular features and durability. Per-horsepower cost decreases
functions such as reducing neutral currents, transformer loading, significantly with size, from an average of about $640 per horse-
peak phase or average phase current, system losses and distribu- power for a 20 Hp application to about $150/ Hp for a 20,000 Hp
tion transformers while increasing system protection and capacity application [46]. As an example a 10 Hp, 460 V drive with line
[39]. reactor costs about $1300, while installation time, materials and
start-up costs over $500 [47].

7. Installation costs of VSDs 8. Energy savings through VSDs

Installation costs of VSDs are relatively expensive. The cost Employing VSD is the best way to reduce energy consumption of
ranges between $3000 for a 5 Hp motor and $45,000 for a custom- electrical motors. Energy consumption of electric motors constitute
engine 300 Hp motor. The costs increase drastically for larger up to 75% of total plant’s energy consumption. About two-thirds of
versions. VSD installation time takes 10–70 labor h, depending on the motors in industry are applied in fans and pumps which do not
system size and complexity; however, payback period ranges from need constant motor speeds [11]. A small change in motor speed
few months to less than 3 years for 25–250 Hp models. Each VSD can cause a significant change in energy consumption as shown in
is capable to drive more than one motor; hence some costs can be Fig. 8. Using VSD systems provide the opportunity to save about
consolidated. In addition, savings from reduced maintenance and 15–40% of the energy and extend equipment lifetime by allowing
longer equipment life contribute significantly to achieving a rapid gentle start-up and shutdown [35].
payback and long-term savings. Many electric utilities offer finan- Energy savings of motors when installing VSDs can be calculated
cial incentives to reduce the installation costs of VSD [44]. Table 2 from either Eq. (1) or (2) [48,49]:
shows the installation cost, cost savings and payback period of VSDs
[24,45]. AESVSD = n × P × 0.746 × Havg-usage × SSR (1)

Table 2
Installation cost, cost savings and payback period of VSDs [24,45].

Mfg. ASD estimated cost 200 Hp constant speed Additional costs of ASD purchase

6-Pulse 200-Hp drive $31,000 $20,000 $11,000

12-Pulse 200-Hp drive $46,000 $20,000 $26,000
6-Pulse 200-Hp drive $51,000 $20,000 $31,000
Plus rebate per installed ASD −$7200 $0 $7200
ASD post installation annual savings
Use motor operating value (MOV) vs. check valve −$2.500 $5000 $2500
Additional maintenance cost $0 $2000 $2000
Man-hours to adjust limit switch $0 $3600 $2000
Energy cost of maintaining flow set-point ($0.45 or $33,215 $42,705 $9490
$0.35 × 2000 cubic of water × 365 days)
Total of annual energy savings $17,590

Actual costs for installing an ASD 6-Pulse 12-Pulse 18-Pulse

Estimated costs of varying pulse ASDs $31,000 $46,000 $51,000

Less: rebate −$7200 −$7200 −$7200
Less: energy savings −$17,590 −$17,590 −$17,590
Net costs for installing an ASDs $6210 $21,210 $26,210

Estimated time to recoup remaining initial costs Number of years

6-Pulse 200-Hp drive-ASD $6210/$17,590 −0.4

12-Pulse 200-Hp drive-ASD $21,210/$17,590 −1.2
6-Pulse 200-Hp drive-ASD $26,210/$17,590 −1.5
 R. Saidur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 543–550 549

Table 3 Table 4
Incremental costs of VSDs [35,53]. Overview of energy savings potential for motor systems in the EU [60].

Motor power (Hp) Increment cost (US$) Savings potential (billion kWh/year)

3 2216 EU-15 EU-25 France Germany Italy UK

5 2461
45 50 8 10 7 6
7.5 3376
10 3349
15 4176
20 5316 Table 5
25 6123 Estimated technical savings in TWh by 2015 in industry and in the services sectors
30 6853 by using VSDs [41].

Industry type Savings (TWh) by VSDs

3 Basic chemistry 15.5

AESVSD = (1 − SSR ) × 100% (2) Food, beverage, and tobacco 8
Iron and steel 6.3
The annual cost savings is related to annual energy savings and Machinery and metal 6.4
price of the fuel. The annual bill savings of motor when using VSDs Non-metallic mineral 7.4
can be calculated using [50–52]: Paper and cardboard 15.4
Other industries 11.9
Annual Bill Savings (ABSVSD ) = ABSVSD × C (3) Total industry in EU 71
Total services 24.6
The payback period is the function of the incremental cost of
VSDs divided by the annual bill savings of VSDs in a particular year.
Incremental prices of VSDs are shown in Table 3 [35]. Thus Pay-
back period can be expressed mathematically from the following and power usage reduced by over 50% with no adverse effect on part
Equation: quality or tool life. Reducing the coolant system pressure resulted
in reducing the misting of the coolant, reducing the ventilation
Incremental cost (ICVSD ) requirements and cleaning costs. ASDs could also be used in draft
Payback period (years) = (4)
Annual bill savings (ABDVSD ) fans on coal-fired boilers, instead of dampers. The average electric-
It is estimated that replacing conventional motors with ity savings exceeded 60% annually [56–58].
adjustable speed motors in appropriate applications would result Yu and Chan [59] have reported load-based speed control for
in saving 41% of the energy used in industrial motors. Power con- all-variable speed chiller plants to optimize their environmental
sumption actually drops far more than the drop in motor speed, so performance. Thermodynamic-behavior of chiller system models
the savings can accumulate quickly. For example a 10% reduction has been developed and the environmental performance has been
in shaft speed results in a 27% decrease in power consumption [11]. assessed (in terms of annual electricity and water consumption)
for typical constant speed and all-variable speed chiller systems
9. Quantification of energy savings through VSDs operating for the cooling load of an office building. By applying
load-based speed control to the variable speed chiller plant, the
Study on quantification of energy savings of VSDs has been con- total annual electricity and water have been reduced by 19.7% and
ducted on San Francisco refinery. VFD installation on the primary 15.9%, respectively. In addition using VSDs has reduced power con-
feed and product transfer pumps saved energy by reducing losses sumption from 13,500 W to 365 W. Keulenaer et al. [60] has showed
through flow control valves. The result was 500,000 kWh/month the energy savings of VSDs in motor applications for European
energy saving, and the cost reduction shared by the refinery and countries. The results are presented in Table 4. Almeida et al. [61]
contractor from the variable speed pumps was D /$340,000. The have estimated energy savings for motors using VSDs for selected
total savings accounted for D /$750,000 [9]. industries. The results are presented in Table 5.
Lönnberg [54] has applied VSD in pumping systems in a hospi-
tal and has shown huge saving potentials as pumps in a hospital
10. Conclusions
have to operate 24 h for the whole week. It is estimated that
US$11,855/year can be saved using VSDs just for pumps in a hos-
VSDs are reliable and cost effective means to control the speed of
pital.
electrical motors. Installing VSDs on electrical motor applications
In another project at the metal plating facility in Burlington, Ver-
improves the efficiency of the systems and saves a huge amount of
mont; General Dynamics Armament Systems has installed ASDs
energy. They require little maintenance, provide the most energy
along with an energy management control system (EMS). As a
efficient capacity control, have the lowest starting current of any
result, electricity savings was around 443,332 kWh. The project
starter type, and reduce thermal and mechanical stresses on motors
implementation cost was around $99,400, and saved $68,600 annu-
and belts. In addition, they protect the motor while keep the pro-
ally, providing a simple payback period of 1.5 years. The installation
cess running, reduce pump failure caused by pump cavitations, and
also reduced CO2 emissions by 213,000 kg/year, improved overall
reduce maintenance on piping and valves. Applying VSDs to the
productivity, controllability, product quality, and reduced wear of
HVAC systems and compressed air provide excellent opportunities
equipment, thereby reducing future maintenance costs [55].
to reduce the energy consumptions. VSDs are an option to match
A study conducted in china by Nadel et al. [37] has evaluated the
the required loads thus savings energy and improve the economical
potential of energy saving through VSDs. The annual energy saving
features of motors.
has been recorded as high as 40 billion kWh annually. It was proved
that the percentage of energy savings in VSD applications typically
ranges from 20 to 40% and the payback period can be recovered in Acknowledgments
1–3 years.
Another example of using ASDs has been recorded in the pump- The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support
ing of machine coolant at an U.S. engine plant. Pressure at the from the Vice Chancellor, University of Malaya. This research was
pumps was reduced from 64 psi to 45 psi, average flow cut in half, carried under the High Impact Research Grant (HIRG) scheme.
550 R. Saidur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 543–550

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