WikipediaThe Free Encyclopedia

Search Wikipedia
Search
Donate
Create account
Log in

Contents hide
(Top)
Definition

Physical science

Life in the sea

Humans and the sea

Environmental issues

See also
Notes
References
External links
Sea

Article
Talk
Read
Edit
View history

Tools
Appearance hide
Text

Small

Standard

Large
Width

Standard

Wide
Color (beta)

Automatic

Light

Dark
Featured article
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article focuses on human experience, history, and culture of the collective
seas of Earth. For natural science aspects, see more at Ocean. For individual seas,
see List of seas on Earth. For other uses, see Sea (disambiguation) and The Sea
(disambiguation).

Atlantic Ocean near the Faroe Islands

A sea is a large body of salt water. There are particular seas and the sea. The sea
commonly refers to the ocean, the interconnected body of seawaters that spans most
of Earth. Particular seas are either marginal seas, second-order sections of the
oceanic sea (e.g. the Mediterranean Sea), or certain large, nearly landlocked
bodies of water.

The salinity of water bodies varies widely, being lower near the surface and the
mouths of large rivers and higher in the depths of the ocean; however, the relative
proportions of dissolved salts vary little across the oceans. The most abundant
solid dissolved in seawater is sodium chloride. The water also contains salts of
magnesium, calcium, potassium, and mercury, among other elements, some in minute
concentrations. A wide variety of organisms, including bacteria, protists, algae,
plants, fungi, and animals live in various marine habitats and ecosystems
throughout the seas. These range vertically from the sunlit surface and shoreline
to the great depths and pressures of the cold, dark abyssal zone, and in latitude
from the cold waters under polar ice caps to the warm waters of coral reefs in
tropical regions. Many of the major groups of organisms evolved in the sea and life
may have started there.

The ocean moderates Earth's climate and has important roles in the water, carbon,
and nitrogen cycles. The surface of water interacts with the atmosphere, exchanging
properties such as particles and temperature, as well as currents. Surface currents
are the water currents that are produced by the atmosphere's currents and its winds
blowing over the surface of the water, producing wind waves, setting up through
drag slow but stable circulations of water, as in the case of the ocean sustaining
deep-sea ocean currents. Deep-sea currents, known together as the global conveyor
belt, carry cold water from near the poles to every ocean and significantly
influence Earth's climate. Tides, the generally twice-daily rise and fall of sea
levels, are caused by Earth's rotation and the gravitational effects of the Moon
and, to a lesser extent, of the Sun. Tides may have a very high range in bays or
estuaries. Submarine earthquakes arising from tectonic plate movements under the
oceans can lead to destructive tsunamis, as can volcanoes, huge landslides, or the
impact of large meteorites.

The seas have been an integral element for humans throughout history and culture.
Humans harnessing and studying the seas have been recorded since ancient times and
evidenced well into prehistory, while its modern scientific study is called
oceanography and maritime space is governed by the law of the sea, with admiralty
law regulating human interactions at sea. The seas provide substantial supplies of
food for humans, mainly fish, but also shellfish, mammals and seaweed, whether
caught by fishermen or farmed underwater. Other human uses of the seas include
trade, travel, mineral extraction, power generation, warfare, and leisure
activities such as swimming, sailing, and scuba diving. Many of these activities
create marine pollution.

Definition
Further information: List of seas on Earth

Oceans and marginal seas as defined by the International Maritime Organization

The sea is the interconnected system of all the Earth's oceanic waters, including
the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Southern and Arctic Oceans.[1] However, the word
"sea" can also be used for many specific, much smaller bodies of seawater, such as
the North Sea or the Red Sea. There is no sharp distinction between seas and
oceans, though generally seas are smaller, and are often partly (as marginal seas
or particularly as a mediterranean sea) or wholly (as inland seas) enclosed by
land.[2] However, an exception to this is the Sargasso Sea which has no coastline
and lies within a circular current, the North Atlantic Gyre.[3]: 90 Seas are
generally larger than lakes and contain salt water, but the Sea of Galilee is a
freshwater lake.[4][a] The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea states
that all of the ocean is "sea".[8][9][b]

Legal definition
The law of the sea has at its centre the definition of the boundaries of the ocean,
clarifying its application in marginal seas. But what bodies of water other than
the sea the law applies to is being crucially negotiated in the case of the Caspian
Sea and its status as "sea", basically revolving around the issue of the Caspian
Sea about either being factually an oceanic sea or only a saline body of water and
therefore solely a sea in the sense of the common use of the word, like all other
saltwater lakes called sea.[citation needed]

Physical science

Composite images of the Earth created by NASA in 2001

Further information: Ocean § Physical properties, and Physical oceanography
Earth is the only known planet with seas of liquid water on its surface,[3]: 22
although Mars possesses ice caps and similar planets in other solar systems may
have oceans.[11] Earth's 1,335,000,000 cubic kilometers (320,000,000 cu mi) of sea
contain about 97.2 percent of its known water[12][c] and covers approximately 71
percent of its surface.[3]: 7 [17] Another 2.15% of Earth's water is frozen, found
in the sea ice covering the Arctic Ocean, the ice cap covering Antarctica and its
adjacent seas, and various glaciers and surface deposits around the world. The
remainder (about 0.65% of the whole) form underground reservoirs or various stages
of the water cycle, containing the freshwater encountered and used by most
terrestrial life: vapor in the air, the clouds it slowly forms, the rain falling
from them, and the lakes and rivers spontaneously formed as its waters flow again
and again to the sea.[12]

The scientific study of water and Earth's water cycle is hydrology; hydrodynamics
studies the physics of water in motion. The more recent study of the sea in
particular is oceanography. This began as the study of the shape of the ocean's
currents[18] but has since expanded into a large and multidisciplinary field:[19]
it examines the properties of seawater; studies waves, tides, and currents; charts
coastlines and maps the seabeds; and studies marine life.[20] The subfield dealing
with the sea's motion, its forces, and the forces acting upon it is known as
physical oceanography.[21] Marine biology (biological oceanography) studies the
plants, animals, and other organisms inhabiting marine ecosystems. Both are
informed by chemical oceanography, which studies the behavior of elements and
molecules within the oceans: particularly, at the moment, the ocean's role in the
carbon cycle and carbon dioxide's role in the increasing acidification of seawater.
Marine and maritime geography charts the shape and shaping of the sea, while marine
geology (geological oceanography) has provided evidence of continental drift and
the composition and structure of the Earth, clarified the process of sedimentation,
and assisted the study of volcanism and earthquakes.[19]

Seawater
Main article: Seawater
Global salinity map
Salinity map taken from the Aquarius Spacecraft. The rainbow colours represent
salinity levels: red = 40 ‰, purple = 30 ‰
Salinity
A characteristic of seawater is that it is salty. Salinity is usually measured in
parts per thousand (‰ or per mil), and the open ocean has about 35 grams (1.2 oz)
solids per litre, a salinity of 35 ‰. The Mediterranean Sea is slightly higher at
38 ‰,[22] while the salinity of the northern Red Sea can reach 41‰.[23] In
contrast, some landlocked hypersaline lakes have a much higher salinity, for
example, the Dead Sea has 300 grams (11 oz) dissolved solids per litre (300 ‰).

While the constituents of table salt (sodium and chloride) make up about 85 percent
of the solids in solution, there are also other metal ions such as magnesium and
calcium, and negative ions including sulphate, carbonate, and bromide. Despite
variations in the levels of salinity in different seas, the relative composition of
the dissolved salts is stable throughout the world's oceans.[24][25] Seawater is
too saline for humans to drink safely, as the kidneys cannot excrete urine as salty
as seawater.[26]

Major solutes in seawater (3.5% salinity)[25]

Solute Concentration (‰) % of total salts
Chloride 19.3 55
Sodium 10.8 30.6
Sulphate 2.7 7.7
Magnesium 1.3 3.7
Calcium 0.41 1.2
Potassium 0.40 1.1
Bicarbonate 0.10 0.4
Bromide 0.07 0.2
Carbonate 0.01 0.05
Strontium 0.01 0.04
Borate 0.01 0.01
Fluoride 0.001 <0.01
All other solutes <0.001 <0.01
Although the amount of salt in the ocean remains relatively constant within the
scale of millions of years, various factors affect the salinity of a body of water.
[27] Evaporation and by-product of ice formation (known as "brine rejection")
increase salinity, whereas precipitation, sea ice melt, and runoff from land reduce
it.[27] The Baltic Sea, for example, has many rivers flowing into it, and thus the
sea could be considered as brackish.[28] Meanwhile, the Red Sea is very salty due
to its high evaporation rate.[29]

Temperature
Sea temperature depends on the amount of solar radiation falling on its surface. In
the tropics, with the sun nearly overhead, the temperature of the surface layers
can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F) while near the poles the temperature in equilibrium
with the sea ice is about −2 °C (28 °F). There is a continuous circulation of water
in the oceans. Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics, and
the water becomes denser and sinks. The cold water moves back towards the equator
as a deep sea current, driven by changes in the temperature and density of the
water, before eventually welling up again towards the surface. Deep seawater has a
temperature between −2 °C (28 °F) and 5 °C (41 °F) in all parts of the globe.[30]

Seawater with a typical salinity of 35 ‰[31] has a freezing point of about −1.8 °C
(28.8 °F).[32] When its temperature becomes low enough, ice crystals form on the
surface. These break into small pieces and coalesce into flat discs that form a
thick suspension known as frazil. In calm conditions, this freezes into a thin flat
sheet known as nilas, which thickens as new ice forms on its underside. In more
turbulent seas, frazil crystals join into flat discs known as pancakes. These slide
under each other and coalesce to form floes. In the process of freezing, salt water
and air are trapped between the ice crystals. Nilas may have a salinity of 12–15 ‰,
but by the time the sea ice is one year old, this falls to 4–6 ‰.[33]

pH value
Further information: Ocean acidification and Seawater § pH value
Seawater is slightly alkaline and had an average pH of about 8.2 over the past 300
million years.[34] More recently, climate change has resulted in an increase of the
carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; about 30–40% of the added CO2 is absorbed
by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and lowering the pH (now below 8.1[34])
through a process called ocean acidification.[35][36][37] The extent of further
ocean chemistry changes, including ocean pH, will depend on climate change
mitigation efforts taken by nations and their governments.[38]

Oxygen concentration
Further information: Ocean deoxygenation and Ocean stratification
The amount of oxygen found in seawater depends primarily on the plants growing in
it. These are mainly algae, including phytoplankton, with some vascular plants such
as seagrasses. In daylight, the photosynthetic activity of these plants produces
oxygen, which dissolves in the seawater and is used by marine animals. At night,
photosynthesis stops, and the amount of dissolved oxygen declines. In the deep sea,
where insufficient light penetrates for plants to grow, there is very little
dissolved oxygen. In its absence, organic material is broken down by anaerobic
bacteria producing hydrogen sulphide.[39]

Climate change is likely to reduce levels of oxygen in surface waters since the
solubility of oxygen in water falls at higher temperatures.[40] Ocean deoxygenation
is projected to increase hypoxia by 10%, and triple suboxic waters (oxygen
concentrations 98% less than the mean surface concentrations), for each 1 °C of
upper-ocean warming.[41]

Light
The amount of light that penetrates the sea depends on the angle of the sun, the
weather conditions and the turbidity of the water. Much light gets reflected at the
surface, and red light gets absorbed in the top few metres. Yellow and green light
reach greater depths, and blue and violet light may penetrate as deep as 1,000
metres (3,300 ft). There is insufficient light for photosynthesis and plant growth
beyond a depth of about 200 metres (660 ft).[42]

Sea level
Main articles: Sea level and Sea level rise
See also: Sea surface height
Over most of geologic time, the sea level has been higher than it is today.[3]: 74
The main factor affecting sea level over time is the result of changes in the
oceanic crust, with a downward trend expected to continue in the very long term.
[43] At the last glacial maximum, some 20,000 years ago, the sea level was about
125 metres (410 ft) lower than in present times (2012).[44]

For at least the last 100 years, sea level has been rising at an average rate of
about 1.8 millimetres (0.071 in) per year.[45] Most of this rise can be attributed
to an increase in the temperature of the sea due to climate change, and the
resulting slight thermal expansion of the upper 500 metres (1,600 ft) of water.
Additional contributions, as much as one quarter of the total, come from water
sources on land, such as melting snow and glaciers and extraction of groundwater
for irrigation and other agricultural and human needs.[46]

Waves
Duration: 13 seconds.0:13
Movement of molecules as waves pass
Diagram showing wave approaching shore
When the wave enters shallow water, it slows down and its amplitude (height)
increases.
Main article: Wind wave
Wind blowing over the surface of a body of water forms waves that are perpendicular
to the direction of the wind. The friction between air and water caused by a gentle
breeze on a pond causes ripples to form. A strong blow over the ocean causes larger
waves as the moving air pushes against the raised ridges of water. The waves reach
their maximum height when the rate at which they are travelling nearly matches the
speed of the wind. In open water, when the wind blows continuously as happens in
the Southern Hemisphere in the Roaring Forties, long, organised masses of water
called swell roll across the ocean.[3]: 83–84 [47][48][d] If the wind dies down, the
wave formation is reduced, but already-formed waves continue to travel in their
original direction until they meet land. The size of the waves depends on the
fetch, the distance that the wind has blown over the water and the strength and
duration of that wind. When waves meet others coming from different directions,
interference between the two can produce broken, irregular seas.[47] Constructive
interference can cause individual (unexpected) rogue waves much higher than normal.
[49] Most waves are less than 3 m (10 ft) high[49] and it is not unusual for strong
storms to double or triple that height;[50] offshore construction such as wind
farms and oil platforms use metocean statistics from measurements in computing the
wave forces (due to for instance the hundred-year wave) they are designed against.
[51] Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above 25 meters (82 ft).
[52][53]

The top of a wave is known as the crest, the lowest point between waves is the
trough and the distance between the crests is the wavelength. The wave is pushed
across the surface of the sea by the wind, but this represents a transfer of energy
and not a horizontal movement of water. As waves approach land and move into
shallow water, they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may
bend (refraction) or wrap rocks and headlands (diffraction). When the wave reaches
a point where its deepest oscillations of the water contact the seabed, they begin
to slow down. This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves'
height, which is called wave shoaling. When the ratio of the wave's height to the
water depth increases above a certain limit, it "breaks", toppling over in a mass
of foaming water.[49] This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into
the sea under the influence of gravity.[47]

Tsunami
Main article: Tsunami
Tsunami in Thailand
The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Thailand
A tsunami is an unusual form of wave caused by an infrequent powerful event such as
an underwater earthquake or landslide, a meteorite impact, a volcanic eruption or a
collapse of land into the sea. These events can temporarily lift or lower the
surface of the sea in the affected area, usually by a few feet. The potential
energy of the displaced seawater is turned into kinetic energy, creating a shallow
wave, a tsunami, radiating outwards at a velocity proportional to the square root
of the depth of the water and which therefore travels much faster in the open ocean
than on a continental shelf.[54] In the deep open sea, tsunamis have wavelengths of
around 80 to 300 miles (130 to 480 km), travel at speeds of over 600 miles per hour
(970 km/h)[55] and usually have a height of less than three feet, so they often
pass unnoticed at this stage.[56] In contrast, ocean surface waves caused by winds
have wavelengths of a few hundred feet, travel at up to 65 miles per hour (105
km/h) and are up to 45 feet (14 metres) high.[56]

As a tsunami moves into shallower water its speed decreases, its wavelength
shortens and its amplitude increases enormously,[56] behaving in the same way as a
wind-generated wave in shallow water but on a vastly greater scale. Either the
trough or the crest of a tsunami can arrive at the coast first.[54] In the former
case, the sea draws back and leaves subtidal areas close to the shore exposed which
provides a useful warning for people on land.[57] When the crest arrives, it does
not usually break but rushes inland, flooding all in its path. Much of the
destruction may be caused by the flood water draining back into the sea after the
tsunami has struck, dragging debris and people with it. Often several tsunami are
caused by a single geological event and arrive at intervals of between eight
minutes and two hours. The first wave to arrive on shore may not be the biggest or
most destructive.[54]
Currents
Main article: Ocean current
Map showing surface currents
Surface currents: red–warm, blue–cold
Wind blowing over the surface of the sea causes friction at the interface between
air and sea. Not only does this cause waves to form, but it also makes the surface
seawater move in the same direction as the wind. Although winds are variable, in
any one place they predominantly blow from a single direction and thus a surface
current can be formed. Westerly winds are most frequent in the mid-latitudes while
easterlies dominate the tropics.[58] When water moves in this way, other water
flows in to fill the gap and a circular movement of surface currents known as a
gyre is formed. There are five main gyres in the world's oceans: two in the
Pacific, two in the Atlantic and one in the Indian Ocean. Other smaller gyres are
found in lesser seas and a single gyre flows around Antarctica. These gyres have
followed the same routes for millennia, guided by the topography of the land, the
wind direction and the Coriolis effect. The surface currents flow in a clockwise
direction in the Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
The water moving away from the equator is warm, and that flowing in the reverse
direction has lost most of its heat. These currents tend to moderate the Earth's
climate, cooling the equatorial region and warming regions at higher latitudes.[59]
Global climate and weather forecasts are powerfully affected by the world ocean, so
global climate modelling makes use of ocean circulation models as well as models of
other major components such as the atmosphere, land surfaces, aerosols and sea ice.
[60] Ocean models make use of a branch of physics, geophysical fluid dynamics, that
describes the large-scale flow of fluids such as seawater.[61]

Map showing the global conveyor belt

The global conveyor belt shown in blue with warmer surface currents in red
Surface currents only affect the top few hundred metres of the sea, but there are
also large-scale flows in the ocean depths caused by the movement of deep water
masses. A main deep ocean current flows through all the world's oceans and is known
as the thermohaline circulation or global conveyor belt. This movement is slow and
is driven by differences in density of the water caused by variations in salinity
and temperature.[62] At high latitudes the water is chilled by the low atmospheric
temperature and becomes saltier as sea ice crystallizes out. Both these factors
make it denser, and the water sinks. From the deep sea near Greenland, such water
flows southwards between the continental landmasses on either side of the Atlantic.
When it reaches the Antarctic, it is joined by further masses of cold, sinking
water and flows eastwards. It then splits into two streams that move northwards
into the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Here it is gradually warmed, becomes less
dense, rises towards the surface and loops back on itself. It takes a thousand
years for this circulation pattern to be completed.[59]

Besides gyres, there are temporary surface currents that occur under specific
conditions. When waves meet a shore at an angle, a longshore current is created as
water is pushed along parallel to the coastline. The water swirls up onto the beach
at right angles to the approaching waves but drains away straight down the slope
under the effect of gravity. The larger the breaking waves, the longer the beach
and the more oblique the wave approach, the stronger is the longshore current.[63]
These currents can shift great volumes of sand or pebbles, create spits and make
beaches disappear and water channels silt up.[59] A rip current can occur when
water piles up near the shore from advancing waves and is funnelled out to sea
through a channel in the seabed. It may occur at a gap in a sandbar or near a man-
made structure such as a groyne. These strong currents can have a velocity of 3 ft
(0.9 m) per second, can form at different places at different stages of the tide
and can carry away unwary bathers.[64] Temporary upwelling currents occur when the
wind pushes water away from the land and deeper water rises to replace it. This
cold water is often rich in nutrients and creates blooms of phytoplankton and a
great increase in the productivity of the sea.[59]

Tides
Main article: Tide
Diagram showing how the sun and moon cause tides
High tides (blue) at the nearest and furthest points of the Earth from the Moon
Tides are the regular rise and fall in water level experienced by seas and oceans
in response to the gravitational influences of the Moon and the Sun, and the
effects of the Earth's rotation. During each tidal cycle, at any given place the
water rises to a maximum height known as "high tide" before ebbing away again to
the minimum "low tide" level. As the water recedes, it uncovers more and more of
the foreshore, also known as the intertidal zone. The difference in height between
the high tide and low tide is known as the tidal range or tidal amplitude.[65][66]

Most places experience two high tides each day, occurring at intervals of about 12
hours and 25 minutes. This is half the 24 hours and 50 minute period that it takes
for the Earth to make a complete revolution and return the Moon to its previous
position relative to an observer. The Moon's mass is some 27 million times smaller
than the Sun, but it is 400 times closer to the Earth.[67] Tidal force or tide-
raising force decreases rapidly with distance, so the moon has more than twice as
great an effect on tides as the Sun.[67] A bulge is formed in the ocean at the
place where the Earth is closest to the Moon because it is also where the effect of
the Moon's gravity is stronger. On the opposite side of the Earth, the lunar force
is at its weakest and this causes another bulge to form. As the Moon rotates around
the Earth, so do these ocean bulges move around the Earth. The gravitational
attraction of the Sun is also working on the seas, but its effect on tides is less
powerful than that of the Moon, and when the Sun, Moon and Earth are all aligned
(full moon and new moon), the combined effect results in the high "spring tides".
In contrast, when the Sun is at 90° from the Moon as viewed from Earth, the
combined gravitational effect on tides is less causing the lower "neap tides".[65]

A storm surge can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a
shallow area and this, coupled with a low-pressure system, can raise the surface of
the sea at high tide dramatically.

Ocean basins
Main article: Ocean basin

Three types of plate boundary

The Earth is composed of a magnetic central core, a mostly liquid mantle and a hard
rigid outer shell (or lithosphere), which is composed of the Earth's rocky crust
and the deeper mostly solid outer layer of the mantle. On land the crust is known
as the continental crust while under the sea it is known as the oceanic crust. The
latter is composed of relatively dense basalt and is some five to ten kilometres
(three to six miles) thick. The relatively thin lithosphere floats on the weaker
and hotter mantle below and is fractured into a number of tectonic plates.[68] In
mid-ocean, magma is constantly being thrust through the seabed between adjoining
plates to form mid-oceanic ridges and here convection currents within the mantle
tend to drive the two plates apart. Parallel to these ridges and nearer the coasts,
one oceanic plate may slide beneath another oceanic plate in a process known as
subduction. Deep trenches are formed here and the process is accompanied by
friction as the plates grind together. The movement proceeds in jerks which cause
earthquakes, heat is produced and magma is forced up creating underwater mountains,
some of which may form chains of volcanic islands near to deep trenches. Near some
of the boundaries between the land and sea, the slightly denser oceanic plates
slide beneath the continental plates and more subduction trenches are formed. As
they grate together, the continental plates are deformed and buckle causing
mountain building and seismic activity.[69][70]
The Earth's deepest trench is the Mariana Trench which extends for about 2,500
kilometres (1,600 miles) across the seabed. It is near the Mariana Islands, a
volcanic archipelago in the West Pacific. Its deepest point is 10.994 kilometres
(nearly 7 miles) below the surface of the sea.[71]

Coasts
Main article: Coast

Seaside in Budelli, Italy. Budelli beach is famous for the color of its sand, which
is pink due to the presence of fragments of a microorganism called Miniacina
miniacea.[72]

Praia da Marinha in Algarve, Portugal

The zone where land meets sea is known as the coast and the part between the lowest
spring tides and the upper limit reached by splashing waves is the shore. A beach
is the accumulation of sand or shingle on the shore.[73] A headland is a point of
land jutting out into the sea and a larger promontory is known as a cape. The
indentation of a coastline, especially between two headlands, is a bay, a small bay
with a narrow inlet is a cove and a large bay may be referred to as a gulf.[74]
Coastlines are influenced by several factors including the strength of the waves
arriving on the shore, the gradient of the land margin, the composition and
hardness of the coastal rock, the inclination of the off-shore slope and the
changes of the level of the land due to local uplift or submergence. Normally,
waves roll towards the shore at the rate of six to eight per minute and these are
known as constructive waves as they tend to move material up the beach and have
little erosive effect. Storm waves arrive on shore in rapid succession and are
known as destructive waves as the swash moves beach material seawards. Under their
influence, the sand and shingle on the beach is ground together and abraded. Around
high tide, the power of a storm wave impacting on the foot of a cliff has a
shattering effect as air in cracks and crevices is compressed and then expands
rapidly with release of pressure. At the same time, sand and pebbles have an
erosive effect as they are thrown against the rocks. This tends to undercut the
cliff, and normal weathering processes such as the action of frost follows, causing
further destruction. Gradually, a wave-cut platform develops at the foot of the
cliff and this has a protective effect, reducing further wave-erosion.[73]

Material worn from the margins of the land eventually ends up in the sea. Here it
is subject to attrition as currents flowing parallel to the coast scour out
channels and transport sand and pebbles away from their place of origin. Sediment
carried to the sea by rivers settles on the seabed causing deltas to form in
estuaries. All these materials move back and forth under the influence of waves,
tides and currents.[73] Dredging removes material and deepens channels but may have
unexpected effects elsewhere on the coastline. Governments make efforts to prevent
flooding of the land by the building of breakwaters, seawalls, dykes and levees and
other sea defences. For instance, the Thames Barrier is designed to protect London
from a storm surge,[75] while the failure of the dykes and levees around New
Orleans during Hurricane Katrina created a humanitarian crisis in the United
States.

Water cycle
Main article: Water cycle
The sea plays a part in the water or hydrological cycle, in which water evaporates
from the ocean, travels through the atmosphere as vapour, condenses, falls as rain
or snow, thereby sustaining life on land, and largely returns to the sea.[76] Even
in the Atacama Desert, where little rain ever falls, dense clouds of fog known as
the camanchaca blow in from the sea and support plant life.[77]

In central Asia and other large land masses, there are endorheic basins which have
no outlet to the sea, separated from the ocean by mountains or other natural
geologic features that prevent the water draining away. The Caspian Sea is the
largest one of these. Its main inflow is from the River Volga, there is no outflow
and the evaporation of water makes it saline as dissolved minerals accumulate. The
Aral Sea in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, and Pyramid Lake in the western United
States are further examples of large, inland saline water-bodies without drainage.
Some endorheic lakes are less salty, but all are sensitive to variations in the
quality of the inflowing water.[78]

Carbon cycle
Further information: Oceanic carbon cycle and Biological pump
Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in the world and are
second only to the lithosphere in the amount of carbon they store.[79] The oceans'
surface layer holds large amounts of dissolved organic carbon that is exchanged
rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's concentration of dissolved inorganic
carbon is about 15 percent higher than that of the surface layer[80] and it remains
there for much longer periods of time.[81] Thermohaline circulation exchanges
carbon between these two layers.[79]

Carbon enters the ocean as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the surface
layers and is converted into carbonic acid, carbonate, and bicarbonate:[82]

CO2 (gas) ⇌ CO2 (aq)

CO2 (aq) + H2O ⇌ H2CO3
H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3− + H+
HCO3− ⇌ CO32− + H+
It can also enter through rivers as dissolved organic carbon and is converted by
photosynthetic organisms into organic carbon. This can either be exchanged
throughout the food chain or precipitated into the deeper, more carbon-rich layers
as dead soft tissue or in shells and bones as calcium carbonate. It circulates in
this layer for long periods of time before either being deposited as sediment or
being returned to surface waters through thermohaline circulation.[81]

Life in the sea

Main article: Marine life

Coral reefs are among the most biodiverse habitats in the world.
Marine habitats
Coastal habitats
Littoral zoneIntertidal zoneEstuariesMangrove forestsSeagrass meadowsKelp
forestsCoral reefsContinental shelfNeritic zone
Ocean surface
Surface microlayerEpipelagic zone
Open ocean
Pelagic zoneOceanic zone
Sea floor
SeamountsHydrothermal ventsCold seepsDemersal zoneBenthic zoneMarine sediment
vte
The oceans are home to a diverse collection of life forms that use it as a habitat.
Since sunlight illuminates only the upper layers, the major part of the ocean
exists in permanent darkness. As the different depth and temperature zones each
provide habitat for a unique set of species, the marine environment as a whole
encompasses an immense diversity of life.[83] Marine habitats range from surface
water to the deepest oceanic trenches, including coral reefs, kelp forests,
seagrass meadows, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky seabeds, and the open pelagic
zone. The organisms living in the sea range from whales 30 metres (98 feet) long to
microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton, fungi, and bacteria. Marine life plays
an important part in the carbon cycle as photosynthetic organisms convert dissolved
carbon dioxide into organic carbon and it is economically important to humans for
providing fish for use as food.[84][85]: 204–229
Life may have originated in the sea and all the major groups of animals are
represented there. Scientists differ as to precisely where in the sea life arose:
the Miller-Urey experiments suggested a dilute chemical "soup" in open water, but
more recent suggestions include volcanic hot springs, fine-grained clay sediments,
or deep-sea "black smoker" vents, all of which would have provided protection from
damaging ultraviolet radiation which was not blocked by the early Earth's
atmosphere.[3]: 138–140

Marine habitats
Main article: Marine habitats
Marine habitats can be divided horizontally into coastal and open ocean habitats.
Coastal habitats extend from the shoreline to the edge of the continental shelf.
Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though the shelf area occupies
only 7 percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep
ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf. Alternatively, marine habitats can
be divided vertically into pelagic (open water), demersal (just above the seabed)
and benthic (sea bottom) habitats. A third division is by latitude: from polar seas
with ice shelves, sea ice and icebergs, to temperate and tropical waters.[3]: 150–
151

Coral reefs, the so-called "rainforests of the sea", occupy less than 0.1 percent
of the world's ocean surface, yet their ecosystems include 25 percent of all marine
species.[86] The best-known are tropical coral reefs such as Australia's Great
Barrier Reef, but cold water reefs harbour a wide array of species including corals
(only six of which contribute to reef formation).[3]: 204–207 [87]

Algae and plants

See also: Marine primary production
Marine primary producers – plants and microscopic organisms in the plankton – are
widespread and very essential for the ecosystem. It has been estimated that half of
the world's oxygen is produced by phytoplankton.[88][89] About 45 percent of the
sea's primary production of living material is contributed by diatoms.[90] Much
larger algae, commonly known as seaweeds, are important locally; Sargassum forms
floating drifts, while kelp form seabed forests.[85]: 246–255 Flowering plants in
the form of seagrasses grow in "meadows" in sandy shallows,[91] mangroves line the
coast in tropical and subtropical regions[92] and salt-tolerant plants thrive in
regularly inundated salt marshes.[93] All of these habitats are able to sequester
large quantities of carbon and support a biodiverse range of larger and smaller
animal life.[94]

Light is only able to penetrate the top 200 metres (660 ft) so this is the only
part of the sea where plants can grow.[42] The surface layers are often deficient
in biologically active nitrogen compounds. The marine nitrogen cycle consists of
complex microbial transformations which include the fixation of nitrogen, its
assimilation, nitrification, anammox and denitrification.[95] Some of these
processes take place in deep water so that where there is an upwelling of cold
waters, and also near estuaries where land-sourced nutrients are present, plant
growth is higher. This means that the most productive areas, rich in plankton and
therefore also in fish, are mainly coastal.[3]: 160–163

Animals and other marine life

A thornback cowfish
There is a broader spectrum of higher animal taxa in the sea than on land, many
marine species have yet to be discovered and the number known to science is
expanding annually.[96] Some vertebrates such as seabirds, seals and sea turtles
return to the land to breed but fish, cetaceans and sea snakes have a completely
aquatic lifestyle and many invertebrate phyla are entirely marine. In fact, the
oceans teem with life and provide many varying microhabitats.[96] One of these is
the surface film which, even though tossed about by the movement of waves, provides
a rich environment and is home to bacteria, fungi, microalgae, protozoa, fish eggs
and various larvae.[97]

The pelagic zone contains macro- and microfauna and myriad zooplankton which drift
with the currents. Most of the smallest organisms are the larvae of fish and marine
invertebrates which liberate eggs in vast numbers because the chance of any one
embryo surviving to maturity is so minute.[98] The zooplankton feed on
phytoplankton and on each other and form a basic part of the complex food chain
that extends through variously sized fish and other nektonic organisms to large
squid, sharks, porpoises, dolphins and whales.[99] Some marine creatures make large
migrations, either to other regions of the ocean on a seasonal basis or vertical
migrations daily, often ascending to feed at night and descending to safety by day.
[100] Ships can introduce or spread invasive species through the discharge of
ballast water or the transport of organisms that have accumulated as part of the
fouling community on the hulls of vessels.[101]

The demersal zone supports many animals that feed on benthic organisms or seek
protection from predators and the seabed provides a range of habitats on or under
the surface of the substrate which are used by creatures adapted to these
conditions. The tidal zone with its periodic exposure to the dehydrating air is
home to barnacles, molluscs and crustaceans. The neritic zone has many organisms
that need light to flourish. Here, among algal-encrusted rocks live sponges,
echinoderms, polychaete worms, sea anemones and other invertebrates. Corals often
contain photosynthetic symbionts and live in shallow waters where light penetrates.
The extensive calcareous skeletons they extrude build up into coral reefs which are
an important feature of the seabed. These provide a biodiverse habitat for reef-
dwelling organisms. There is less sea life on the floor of deeper seas but marine
life also flourishes around seamounts that rise from the depths, where fish and
other animals congregate to spawn and feed. Close to the seabed live demersal fish
that feed largely on pelagic organisms or benthic invertebrates.[102] Exploration
of the deep sea by submersibles revealed a new world of creatures living on the
seabed that scientists had not previously known to exist. Some like the detrivores
rely on organic material falling to the ocean floor. Others cluster round deep sea
hydrothermal vents where mineral-rich flows of water emerge from the seabed,
supporting communities whose primary producers are sulphide-oxidising
chemoautotrophic bacteria, and whose consumers include specialised bivalves, sea
anemones, barnacles, crabs, worms and fish, often found nowhere else.[3]: 212 A
dead whale sinking to the bottom of the ocean provides food for an assembly of
organisms which similarly rely largely on the actions of sulphur-reducing bacteria.
Such places support unique biomes where many new microbes and other lifeforms have
been discovered.[103]

Humans and the sea

History of navigation and exploration
Main articles: History of navigation, History of cartography, Maritime history,
Ancient maritime history, and Ocean exploration

Map showing the seaborne migration and expansion of the Austronesians beginning at
around 3000 BC
Humans have travelled the seas since they first built sea-going craft.
Mesopotamians were using bitumen to caulk their reed boats and, a little later,
masted sails.[104] By c. 3000 BC, Austronesians on Taiwan had begun spreading into
maritime Southeast Asia.[105] Subsequently, the Austronesian "Lapita" peoples
displayed great feats of navigation, reaching out from the Bismarck Archipelago to
as far away as Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa.[106] Their descendants continued to travel
thousands of miles between tiny islands on outrigger canoes,[107] and in the
process they found many new islands, including Hawaii, Easter Island (Rapa Nui),
and New Zealand.[108]

The Ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians explored the Mediterranean and Red Sea with
the Egyptian Hannu reaching the Arabian Peninsula and the African Coast around 2750
BC.[109] In the first millennium BC, Phoenicians and Greeks established colonies
throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.[110] Around 500 BC, the
Carthaginian navigator Hanno left a detailed periplus of an Atlantic journey that
reached at least Senegal and possibly Mount Cameroon.[111][112] In the early
Mediaeval period, the Vikings crossed the North Atlantic and even reached the
northeastern fringes of North America.[113] Novgorodians had also been sailing the
White Sea since the 13th century or before.[114] Meanwhile, the seas along the
eastern and southern Asian coast were used by Arab and Chinese traders.[115] The
Chinese Ming Dynasty had a fleet of 317 ships with 37,000 men under Zheng He in the
early fifteenth century, sailing the Indian and Pacific Oceans.[3]: 12–13 In the
late fifteenth century, Western European mariners started making longer voyages of
exploration in search of trade. Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in
1487 and Vasco da Gama reached India via the Cape in 1498. Christopher Columbus
sailed from Cadiz in 1492, attempting to reach the eastern lands of India and Japan
by the novel means of travelling westwards. He made landfall instead on an island
in the Caribbean Sea and a few years later, the Venetian navigator John Cabot
reached Newfoundland. The Italian Amerigo Vespucci, after whom America was named,
explored the South American coastline in voyages made between 1497 and 1502,
discovering the mouth of the Amazon River.[3]: 12–13 In 1519 the Portuguese
navigator Ferdinand Magellan led the Spanish Magellan-Elcano expedition which would
be the first to sail around the world.[3]: 12–13

Mercator's map of the world

Gerardus Mercator's 1569 world map. The coastline of the old world is quite
accurately depicted, unlike that of the Americas. Regions in high latitudes
(Arctic, Antarctic) are greatly enlarged on this projection.
As for the history of navigational instrument, a compass was first used by the
ancient Greeks and Chinese to show where north lies and the direction in which the
ship is heading. The latitude (an angle which ranges from 0° at the equator to 90°
at the poles) was determined by measuring the angle between the Sun, Moon or a
specific star and the horizon by the use of an astrolabe, Jacob's staff or sextant.
The longitude (a line on the globe joining the two poles) could only be calculated
with an accurate chronometer to show the exact time difference between the ship and
a fixed point such as the Greenwich Meridian. In 1759, John Harrison, a clockmaker,
designed such an instrument and James Cook used it in his voyages of exploration.
[116] Nowadays, the Global Positioning System (GPS) using over thirty satellites
enables accurate navigation worldwide.[116]

With regards to maps that are vital for navigation, in the second century, Ptolemy
mapped the whole known world from the "Fortunatae Insulae", Cape Verde or Canary
Islands, eastward to the Gulf of Thailand. This map was used in 1492 when
Christopher Columbus set out on his voyages of discovery.[117] Subsequently,
Gerardus Mercator made a practical map of the world in 1538, his map projection
conveniently making rhumb lines straight.[3]: 12–13 By the eighteenth century
better maps had been made and part of the objective of James Cook on his voyages
was to further map the ocean. Scientific study has continued with the depth
recordings of the Tuscarora, the oceanic research of the Challenger voyages (1872–
1876), the work of the Scandinavian seamen Roald Amundsen and Fridtjof Nansen, the
Michael Sars expedition in 1910, the German Meteor expedition of 1925, the
Antarctic survey work of Discovery II in 1932, and others since.[19] Furthermore,
in 1921, the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) was set up, and it
constitutes the world authority on hydrographic surveying and nautical charting.
[118] A fourth edition draft was published in 1986 but so far several naming
disputes (such as the one over the Sea of Japan) have prevented its ratification.
History of oceanography and deep sea exploration
Main article: Deep-sea exploration
Scientific oceanography began with the voyages of Captain James Cook from 1768 to
1779, describing the Pacific with unprecedented precision from 71 degrees South to
71 degrees North.[3]: 14 John Harrison's chronometers supported Cook's accurate
navigation and charting on two of these voyages, permanently improving the standard
attainable for subsequent work.[3]: 14 Other expeditions followed in the nineteenth
century, from Russia, France, the Netherlands and the United States as well as
Britain.[3]: 15 On HMS Beagle, which provided Charles Darwin with ideas and
materials for his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, the ship's captain, Robert
FitzRoy, charted the seas and coasts and published his four-volume report of the
ship's three voyages in 1839.[3]: 15 Edward Forbes's 1854 book, Distribution of
Marine Life argued that no life could exist below around 600 metres (2,000 feet).
This was proven wrong by the British biologists W. B. Carpenter and C. Wyville
Thomson, who in 1868 discovered life in deep water by dredging.[3]: 15 Wyville
Thompson became chief scientist on the Challenger expedition of 1872–1876, which
effectively created the science of oceanography.[3]: 15

On her 68,890-nautical-mile (127,580 km) journey round the globe, HMS Challenger
discovered about 4,700 new marine species, and made 492 deep sea soundings, 133
bottom dredges, 151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature
observations.[119] In the southern Atlantic in 1898/1899, Carl Chun on the Valdivia
brought many new life forms to the surface from depths of over 4,000 metres (13,000
ft). The first observations of deep-sea animals in their natural environment were
made in 1930 by William Beebe and Otis Barton who descended to 434 metres (1,424
ft) in the spherical steel Bathysphere.[120] This was lowered by cable but by 1960
a self-powered submersible, Trieste developed by Jacques Piccard, took Piccard and
Don Walsh to the deepest part of the Earth's oceans, the Mariana Trench in the
Pacific, reaching a record depth of about 10,915 metres (35,810 ft),[121] a feat
not repeated until 2012 when James Cameron piloted the Deepsea Challenger to
similar depths.[122] An atmospheric diving suit can be worn for deep sea
operations, with a new world record being set in 2006 when a US Navy diver
descended to 2,000 feet (610 m) in one of these articulated, pressurized suits.
[123]

At great depths, no light penetrates through the water layers from above and the
pressure is extreme. For deep sea exploration it is necessary to use specialist
vehicles, either remotely operated underwater vehicles with lights and cameras or
crewed submersibles. The battery-operated Mir submersibles have a three-person crew
and can descend to 20,000 feet (6,100 m). They have viewing ports, 5,000-watt
lights, video equipment and manipulator arms for collecting samples, placing probes
or pushing the vehicle across the sea bed when the thrusters would stir up
excessive sediment.[124]

Bathymetry is the mapping and study of the topography of the ocean floor. Methods
used for measuring the depth of the sea include single or multibeam echosounders,
laser airborne depth sounders and the calculation of depths from satellite remote
sensing data. This information is used for determining the routes of undersea
cables and pipelines, for choosing suitable locations for siting oil rigs and
offshore wind turbines and for identifying possible new fisheries.[125]

Ongoing oceanographic research includes marine lifeforms, conservation, the marine

environment, the chemistry of the ocean, the studying and modelling of climate
dynamics, the air-sea boundary, weather patterns, ocean resources, renewable
energy, waves and currents, and the design and development of new tools and
technologies for investigating the deep.[126] Whereas in the 1960s and 1970s,
research could focus on taxonomy and basic biology, in the 2010s, attention has
shifted to larger topics such as climate change.[127] Researchers make use of
satellite-based remote sensing for surface waters, with research ships, moored
observatories and autonomous underwater vehicles to study and monitor all parts of
the sea.[128]

Law
"Freedom of the seas" is a principle in international law dating from the
seventeenth century. It stresses freedom to navigate the oceans and disapproves of
war fought in international waters.[129] Today, this concept is enshrined in the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the third version of
which came into force in 1994. Article 87(1) states: "The high seas are open to all
states, whether coastal or land-locked." Article 87(1) (a) to (f) gives a non-
exhaustive list of freedoms including navigation, overflight, the laying of
submarine cables, building artificial islands, fishing and scientific research.
[129] The safety of shipping is regulated by the International Maritime
Organization. Its objectives include developing and maintaining a regulatory
framework for shipping, maritime safety, environmental concerns, legal matters,
technical co-operation and maritime security.[130]

UNCLOS defines various areas of water. "Internal waters" are on the landward side
of a baseline and foreign vessels have no right of passage in these. "Territorial
waters" extend to 12 nautical miles (22 kilometres; 14 miles) from the coastline
and in these waters, the coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use and
exploit any resource. A "contiguous zone" extending a further 12 nautical miles
allows for hot pursuit of vessels suspected of infringing laws in four specific
areas: customs, taxation, immigration and pollution. An "exclusive economic zone"
extends for 200 nautical miles (370 kilometres; 230 miles) from the baseline.
Within this area, the coastal nation has sole exploitation rights over all natural
resources. The "continental shelf" is the natural prolongation of the land
territory to the continental margin's outer edge, or 200 nautical miles from the
coastal state's baseline, whichever is greater. Here the coastal nation has the
exclusive right to harvest minerals and also living resources "attached" to the
seabed.[129]

War
Main article: Naval warfare
Battle of Gibraltar
Naval warfare: The explosion of the Spanish flagship during the Battle of
Gibraltar, 25 April 1607 by Cornelis Claesz van Wieringen, formerly attributed to
Hendrik Cornelisz Vroom
Control of the sea is important to the security of a maritime nation, and the naval
blockade of a port can be used to cut off food and supplies in time of war. Battles
have been fought on the sea for more than 3,000 years. In about 1210 B.C.,
Suppiluliuma II, the king of the Hittites, defeated and burned a fleet from
Alashiya (modern Cyprus).[131] In the decisive 480 B.C. Battle of Salamis, the
Greek general Themistocles trapped the far larger fleet of the Persian king Xerxes
in a narrow channel and attacked vigorously, destroying 200 Persian ships for the
loss of 40 Greek vessels.[132] At the end of the Age of Sail, the British Royal
Navy, led by Horatio Nelson, broke the power of the combined French and Spanish
fleets at the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar.[133]

With steam and the industrial production of steel plate came greatly increased
firepower in the shape of the dreadnought battleships armed with long-range guns.
In 1905, the Japanese fleet decisively defeated the Russian fleet, which had
travelled over 18,000 nautical miles (33,000 km), at the Battle of Tsushima.[134]
Dreadnoughts fought inconclusively in the First World War at the 1916 Battle of
Jutland between the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet and the Imperial German Navy's High
Seas Fleet.[135] In the Second World War, the British victory at the 1940 Battle of
Taranto showed that naval air power was sufficient to overcome the largest
warships,[136] foreshadowing the decisive sea-battles of the Pacific War including
the Battles of the Coral Sea, Midway, the Philippine Sea, and the climactic Battle
of Leyte Gulf, in all of which the dominant ships were aircraft carriers.[137][138]

Submarines became important in naval warfare in World War I, when German

submarines, known as U-boats, sank nearly 5,000 Allied merchant ships,[139]
including the RMS Lusitania, which helped to bring the United States into the war.
[140] In World War II, almost 3,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats attempting to
block the flow of supplies to Britain,[141] but the Allies broke the blockade in
the Battle of the Atlantic, which lasted the whole length of the war, sinking 783
U-boats.[142] Since 1960, several nations have maintained fleets of nuclear-powered
ballistic missile submarines, vessels equipped to launch ballistic missiles with
nuclear warheads from under the sea. Some of these are kept permanently on patrol.
[143][144]

Travel
Sailing ships or packets carried mail overseas, one of the earliest being the Dutch
service to Batavia in the 1670s.[145] These added passenger accommodation, but in
cramped conditions. Later, scheduled services were offered but the time journeys
took depended much on the weather. When steamships replaced sailing vessels, ocean-
going liners took over the task of carrying people. By the beginning of the
twentieth century, crossing the Atlantic took about five days and shipping
companies competed to own the largest and fastest vessels. The Blue Riband was an
unofficial accolade given to the fastest liner crossing the Atlantic in regular
service. The Mauretania held the title with 26.06 knots (48.26 km/h) for twenty
years from 1909.[146] The Hales Trophy, another award for the fastest commercial
crossing of the Atlantic, was won by the United States in 1952 for a crossing that
took three days, ten hours and forty minutes.[147]

The great liners were comfortable but expensive in fuel and staff. The age of the
trans-Atlantic liners waned as cheap intercontinental flights became available. In
1958, a regular scheduled air service between New York and Paris taking seven hours
doomed the Atlantic ferry service to oblivion. One by one the vessels were laid up,
some were scrapped, others became cruise ships for the leisure industry and still
others floating hotels.[148]

Trade
Main articles: Shipping and Trade
Map showing shipping routes
Shipping routes, showing relative density of commercial shipping around the world
Maritime trade has existed for millennia. The Ptolemaic dynasty had developed trade
with India using the Red Sea ports, and in the first millennium BC, the Arabs,
Phoenicians, Israelites and Indians traded in luxury goods such as spices, gold,
and precious stones.[149] The Phoenicians were noted sea traders and under the
Greeks and Romans, commerce continued to thrive. With the collapse of the Roman
Empire, European trade dwindled but it continued to flourish among the kingdoms of
Africa, the Middle East, India, China and southeastern Asia.[150] From the 16th to
the 19th centuries, over a period of 400 years, about 12–13 million Africans were
shipped across the Atlantic to be sold as slaves in the Americas as part of the
Atlantic slave trade.[151][152]: 194

Large quantities of goods are transported by sea, especially across the Atlantic
and around the Pacific Rim. A major trade route passes through the Pillars of
Hercules, across the Mediterranean and the Suez Canal to the Indian Ocean and
through the Straits of Malacca; much trade also passes through the English Channel.
[153] Shipping lanes are the routes on the open sea used by cargo vessels,
traditionally making use of trade winds and currents. Over 60 percent of the
world's container traffic is conveyed on the top twenty trade routes.[154]
Increased melting of Arctic ice since 2007 enables ships to travel the Northwest
Passage for some weeks in summertime, avoiding the longer routes via the Suez Canal
or the Panama Canal.[155]
Shipping is supplemented by air freight, a more expensive process mostly used for
particularly valuable or perishable cargoes. Seaborne trade carries more than US$4
trillion worth of goods each year.[156] Bulk cargo in the form of liquids, powder
or particles are carried loose in the holds of bulk carriers and include crude oil,
grain, coal, ore, scrap metal, sand and gravel.[157] Other cargo, such as
manufactured goods, is usually transported within standard-sized, lockable
containers, loaded on purpose-built container ships at dedicated terminals.[158]
Before the rise of containerization in the 1960s, these goods were loaded,
transported and unloaded piecemeal as break-bulk cargo. Containerization greatly
increased the efficiency and decreased the cost of moving goods by sea, and was a
major factor leading to the rise of globalization and exponential increases in
international trade in the mid-to-late 20th century.[159]

Food
Main articles: Fishing, Whaling, Seal hunting, and Seaweed farming
Factory ship
German factory ship, 92 metres (302 ft) long
Fish and other fishery products are among the most widely consumed sources of
protein and other essential nutrients.[160] In 2009, 16.6% of the world's intake of
animal protein and 6.5% of all protein consumed came from fish.[160] In order to
fulfill this need, coastal countries have exploited marine resources in their
exclusive economic zone, although fishing vessels are increasingly venturing
further afield to exploit stocks in international waters.[161] In 2011, the total
world production of fish, including aquaculture, was estimated to be 154 million
tonnes, of which most was for human consumption.[160] The harvesting of wild fish
accounted for 90.4 million tonnes, while annually increasing aquaculture
contributes the rest.[160] The north west Pacific is by far the most productive
area with 20.9 million tonnes (27 percent of the global marine catch) in 2010.[160]
In addition, the number of fishing vessels in 2010 reached 4.36 million, whereas
the number of people employed in the primary sector of fish production in the same
year amounted to 54.8 million.[160]

Modern fishing vessels include fishing trawlers with a small crew, stern trawlers,
purse seiners, long-line factory vessels and large factory ships which are designed
to stay at sea for weeks, processing and freezing great quantities of fish. The
equipment used to capture the fish may be purse seines, other seines, trawls,
dredges, gillnets and long-lines and the fish species most frequently targeted are
herring, cod, anchovy, tuna, flounder, mullet, squid and salmon. Overexploitation
has become a serious concern; it does not only cause the depletion of fish stocks,
but also substantially reduce the size of predatory fish populations.[162] It has
been estimated that "industrialized fisheries typically reduced community biomass
by 80% within 15 years of exploitation."[162] In order to avoid overexploitation,
many countries have introduced quotas in their own waters.[163] However, recovery
efforts often entail substantial costs to local economies or food provision.

Fishing boat
Fishing boat in Sri Lanka
Artisan fishing methods include rod and line, harpoons, skin diving, traps, throw
nets and drag nets. Traditional fishing boats are powered by paddle, wind or
outboard motors and operate in near-shore waters. The Food and Agriculture
Organization is encouraging the development of local fisheries to provide food
security to coastal communities and help alleviate poverty.[164]

Aquaculture
Main article: Aquaculture
About 79 million tonnes (78M long tons; 87M short tons) of food and non-food
products were produced by aquaculture in 2010, an all-time high. About six hundred
species of plants and animals were cultured, some for use in seeding wild
populations. The animals raised included finfish, aquatic reptiles, crustaceans,
molluscs, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sea squirts and jellyfish.[160] Integrated
mariculture has the advantage that there is a readily available supply of
planktonic food in the ocean, and waste is removed naturally.[165] Various methods
are employed. Mesh enclosures for finfish can be suspended in the open seas, cages
can be used in more sheltered waters or ponds can be refreshed with water at each
high tide. Shrimps can be reared in shallow ponds connected to the open sea.[166]
Ropes can be hung in water to grow algae, oysters and mussels. Oysters can be
reared on trays or in mesh tubes. Sea cucumbers can be ranched on the seabed.[167]
Captive breeding programmes have raised lobster larvae for release of juveniles
into the wild resulting in an increased lobster harvest in Maine.[168] At least 145
species of seaweed – red, green, and brown algae – are eaten worldwide, and some
have long been farmed in Japan and other Asian countries; there is great potential
for additional algaculture.[169] Few maritime flowering plants are widely used for
food but one example is marsh samphire which is eaten both raw and cooked.[170] A
major difficulty for aquaculture is the tendency towards monoculture and the
associated risk of widespread disease. Aquaculture is also associated with
environmental risks; for instance, shrimp farming has caused the destruction of
important mangrove forests throughout southeast Asia.[171]

Leisure
Main articles: Cruising (maritime), Sailing, and Recreational boat fishing
Use of the sea for leisure developed in the nineteenth century, and became a
significant industry in the twentieth century.[172] Maritime leisure activities are
varied, and include beachgoing, cruising, yachting, powerboat racing[173] and
fishing;[174] commercially organized voyages on cruise ships;[175] and trips on
smaller vessels for ecotourism such as whale watching and coastal birdwatching.
[176]

Scuba diver
Scuba diver with face mask, fins and underwater breathing apparatus
Sea bathing became the vogue in Europe in the 18th century after William Buchan
advocated the practice for health reasons.[177] Surfing is a sport in which a wave
is ridden by a surfer, with or without a surfboard. Other marine water sports
include kite surfing, where a power kite propels a rider on a board across the
water,[178] windsurfing, where the power is provided by a fixed, manoeuvrable
sail[179] and water skiing, where a powerboat is used to pull a skier.[180]

Beneath the surface, freediving is necessarily restricted to shallow descents.

Pearl divers can dive to 40 feet (12 m) with baskets to collect oysters.[181] Human
eyes are not adapted for use underwater but vision can be improved by wearing a
diving mask. Other useful equipment includes fins and snorkels, and scuba equipment
allows underwater breathing and hence a longer time can be spent beneath the
surface.[182] The depths that can be reached by divers and the length of time they
can stay underwater is limited by the increase of pressure they experience as they
descend and the need to prevent decompression sickness as they return to the
surface. Recreational divers restrict themselves to depths of 100 feet (30 m)
beyond which the danger of nitrogen narcosis increases. Deeper dives can be made
with specialised equipment and training.[182]

Industry
Power generation
Main articles: Marine energy and Offshore wind power
The sea offers a very large supply of energy carried by ocean waves, tides,
salinity differences, and ocean temperature differences which can be harnessed to
generate electricity.[183] Forms of sustainable marine energy include tidal power,
ocean thermal energy and wave power.[183][184] Electricity power stations are often
located on the coast or beside an estuary so that the sea can be used as a heat
sink. A colder heat sink enables more efficient power generation, which is
important for expensive nuclear power plants in particular.[185]

Barrage for tidal power

Tidal power: the 1 km Rance Tidal Power Station in Brittany generates 0.5 GW.
Tidal power uses generators to produce electricity from tidal flows, sometimes by
using a dam to store and then release seawater. The Rance barrage, 1 kilometre
(0.62 mi) long, near St Malo in Brittany opened in 1967; it generates about 0.5 GW,
but it has been followed by few similar schemes.[3]: 111–112

The large and highly variable energy of waves gives them enormous destructive
capability, making affordable and reliable wave machines problematic to develop. A
small 2 MW commercial wave power plant, "Osprey", was built in Northern Scotland in
1995 about 300 metres (980 feet) offshore. It was soon damaged by waves, then
destroyed by a storm.[3]: 112

Offshore wind power is captured by wind turbines placed out at sea; it has the
advantage that wind speeds are higher than on land, though wind farms are more
costly to construct offshore.[186] The first offshore wind farm was installed in
Denmark in 1991,[187] and the installed capacity of worldwide offshore wind farms
reached 34 GW in 2020, mainly situated in Europe.[188]

Extractive industries
Main articles: Offshore drilling and Deep sea mining
The seabed contains large reserves of minerals which can be exploited by dredging.
This has advantages over land-based mining in that equipment can be built at
specialised shipyards and infrastructure costs are lower. Disadvantages include
problems caused by waves and tides, the tendency for excavations to silt up and the
washing away of spoil heaps. There is a risk of coastal erosion and environmental
damage.[189]

Minerals from hydrothermal vent

Minerals precipitated near a hydrothermal vent
Seafloor massive sulphide deposits are potential sources of silver, gold, copper,
lead and zinc and trace metals since their discovery in the 1960s. They form when
geothermally heated water is emitted from deep sea hydrothermal vents known as
"black smokers". The ores are of high quality but prohibitively costly to extract.
[190]

There are large deposits of petroleum and natural gas, in rocks beneath the seabed.
Offshore platforms and drilling rigs extract the oil or gas and store it for
transport to land. Offshore oil and gas production can be difficult due to the
remote, harsh environment.[191] Drilling for oil in the sea has environmental
impacts. Animals may be disorientated by seismic waves used to locate deposits, and
there is debate as to whether this causes the beaching of whales.[192] Toxic
substances such as mercury, lead and arsenic may be released. The infrastructure
may cause damage, and oil may be spilt.[193]

Large quantities of methane clathrate exist on the seabed and in ocean sediment, of
interest as a potential energy source.[194] Also on the seabed are manganese
nodules formed of layers of iron, manganese and other hydroxides around a core. In
the Pacific, these may cover up to 30 percent of the deep ocean floor. The minerals
precipitate from seawater and grow very slowly. Their commercial extraction for
nickel was investigated in the 1970s but abandoned in favour of more convenient
sources.[195] In suitable locations, diamonds are gathered from the seafloor using
suction hoses to bring gravel ashore. In deeper waters, mobile seafloor crawlers
are used and the deposits are pumped to a vessel above. In Namibia, more diamonds
are now collected from marine sources than by conventional methods on land.[196]

Desalination plant
Reverse osmosis desalination plant
The sea holds large quantities of valuable dissolved minerals.[197] The most
important, Salt for table and industrial use has been harvested by solar
evaporation from shallow ponds since prehistoric times. Bromine, accumulated after
being leached from the land, is economically recovered from the Dead Sea, where it
occurs at 55,000 parts per million (ppm).[198]

Fresh water production

Desalination is the technique of removing salts from seawater to leave fresh water
suitable for drinking or irrigation. The two main processing methods, vacuum
distillation and reverse osmosis, use large quantities of energy. Desalination is
normally only undertaken where fresh water from other sources is in short supply or
energy is plentiful, as in the excess heat generated by power stations. The brine
produced as a by-product contains some toxic materials and is returned to the sea.
[199]

Indigenous sea peoples

Several nomadic indigenous groups in Maritime Southeast Asia live in boats and
derive nearly all they need from the sea. The Moken people live on the coasts of
Thailand and Burma and islands in the Andaman Sea.[200] Some Sea Gypsies are
accomplished free-divers, able to descend to depths of 30 metres (98 ft), though
many are adopting a more settled, land-based way of life.[201][202]

The indigenous peoples of the Arctic such as the Chukchi, Inuit, Inuvialuit and
Yup'iit hunt marine mammals including seals and whales,[203] and the Torres Strait
Islanders of Australia include the Great Barrier Reef among their possessions. They
live a traditional life on the islands involving hunting, fishing, gardening and
trading with neighbouring peoples in Papua and mainland Aboriginal Australians.
[204]

In culture
Main article: Sea in culture
"Great wave" by Hokusai
The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Katsushika Hokusai, c. 1830[3]: 8
The sea appears in human culture in contradictory ways, as both powerful but serene
and as beautiful but dangerous.[3]: 10 It has its place in literature, art, poetry,
film, theatre, classical music, mythology and dream interpretation.[205] The
Ancients personified it, believing it to be under the control of a being who needed
to be appeased, and symbolically, it has been perceived as a hostile environment
populated by fantastic creatures; the Leviathan of the Bible,[206] Scylla in Greek
mythology,[207] Isonade in Japanese mythology,[208] and the kraken of late Norse
mythology.[209]

The sea and ships have been depicted in art ranging from simple drawings on the
walls of huts in Lamu[205] to seascapes by Joseph Turner. In Dutch Golden Age
painting, artists such as Jan Porcellis, Hendrick Dubbels, Willem van de Velde the
Elder and his son, and Ludolf Bakhuizen celebrated the sea and the Dutch navy at
the peak of its military prowess.[210][211] The Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai
created colour prints of the moods of the sea, including The Great Wave off
Kanagawa.[3]: 8

Music too has been inspired by the ocean, sometimes by composers who lived or
worked near the shore and saw its many different aspects. Sea shanties, songs that
were chanted by mariners to help them perform arduous tasks, have been woven into
compositions and impressions in music have been created of calm waters, crashing
waves and storms at sea.[212]: 4–8

As a symbol, the sea has for centuries played a role in literature, poetry and
dreams. Sometimes it is there just as a gentle background but often it introduces
such themes as storm, shipwreck, battle, hardship, disaster, the dashing of hopes
and death.[212]: 45 In his epic poem the Odyssey, written in the eighth century BC,
[213] Homer describes the ten-year voyage of the Greek hero Odysseus who struggles
to return home across the sea's many hazards after the war described in the Iliad.
[214] The sea is a recurring theme in the Haiku poems of the Japanese Edo period
poet Matsuo Bashō (松尾 芭蕉) (1644–1694).[215] In the works of psychiatrist Carl Jung,
the sea symbolizes the personal and the collective unconscious in dream
interpretation, the depths of the sea symbolizing the depths of the unconscious
mind.[216]

Environmental issues
Main articles: Ocean § Threats from human activities, and Human impact on marine
life
The environmental issues that affect the sea can loosely be grouped into those that
stem from marine pollution, from over exploitation and those that stem from climate
change. They all impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in
consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine
life forms.[217] An overview of environmental issues is shown below:

Marine pollution: Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship
pollution, atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining. The types of
marine pollution can be grouped as pollution from marine debris, plastic pollution,
including microplastics, nutrient pollution, toxins and underwater noise.
Over exploitation and biodiversity loss: overfishing, habitat loss, introduction of
invasive species
Effects of climate change on the sea: an increase in sea surface temperature as
well as ocean temperatures at greater depths, more frequent marine heatwaves, a
reduction in pH value, a rise in sea level from ocean warming and ice sheet
melting, sea ice decline in the Arctic, increased upper ocean stratification,
reductions in oxygen levels, increased contrasts in salinity (salty areas becoming
saltier and fresher areas becoming less salty),[218] changes to ocean currents
including a weakening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, and
stronger tropical cyclones and monsoons.[219]
Marine pollution
Main article: Marine pollution
Many substances enter the sea as a result of human activities. Combustion products
are transported in the air and deposited into the sea by precipitation. Industrial
outflows and sewage contribute heavy metals, pesticides, PCBs, disinfectants,
household cleaning products and other synthetic chemicals. These become
concentrated in the surface film and in marine sediment, especially estuarine mud.
The result of all this contamination is largely unknown because of the large number
of substances involved and the lack of information on their biological effects.
[220] The heavy metals of greatest concern are copper, lead, mercury, cadmium and
zinc which may be bio-accumulated by marine organisms and are passed up the food
chain.[221]

Much floating plastic rubbish does not biodegrade, instead disintegrating over time
and eventually breaking down to the molecular level. Rigid plastics may float for
years.[222] In the centre of the Pacific gyre there is the permanent Great Pacific
Garbage Patch, a floating accumulation of mostly plastic waste.[223] There is a
similar garbage patch in the Atlantic.[224] Foraging sea birds such as the
albatross and petrel may mistake debris for food, and accumulate indigestible
plastic in their digestive systems. Turtles and whales have been found with plastic
bags and fishing line in their stomachs. Microplastics may sink, threatening filter
feeders on the seabed.[225]

Most oil pollution in the sea comes from cities and industry.[226] Oil is dangerous
for marine animals. It can clog the feathers of sea birds, reducing their
insulating effect and the birds' buoyancy, and be ingested when they preen
themselves in an attempt to remove the contaminant. Marine mammals are less
seriously affected but may be chilled through the removal of their insulation,
blinded, dehydrated or poisoned. Benthic invertebrates are swamped when the oil
sinks, fish are poisoned and the food chain is disrupted. In the short term, oil
spills result in wildlife populations being decreased and unbalanced, leisure
activities being affected and the livelihoods of people dependent on the sea being
devastated.[227] The marine environment has self-cleansing properties and naturally
occurring bacteria will act over time to remove oil from the sea. In the Gulf of
Mexico, where oil-eating bacteria are already present, they take only a few days to
consume spilt oil.[228]

Run-off of fertilisers from agricultural land is a major source of pollution in

some areas and the discharge of raw sewage has a similar effect. The extra
nutrients provided by these sources can cause excessive plant growth. Nitrogen is
often the limiting factor in marine systems, and with added nitrogen, algal blooms
and red tides can lower the oxygen level of the water and kill marine animals. Such
events have created dead zones in the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.[226] Some
algal blooms are caused by cyanobacteria that make shellfish that filter feed on
them toxic, harming animals like sea otters.[229] Nuclear facilities too can
pollute. The Irish Sea was contaminated by radioactive caesium-137 from the former
Sellafield nuclear fuel processing plant[230] and nuclear accidents may also cause
radioactive material to seep into the sea, as did the disaster at the Fukushima
Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in 2011.[231]

The dumping of waste (including oil, noxious liquids, sewage and garbage) at sea is
governed by international law. The London Convention (1972) is a United Nations
agreement to control ocean dumping which had been ratified by 89 countries by 8
June 2012.[232] MARPOL 73/78 is a convention to minimize pollution of the seas by
ships. By May 2013, 152 maritime nations had ratified MARPOL.[233]

See also
icon Oceans portal
icon Water portal
icon Geography portal
World portal
Ocean surface topography – Shape of the ocean surface relative to the geoid
List of seas
Bay
Gulf
Notes
There is no accepted technical definition of sea amongst oceanographers. One
definition is that a sea is a sub-division of an ocean, which means that it must
have oceanic basin crust on its floor. This definition accepts the Caspian as a sea
because it was once part of an ancient ocean.[5] The Introduction to Marine Biology
defines a sea as a "land-locked" body of water, adding that the term "sea" is only
one of convenience.[6] The Glossary of Mapping Sciences similarly states that the
boundaries between seas and other bodies of water are arbitrary.[7]
According to this definition, the Caspian would be excluded as it is legally an
"international lake".[10]
Hydrous ringwoodite recovered from volcanic eruptions suggests that the transition
zone between the lower and upper mantle holds between one[13] and three[14] times
as much water as all of the world's surface oceans combined. Experiments to
recreate the conditions of the lower mantle suggest it may contain still more water
as well, as much as five times the mass of water present in the world's oceans.[15]
[16]
"As the waves leave the region where they were generated, the longer ones outpace
the shorter because their velocity is greater. Gradually, they fall in with other
waves travelling at similar speed – where different waves are in phase they
reinforce each other, and where out of phase they are reduced. Eventually, a
regular pattern of high and low waves (or swell) is developed that remains constant
as it travels out across the ocean."[3]: 83–84
References
"Sea." Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/sea . Accessed 14 March 2021.
"What's the difference between an ocean and a sea?". Ocean facts. National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 19 January 2017.
Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Stow, Dorrik (2004). Encyclopedia of the Oceans. Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-860687-1.
Nishri, A.; Stiller, M; Rimmer, A.; Geifman, Y.; Krom, M. (1999). "Lake Kinneret
(The Sea of Galilee): the effects of diversion of external salinity sources and the
probable chemical composition of the internal salinity sources". Chemical Geology.
158 (1–2): 37–52. Bibcode:1999ChGeo.158...37N. doi:10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00007-8.
Conforti, B.; Bravo, Luigi Ferrari (2005). The Italian Yearbook of International
Law, Volume 14. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 237. ISBN 978-90-04-15027-0.
Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
Karleskint, George; Turner, Richard L.; Small, James W. (2009). Introduction to
Marine Biology. Cengage Learning. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-495-56197-2. Archived from the
original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
American Society of Civil Engineers (1994). The Glossary of the Mapping Sciences.
ASCE Publications. p. 365. ISBN 978-0-7844-7570-6. Archived from the original on 17
April 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
Vukas, B. (2004). The Law of the Sea: Selected Writings. Martinus Nijhoff
Publishers. p. 271. ISBN 978-90-04-13863-6. Archived from the original on 25 March
2021. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
Gupta, Manoj (2010). Indian Ocean Region: Maritime Regimes for Regional
Cooperation. Springer. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-4419-5989-8. Archived from the original on
9 June 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
Gokay, Bulent (2001). The Politics of Caspian Oil. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 74. ISBN
978-0-333-73973-0. Archived from the original on 25 March 2021. Retrieved 22
January 2019.
Ravilious, Kate (21 Apr 2009). "Most Earthlike Planet Yet Found May Have Liquid
Oceans Archived 21 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine" in National Geographic.
NOAA. "Lesson 7: The Water Cycle Archived 25 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine" in
Ocean Explorer.
Oskin, Becky (12 Mar 2014). "Rare Diamond Confirms that Earth's Mantle Holds an
Ocean's Worth of Water" Archived 13 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine in Scientific
American.
Schmandt, B.; Jacobsen, S. D.; Becker, T. W.; Liu, Z.; Dueker, K. G. (2014).
"Dehydration melting at the top of the lower mantle". Science. 344 (6189): 1265–
1268. Bibcode:2014Sci...344.1265S. doi:10.1126/science.1253358. PMID 24926016.
S2CID 206556921.
Harder, Ben (7 Mar 2002). "Inner Earth May Hold More Water Than the Seas Archived
12 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine" in National Geographic.
Murakami, M. (2002). "Water in Earth's Lower Mantle". Science. 295 (5561): 1885–
1887. Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1885M. doi:10.1126/science.1065998. PMID 11884752.
S2CID 21421320.
"Voyager: How much of the earth is truly undiscovered, above and/or below water?".
Scripp's Institute of Oceanography. UC San Diego. September 2010. Archived from the
original on 15 July 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
Lee, Sidney, ed. "Rennell, James" in the Dictionary of National Biography, Vol.
48. Smith, Elder, & Co. (London), 1896. Hosted at Wikisource.
Monkhouse, F.J. (1975) Principles of Physical Geography. pp. 327–328. Hodder &
Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-04944-0.
b., R. N. R.; Russell, F. S.; Yonge, C. M. (1929). "The Seas: Our Knowledge of
Life in the Sea and How It is Gained". The Geographical Journal. 73 (6): 571–572.
Bibcode:1929GeogJ..73R.571B. doi:10.2307/1785367. JSTOR 1785367. Archived from the
original on 2 June 2018. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
 Stewart, Robert H. (2008) Introduction To Physical Oceanography Archived 27 March
2009 at the Wayback Machine. pp. 2–3. Texas A & M University.
"Ocean salinity". Science Learning Hub. Archived from the original on 12 August
2020. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
Anati, David A. (March 1999). "The salinity of hypersaline brines: Concepts and
misconceptions". International Journal of Salt Lake Research. 8: 55–70.
doi:10.1023/A:1009059827435.
Swenson, Herbert. "Why is the ocean salty?". US Geological Survey. Archived from
the original on 18 April 2001. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
Millero, F. J.; Feistel, R.; Wright, D. G.; McDougall, T. J. (2008). "The
composition of Standard Seawater and the definition of the Reference-Composition
Salinity Scale". Deep-Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 55 (1):
50–72. Bibcode:2008DSRI...55...50M. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2007.10.001.
"Drinking seawater can be deadly to humans". NOAA. 11 January 2013. Archived from
the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
Talley, Lynne D (2002). "Salinity Patterns in the Ocean". In MacCracken, Michael
C; Perry, John S (eds.). Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change, Volume 1, The
Earth System: Physical and Chemical Dimensions of Global Environmental Change. John
Wiley & Sons. pp. 629–630. ISBN 978-0-471-97796-4.
Feistel, R; et al. (2010). "Density and Absolute Salinity of the Baltic Sea 2006–
2009". Ocean Science. 6 (1): 3–24. Bibcode:2010OcSci...6....3F. doi:10.5194/os-6-3-
2010.
NOAA (11 Jan 2013). "Drinking Seawater Can Be Deadly to Humans Archived 21
September 2013 at the Wayback Machine".
Gordon, Arnold (2004). "Ocean Circulation". The Climate System. Columbia
University. Archived from the original on 16 March 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
"Sea Water | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration". www.noaa.gov.
Retrieved 28 April 2024.
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Can
the ocean freeze?". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
Jeffries, Martin O. (2012). "Sea ice". Encyclopedia Britannica. Britannica Online
Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 20 July 2012. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
"Ocean Acidification". National Geographic. 27 April 2017. Archived from the
original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
Feely, R. A.; Sabine, C. L.; Lee, K; Berelson, W; Kleypas, J; Fabry, V. J.;
Millero, F. J. (2004). "Impact of Anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the
Oceans". Science. 305 (5682): 362–366. Bibcode:2004Sci...305..362F.
doi:10.1126/science.1097329. PMID 15256664. S2CID 31054160. Archived from the
original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 2 September 2015.
Zeebe, R. E.; Zachos, J. C.; Caldeira, K.; Tyrrell, T. (2008). "OCEANS: Carbon
Emissions and Acidification". Science. 321 (5885): 51–52.
doi:10.1126/science.1159124. PMID 18599765. S2CID 206513402.
Gattuso, J.-P.; Hansson, L. (2011). Ocean Acidification. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-959109-1. OCLC 730413873. Archived from the original on 16 February
2022. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
Arias, P.A., N. Bellouin, E. Coppola, R.G. Jones, G. Krinner, J. Marotzke, V.
Naik, M.D. Palmer, G.-K. Plattner, J. Rogelj, M. Rojas, J. Sillmann, T. Storelvmo,
P.W. Thorne, B. Trewin, K. Achuta Rao, B. Adhikary, R.P. Allan, K. Armour, G. Bala,
R. Barimalala, S. Berger, J.G. Canadell, C. Cassou, A. Cherchi, W. Collins, W.D.
Collins, S.L. Connors, S. Corti, F. Cruz, F.J. Dentener, C. Dereczynski, A. Di
Luca, A. Diongue Niang, F.J. Doblas-Reyes, A. Dosio, H. Douville, F. Engelbrecht,
V. Eyring, E. Fischer, P. Forster, B. Fox-Kemper, J.S. Fuglestvedt, J.C. Fyfe, et
al., 2021: Technical Summary Archived 21 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine. In
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to
the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Archived 9 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A.
Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I.
Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T.
Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, and New York, pp. 33–144.
"Oxygen in the Sea". Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. 3 June
2010. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
Shaffer, Gary; Olsen, Steffen Malskær; Pedersen, Jens Olaf Pepke (2009). "Long-
term ocean oxygen depletion in response to carbon dioxide emissions from fossil
fuels". Nature Geoscience. 2 (2): 105–109. Bibcode:2009NatGe...2..105S.
doi:10.1038/ngeo420.
Deutsch; et al. (2011). "Climate-Forced Variability of Ocean Hypoxia". Science.
333 (6040): 336–339. Bibcode:2011Sci...333..336D. doi:10.1126/science.1202422. PMID
21659566. S2CID 11752699.
Russell, F. S.; Yonge, C. M. (1928). The Seas. Frederick Warne. pp. 225–227.
Muller, R. D.; Sdrolias, M.; Gaina, C.; Steinberger, B.; Heine, C. (2008). "Long-
Term Sea-Level Fluctuations Driven by Ocean Basin Dynamics". Science. 319 (5868):
1357–1362. Bibcode:2008Sci...319.1357M. doi:10.1126/science.1151540. PMID 18323446.
S2CID 23334128.
Sea Level and Climate Archived 7 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine. USGS. By
Richard Z. Poore, Richard S. Williams, Jr., and Christopher Tracey.
Bruce C. Douglas (1997). "Global sea rise: a redetermination". Surveys in
Geophysics. 18 (2/3): 279–292. Bibcode:1997SGeo...18..279D.
doi:10.1023/A:1006544227856. S2CID 128387917.
Bindoff, N. L.; Willebrand, J.; Artale, V.; Cazenave, A.; Gregory, J.; Gulev, S.;
Hanawa, K.; Le Quéré, C.; Levitus, S.; Nojiri, Y.; Shum, A.; Talley, L. D.;
Unnikrishnan, A. S.; Josey, S. A.; Tamisiea, M.; Tsimplis, M.; Woodworth, P.
(2007). Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level. Cambridge University
Press. pp. 385–428. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1.
"Ocean waves". Ocean Explorer. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Archived from the original on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
Young, I. R. (1999). Wind Generated Ocean Waves. Elsevier. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-08-
043317-2.
Garrison, Tom (2012). Essentials of Oceanography Archived 25 May 2020 at the
Wayback Machine. 6th ed. pp. 204 ff. Brooks/Cole, Belmont. ISBN 0321814053.
National Meteorological Library and Archive (2010). "Fact Sheet 6 – The Beaufort
Scale" Archived 19 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Met Office (Devon)
Goda, Y. (2000) Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures. pp. 421–422. World
Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-3256-6.
Holliday, N. P.; Yelland, M. J.; Pascal, R.; Swail, V. R.; Taylor, P. K.;
Griffiths, C. R.; Kent, E. (2006). "Were extreme waves in the Rockall Trough the
largest ever recorded?". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (5): L05613.
Bibcode:2006GeoRL..33.5613H. doi:10.1029/2005GL025238.
Laird, Anne (2006). "Observed Statistics of Extreme Waves". Naval Postgraduate
School (Monterey).
"Life of a Tsunami". Tsunamis & Earthquakes. US Geological Survey. Archived from
the original on 21 October 2014. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
"Physics of Tsunamis". National Tsunami Warning Center of the USA. Archived from
the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
"The Physics of Tsunamis". Earth and Space Sciences. University of Washington.
Archived from the original on 16 February 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2013.
"Tsunami Facts and Information". Bureau of Meteorology of the Australian
Government. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
Ahrens, C. Donald; Jackson, Peter Lawrence; Jackson, Christine E. J.; Jackson,
Christine E. O. (2012). Meteorology Today: An Introduction to Weather, Climate, and
the Environment. Cengage Learning. p. 283. ISBN 978-0-17-650039-9. Archived from
the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
"Ocean Currents". Ocean Explorer. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Archived from the original on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Pope, Vicky (2 February 2007). "Models 'key to climate forecasts'". BBC. Archived
from the original on 8 November 2014. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
Cushman-Roisin, Benoit; Beckers, Jean-Marie (2011). Introduction to Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics: Physical and Numerical Aspects. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-
088759-0.
Wunsch, Carl (2002). "What is the thermohaline circulation?". Science. 298 (5596):
1179–1181. doi:10.1126/science.1079329. PMID 12424356. S2CID 129518576.
"Long-shore currents". Orange County Lifeguards. 2007. Archived from the original
on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
"Rip current characteristics". Rip currents. University of Delaware Sea Grant
College Program. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013. Retrieved 19 April
2013.
"Tides and Water Levels". NOAA Oceans and Coasts. NOAA Ocean Service Education.
Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
"Tidal amplitudes". University of Guelph. Archived from the original on 22
February 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2013.
"Tides". Ocean Explorer. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived
from the original on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
Pidwirny, Michael (28 March 2013). "Structure of the Earth". The Encyclopedia of
Earth. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
Pidwirny, Michael (28 March 2013). "Plate tectonics". The Encyclopedia of Earth.
Archived from the original on 21 October 2014. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
"Plate Tectonics: The Mechanism". University of California Museum of Paleontology.
Archived from the original on 30 July 2014. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
"Scientists map Mariana Trench, deepest known section of ocean in the world". The
Telegraph. 7 December 2011. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011.
Retrieved 24 September 2013.
"Spiaggia Rosa" (in Italian). Retrieved 27 December 2024.
Monkhouse, F. J. (1975). Principles of Physical Geography. Hodder & Stoughton. pp.
280–291. ISBN 978-0-340-04944-0.
Whittow, John B. (1984). The Penguin Dictionary of Physical Geography. Penguin
Books. pp. 29, 80, 246. ISBN 978-0-14-051094-2.
"Thames Barrier engineer says second defence needed". BBC News. 5 January 2013.
Archived from the original on 26 September 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
"The Water Cycle: The Oceans". US Geological Survey. Archived from the original on
17 August 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
Vesilind, Priit J. (2003). "The Driest Place on Earth". National Geographic.
Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2013.
"Endorheic Lakes: Waterbodies That Don't Flow to the Sea". The Watershed: Water
from the Mountains into the Sea. United Nations Environment Programme. Archived
from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
Falkowski, P.; Scholes, R. J.; Boyle, E.; Canadell, J.; Canfield, D.; Elser, J.;
Gruber, N.; Hibbard, K.; Högberg, P.; Linder, S.; MacKenzie, F. T.; Moore 3rd, B.;
Pedersen, T.; Rosenthal, Y.; Seitzinger, S.; Smetacek, V.; Steffen, W. (2000). "The
Global Carbon Cycle: A Test of Our Knowledge of Earth as a System". Science. 290
(5490): 291–296. Bibcode:2000Sci...290..291F. doi:10.1126/science.290.5490.291.
PMID 11030643.
Sarmiento, J. L.; Gruber, N. (2006). Ocean Biogeochemical Dynamics. Princeton
University Press.
Prentice, I. C. (2001). "The carbon cycle and atmospheric carbon dioxide". Climate
change 2001: the scientific basis: contribution of Working Group I to the Third
Assessment Report of the Intergouvernmental Panel on Climate Change / Houghton, J.
T. [ed.] Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 26 September
2012.
McSween, Harry Y.; McAfee, Steven (2003). Geochemistry: Pathways and Processes.
Columbia University Press. pp. 143. ISBN 978-0231124409.
"Profile". Department of Natural Environmental Studies: University of Tokyo.
Archived from the original on 20 September 2015. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
Levinton, Jeffrey S. (2010). "18. Fisheries and Food from the Sea". Marine
Biology: International Edition: Function, Biodiversity, Ecology. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976661-1.
Kindersley, Dorling (2011). Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Ocean. Dorling
Kindersley. ISBN 978-1-4053-3308-5.
 Spalding MD and Grenfell AM (1997). "New estimates of global and regional coral
reef areas". Coral Reefs. 16 (4): 225–230. doi:10.1007/s003380050078. S2CID
46114284.
Neulinger, Sven (2008–2009). "Cold-water reefs". CoralScience.org. Archived from
the original on 2 October 2014. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
Roach, John (7 June 2004). "Source of Half Earth's Oxygen Gets Little Credit".
National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 27 July 2018. Retrieved 4
April 2016.
Lin, I.; Liu, W. Timothy; Wu, Chun-Chieh; Wong, George T. F.; Hu, Chuanmin; Chen,
Zhiqiang; Wen-Der, Liang; Yang, Yih; Liu, Kon-Kee (2003). "New evidence for
enhanced ocean primary production triggered by tropical cyclone". Geophysical
Research Letters. 30 (13): 1718. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1718L.
doi:10.1029/2003GL017141. S2CID 10267488. Archived from the original on 16 October
2021. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
Yool, A.; Tyrrell, T. (2003). "Role of diatoms in regulating the ocean's silicon
cycle". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 17 (4): n/a. Bibcode:2003GBioC..17.1103Y.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.394.3912. doi:10.1029/2002GB002018. S2CID 16849373.
van der Heide, T.; van Nes, E. H.; van Katwijk, M. M.; Olff, H.; Smolders, A. J.
P. (2011). Romanuk, Tamara (ed.). "Positive feedbacks in seagrass ecosystems:
evidence from large-scale empirical data". PLOS ONE. 6 (1): e16504.
Bibcode:2011PLoSO...616504V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016504. PMC 3025983. PMID
21283684.
"Mangal (Mangrove)". Mildred E. Mathias Botanical Garden. Archived from the
original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
"Coastal Salt Marsh". Mildred E. Mathias Botanical Garden. Archived from the
original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
"Facts and figures on marine biodiversity". Marine biodiversity. UNESCO. 2012.
Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
Voss, Maren; Bange, Hermann W.; Dippner, Joachim W.; Middelburg, Jack J.; Montoya,
Joseph P.; Ward, Bess (2013). "The marine nitrogen cycle: recent discoveries,
uncertainties and the potential relevance of climate change". Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B. 368 (1621): 20130121.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0121. PMC 3682741. PMID 23713119.
Thorne-Miller, Boyce (1999). The Living Ocean: Understanding and Protecting Marine
Biodiversity. Island Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-59726-897-4. Archived from the
original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
Thorne-Miller, Boyce (1999). The Living Ocean: Understanding and Protecting Marine
Biodiversity. Island Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-59726-897-4. Archived from the
original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
Kingsford, Michael John. "Marine ecosystem: Plankton". Encyclopedia Britannica.
Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 28 March 2015.
Retrieved 14 July 2013.
Walrond, Carl. "Oceanic Fish". The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. New Zealand
Government. Archived from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
Steele, John H.; Thorpe, Steve A.; Turekian, Karl K., eds. (2010). Marine
Ecological Processes: A Derivative of the Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences. Academic
Press. p. 316. ISBN 978-0-12-375724-1. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022.
Retrieved 21 November 2020.
"Invasive species". Water: Habitat Protection. Environmental Protection Agency. 6
March 2012. Archived from the original on 14 October 2014. Retrieved 17 September
2013.
Sedberry, G. R.; Musick, J. A. (1978). "Feeding strategies of some demersal fishes
of the continental slope and rise off the Mid-Atlantic Coast of the USA". Marine
Biology. 44 (4): 357–375. Bibcode:1978MarBi..44..357S. doi:10.1007/BF00390900.
S2CID 83608467.
Committee on Biological Diversity in Marine Systems, National Research Council
(1995). "Waiting for a whale: human hunting and deep-sea biodiversity".
Understanding Marine Biodiversity. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-17641-
5. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
 Carter, Robert (2012). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East.
Ch. 19: "Watercraft", pp. 347 ff. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8988-0.
Hage, P.; Marck, J. (2003). "Matrilineality and the Melanesian Origin of
Polynesian Y Chromosomes". Current Anthropology. 44: S121 – S127.
doi:10.1086/379272. S2CID 224791767.
Bellwood, Peter (1987). The Polynesians – Prehistory of an Island People. Thames
and Hudson. pp. 45–65. ISBN 978-0-500-27450-7.
Clark, Liesl (15 February 2000). "Polynesia's Genius Navigators". NOVA. Archived
from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 11 September 2017.
Kayser, M.; Brauer, S.; Cordaux, R.; et al. (2006). "Melanesian and Asian Origins
of Polynesians: MtDNA and Y Chromosome Gradients Across the Pacific" (PDF).
Molecular Biology and Evolution. 23 (11): 2234–2244. doi:10.1093/molbev/msl093.
PMID 16923821. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 29
August 2015.
"The Ancient World – Egypt". Mariners' Museum. 2012. Archived from the original on
23 July 2010. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
Greer, Thomas H.; Lewis, Gavin (2004). A Brief History Of The Western World.
Thomson Wadsworth. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-534-64236-5. Archived from the original on 25
May 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
Harden, Donald (1962). The Phoenicians, p. 168. Penguin (Harmondsworth).
Warmington, Brian H. (1960) Carthage, p. 79. Penguin (Harmondsworth).
Pálsson, Hermann (1965). The Vinland sagas: the Norse discovery of America.
Penguin Classics. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-14-044154-3. Archived from the original on 12
August 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2010.
"Зацепились за Моржовец" (in Russian). Русское географическое общество. 2012.
Archived from the original on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
Tibbets, Gerald Randall (1979). A Comparison of Medieval Arab Methods of
Navigation with Those of the Pacific Islands. Coimbra.
"A History of Navigation". History. BBC. Archived from the original on 26
September 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
Jenkins, Simon (1992). "Four Cheers for Geography". Geography. 77 (3): 193–197.
doi:10.1080/20436564.1992.12452372. JSTOR 40572190.
"International Hydrographic Organization". 15 March 2013. Archived from the
original on 14 September 2013. Retrieved 14 September 2013.
Weyl, Peter K. (1970). Oceanography: an introduction to the marine environment.
John Wiley & Sons. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-471-93744-9.
Reader, The MIT Press (16 January 2023). "Spherical Descent: On the Bathysphere
and Voyages Into the Abyss". The MIT Press Reader. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
"Jacques Piccard: Oceanographer and pioneer of deep-sea exploration". The
Independent. 5 November 2008. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015.
Retrieved 15 September 2013.
Cameron, James. "The expedition". Deepsea Challenge. National Geographic. Archived
from the original on 14 September 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
Logico, Mark G. (8 April 2006). "Navy Chief Submerges 2,000 Feet, Sets Record".
America's Navy. United States Navy. Archived from the original on 13 May 2020.
Retrieved 12 September 2013.
"The Marvelous Mirs". Ocean Explorer. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 5 July 2013.
"Marine and Coastal: Bathymetry". Geoscience Australia. Archived from the original
on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
"Research topics". Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Archived from the original
on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
"Research". The South African Association for Marine Biological Research. 2013.
Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
"Research at Sea". National Oceanography Centre. 2013. Archived from the original
on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
"The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A historical perspective)".
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. Archived from the
original on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2013.
 "Introduction to IMO". International Maritime Organization. 2013. Archived from
the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 14 September 2013.
D'Amato, Raphaelo; Salimbeti, Andrea (2011). Bronze Age Greek Warrior 1600–1100
BC. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Company. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-84908-195-5. Archived from
the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
Strauss, Barry (2004). The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved
Greece – and Western Civilization. Simon and Schuster. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-7432-4450-
3.
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory; Hook, Christa (2005). Trafalgar 1805: Nelson's Crowning
Victory. Osprey Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-84176-892-2.
Sterling, Christopher H. (2008). Military communications: from ancient times to
the 21st century. ABC-CLIO. p. 459. ISBN 978-1-85109-732-6. Archived from the
original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2019. The naval battle of Tsushima,
the ultimate contest of the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War, was one of the most
decisive sea battles in history.
Campbell, John (1998). Jutland: An Analysis of the Fighting. Lyons Press. p. 2.
ISBN 978-1-55821-759-1.
Simpson, Michael (2004). A life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham: A
Twentieth-century Naval Leader. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-7146-5197-2.
Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me: A 400-Year History of America at
War. Three Rivers Press (Crown Forum). pp. 294–297, 322, 326–327. ISBN 978-1-4000-
5364-3.
Thomas, Evan (2007). Sea of Thunder. Simon and Schuster. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-7432-
5222-5.
Helgason, Guðmundur. "Finale". Uboat.net. Archived from the original on 6 February
2010. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
Preston, Diana (2003). Wilful Murder: The Sinking of the Lusitania. Black Swan.
pp. 497–503. ISBN 978-0-552-99886-4.
Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum. p. 310. ISBN
978-1-4000-5363-6.
Bennett, William J (2007). America: The Last Best Hope, Volume 2: From a World at
War to the Triumph of Freedom 1914–1989. Nelson Current. p. 301. ISBN 978-1-59555-
057-6.
"Q&A: Trident replacement". BBC News. 22 September 2010. Archived from the
original on 15 August 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
"Submarines of the Cold War". California Center for Military History. Archived
from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
Public Record Office (1860). Calendar of state papers, domestic series, of the
reign of Charles II: preserved in the state paper department of Her Majesty's
Public Record Office, Volume 1. Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts. Archived from
the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
Newman, Jeff. "The Blue Riband of the North Atlantic". Great Ships. Archived from
the original on 10 March 2009. Retrieved 11 September 2013.
Smith, Jack (1985). "Hales Trophy, won in 1952 by SS United States remains at
King's Point as Challenger succumbs to the sea". Yachting (November): 121. Archived
from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
Norris, Gregory J. (1981). "Evolution of cruising". Cruise Travel (December): 28.
[permanent dead link]
Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p.
426. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7.
Curtin, Philip D. (1984). Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 88–104. ISBN 978-0-521-26931-5. Archived from the original on
30 July 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
Ronald Segal, The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside
Africa (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995), ISBN 0-374-11396-3, p. 4. "It
is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic." (Note in
original: Paul E. Lovejoy, "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A
Review of the Literature", in Journal of African History 30 (1989), p. 368.)
Meredith, Martin (2014). The Fortunes of Africa. New York: PublicAffairs. p. 191.
ISBN 978-1610396356.
Halpern, Benjamin S.; Walbridge, Shaun; Selkoe, Kimberly A.; et al. (2008). "A
global map of human impact on marine ecosystems" (PDF). Science. 319 (5865): 948–
952. Bibcode:2008Sci...319..948H. doi:10.1126/science.1149345. PMID 18276889. S2CID
26206024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
"Trade routes". World Shipping Council. Archived from the original on 8 October
2014. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
Roach, John (17 September 2007). "Arctic Melt Opens Northwest Passage". National
Geographic. Archived from the original on 30 January 2015. Retrieved 17 September
2013.
"Global trade". World Shipping Council. Archived from the original on 8 October
2014. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
Joint Chief of Staff (31 August 2005). "Bulk cargo" (PDF). Department of Defense
Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms. Washington DC: Department of Defense.
p. 73. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
Sauerbier, Charles L.; Meurn, Robert J. (2004). Marine Cargo Operations: a guide
to stowage. Cambridge, Md: Cornell Maritime Press. pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-0-87033-550-
1.
"Industry Globalization | World Shipping Council". www.worldshipping.org. Archived
from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012 (PDF). FAO Fisheries and
Aquaculture Department. 2012. ISBN 978-92-5-107225-7. Archived (PDF) from the
original on 24 August 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
"Fisheries: Latest data". GreenFacts. Archived from the original on 21 October
2014. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
Myers, R. A.; Worm, B. (2003). "Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish
communities". Nature. 423 (6937): 280–283. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..280M.
doi:10.1038/nature01610. PMID 12748640. S2CID 2392394.
Evans, Michael (3 June 2011). "Fishing". The Earth Times. Archived from the
original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
Béné, C.; Macfadyen, G.; Allison, E. H. (2007). Increasing the contribution of
small-scale fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security. FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-
105664-6. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
Soto, D., ed. (2009). Integrated mariculture. FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-106387-3.
Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2013. {{cite book}}:
|work= ignored (help)
"About shrimp farming". Shrimp News International. Archived from the original on 1
February 2010. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
"Sea cucumber ranching improves livelihoods". WorldFish. Archived from the
original on 21 October 2014. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
Anderson, Genny (15 June 2009). "Lobster mariculture". Marine Science. Archived
from the original on 6 May 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
Winterman, Denise (30 July 2012). "Future foods: What will we be eating in 20
years' time?". BBC. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013. Retrieved 24 April
2013.
"Samphire". BBC: Good Food. Archived from the original on 27 May 2007. Retrieved
24 April 2013.
Black, K. D. (2001). "Mariculture, Environmental, Economic and Social Impacts of".
In Steele, John H.; Thorpe, Steve A.; Turekian, Karl K. (eds.). Encyclopedia of
Ocean Sciences. Academic Press. pp. 1578–1584. doi:10.1006/rwos.2001.0487. ISBN
978-0-12-227430-5.
"The voice of the recreational marine industry worldwide". International Council
of Marine Industry Associations. 2013. Archived from the original on 1 November
2014. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
"Yachting". YachtingMagazine.com. Archived from the original on 8 May 2014.
Retrieved 17 September 2013.
Aas, Øystein, ed. (2008). Global Challenges in Recreational Fisheries. John Wiley
and Sons. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-470-69814-3.
 Dowling, Ross Kingston, ed. (2006). Cruise Ship Tourism. CABI. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-
84593-049-3.
Cater, Carl; Cater, Erlet (2007). Marine Ecotourism: Between the Devil and the
Deep Blue Sea. CABI. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-84593-260-2.
"Health Benefits of Sea Bathing". MedClick. Archived from the original on 25
September 2013. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
Nickel, Christoph; Zernial, Oliver; Musahl, Volker; Hansen, Ute; Zantop, Thore;
Petersen, Wolf (2004). "A prospective study of kitesurfing injuries". American
Journal of Sports Medicine. 32 (4): 921–927. doi:10.1177/0363546503262162. PMID
15150038. S2CID 132593.
"The disciplines of windsurfing". World of Windsurfing. 15 April 2013. Archived
from the original on 25 September 2013. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
"Water skiing disciplines". ABC of Skiing. Archived from the original on 20
October 2014. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
Catelle, W. R. (1907). "Methods of Fishing". The Pearl: Its Story, Its Charm, and
Its Value. J. B. Lippincott. p. 171. Archived from the original on 27 May 2024.
Retrieved 4 May 2013.
US Navy Diving Manual, 6th revision (PDF). US Naval Sea Systems Command. 2006.
Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 January 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
"What is Ocean Energy". Ocean Energy Systems. 2014. Archived from the original on
14 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
Cruz, João (2008). Ocean Wave Energy – Current Status and Future Perspectives.
Springer. p. 2. ISBN 978-3-540-74894-6.
"Cooling power plants". World Nuclear Association. 1 September 2013. Archived from
the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 14 September 2013.
"Offshore Wind Power 2010". BTM Consult. 22 November 2010. Archived from the
original on 30 June 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
Environmental and Energy Study Institute (October 2010). "Offshore Wind Energy"
(PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2013.
IRENA (2021). Renewable Capacity Statistics 2021. Abu Dhabi: International
Renewable Energy Agency. p. 19. ISBN 978-92-9260-342-7. Archived from the original
on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
Nurok, G. A.; Bubis, I. V. (1970–1979). "Mining, Undersea". The Great Soviet
Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 6 May
2013.
Kohl, Keith (2013). "Underwater Mining Companies". Wealth Daily. Archived from the
original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
Lamb, Robert (2011). "How offshore drilling works". HowStuffWorks. Archived from
the original on 21 May 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
"Offshore Energy Clash Over Undersea Sound". Science. 7 April 2010. Archived from
the original on 22 March 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
Horton, Jennifer (2011). "Effects of offshore drilling: energy vs. environment".
HowStuffWorks. Archived from the original on 29 April 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
Milkov, A. V. (2004). "Global estimates of hydrate-bound gas in marine sediments:
how much is really out there?". Earth-Science Reviews. 66 (3–4): 183–197.
Bibcode:2004ESRv...66..183M. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2003.11.002.
Achurra, L. E.; Lacassie, J. P.; Le Roux, J. P.; Marquardt, C.; Belmar, M.; Ruiz-
del-solar, J.; Ishman, S. E. (2009). "Manganese nodules in the Miocene Bahía
Inglesa Formation, north-central Chile: petrography, geochemistry, genesis and
palaeoceanographic significance". Sedimentary Geology. 217 (1–4): 128–130.
Bibcode:2009SedG..217..128A. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.03.016.
"Diamonds". Geological Survey of Namibia. Ministry of Mines and Energy. 2006.
Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
"Chemistry: Mining the Sea". Time. 15 May 1964. Archived from the original on 19
November 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
Al-Weshah, Radwan A. (2000). "The water balance of the Dead Sea: an integrated
approach". Hydrological Processes. 14 (1): 145–154. Bibcode:2000HyPr...14..145A.
doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(200001)14:1<145::AID-HYP916>3.0.CO;2-N.
Hamed, Osman A. (2005). "Overview of hybrid desalination systems – current status
and future prospects". Desalination. 186 (1–3): 207–214.
Bibcode:2005Desal.186..207H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.514.4201.
doi:10.1016/j.desal.2005.03.095.
"Environmental, social and cultural settings of the Surin Islands". Sustainable
Development in Coastal Regions and Small Islands. UNESCO. Archived from the
original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
Langenheim, Johnny (18 September 2010). "The last of the sea nomads". The
Guardian. Archived from the original on 18 September 2010. Retrieved 7 September
2013.
Ivanoff, Jacques (1 April 2005). "Sea Gypsies of Myanmar". National Geographic.
Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
Hovelsrud, G. K.; McKenna, M.; Huntington, H. P. (2008). "Marine Mammal Harvests
and Other Interactions with Humans". Ecological Applications. 18 (2 Suppl): S135–
147. Bibcode:2008EcoAp..18S.135H. doi:10.1890/06-0843.1. JSTOR 40062161. PMID
18494367.
"Traditional Owners of the Great Barrier Reef". Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Authority. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September
2013.
Westerdahl, Christer (1994). "Maritime cultures and ship types: brief comments on
the significance of maritime archaeology". International Journal of Nautical
Archaeology. 23 (4): 265–270. Bibcode:1994IJNAr..23..265W. doi:10.1111/j.1095-
9270.1994.tb00471.x.
The Bible (King James Version). 1611. pp. Job 41: 1–34. Archived from the original
on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2013.
Kerenyi, C. (1974). The Gods of the Greeks. Thames and Hudson. pp. 37–40. ISBN
978-0-500-27048-6.
Shunsen, Takehara (1841). Ehon Hyaku Monogatari (絵本百物語, "Picture Book of a Hundred
Stories") (in Japanese). Kyoto: Ryûsuiken.
Pontoppidan, Erich (1839). The Naturalist's Library, Volume 8: The Kraken. W. H.
Lizars. pp. 327–336. Archived from the original on 25 March 2021. Retrieved 27
August 2020.
Slive, Seymour (1995). Dutch Painting, 1600–1800. Yale University Press. pp. 213–
216. ISBN 978-0-300-07451-2.
Johnson, Ken (30 July 2009). "When Galleons Ruled the Waves". New York Times.
Archived from the original on 22 July 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2013.
Tymieniecka, Anna–Teresa, ed. (1985). Poetics of the Elements in the Human
Condition: Part I – The Sea: From Elemental Stirrings to the Symbolic Inspiration,
Language, and Life-Significance in Literary Interpretation and Theory. Springer.
ISBN 978-90-277-1906-5. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 21
November 2020.
Homer (translation by Rieu, D. C. H.) (2003). The Odyssey. Penguin. pp. xi. ISBN
978-0-14-044911-2.
Porter, John (8 May 2006). "Plot Outline for Homer's Odyssey". University of
Saskatchewan. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 10 September
2013.
Basho, Matsuo. "A Selection of Matsuo Basho's Haiku". Greenleaf. Archived from the
original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
Jung, Carl Gustav (1985). Dreams. Translated by Hull, R.F.C. Ark Paperbacks. pp.
122, 192. ISBN 978-0-7448-0032-6.
Human impacts on marine ecosystems Archived 22 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine
GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
Cheng, Lijing; Trenberth, Kevin E.; Gruber, Nicolas; Abraham, John P.; Fasullo,
John T.; Li, Guancheng; Mann, Michael E.; Zhao, Xuanming; Zhu, Jiang (2020).
"Improved Estimates of Changes in Upper Ocean Salinity and the Hydrological Cycle".
Journal of Climate. 33 (23): 10357–10381. Bibcode:2020JCli...3310357C.
doi:10.1175/jcli-d-20-0366.1.
"Summary for Policymakers". The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. 2022.
pp. 3–36. doi:10.1017/9781009157964.001. ISBN 978-1-00-915796-4.
"Toxic Pollution". Ocean Briefing Book. SeaWeb. Archived from the original on 13
June 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
Ahmed AS, Sultana S, Habib A, Ullah H, Musa N, Hossain MB, Rahman MM, Sarker MS
(2019). "Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in some commercially important fishes from
a tropical river estuary suggests higher potential health risk in children than
adults". PLOS ONE. 14 (10): e0219336. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1419336A.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0219336. PMC 6797209. PMID 31622361.
Barnes, D. K. A.; Galgani, Francois; Thompson, Richard C.; Barlaz, Morton (2009).
"Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments".
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 364 (1526): 1985–1998.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0205. PMC 2873009. PMID 19528051.
Karl, David M. (199). "A sea of change: biogeochemical variability in the North
Pacific subtropical gyre". Ecosystems. 2 (3): 181–214. doi:10.1007/s100219900068.
JSTOR 3658829. S2CID 46309501.
Lovett, Richard A. (2 March 2010). "Huge Garbage Patch Found in Atlantic too".
National Geographic. Archived from the original on 5 March 2010. Retrieved 10 July
2013.
Moore, Charles James (2008). "Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: a
rapidly increasing, long-term threat". Environmental Research. 108 (2): 131–139.
Bibcode:2008ER....108..131M. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025. PMID 18949831. S2CID
26874262.
"Marine problems: Pollution". World Wildlife Fund. Archived from the original on
11 November 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
"How Does the BP Oil Spill Impact Wildlife and Habitat?". National Wildlife
Federation. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
American Chemical Society (9 April 2013). "Gulf of Mexico Has Greater-Than-
Believed Ability to Self-Cleanse Oil Spills". Science Daily. Archived from the
original on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
Dell'Amore, Christine (12 April 2013). "New Diseases, Toxins Harming Marine Life".
National Geographic Daily News. National Geographic. Archived from the original on
22 April 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
Jefferies, D. F.; Preston, A.; Steele, A. K. (1973). "Distribution of caesium-137
in British coastal waters". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 4 (8): 118–122.
Bibcode:1973MarPB...4..118J. doi:10.1016/0025-326X(73)90185-9.
Tsumune, Daisuke; Tsubono, Takaki; Aoyama, Michio; Hirose, Katsumi (2012).
"Distribution of oceanic 137–Cs from the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant
simulated numerically by a regional ocean model". Journal of Environmental
Radioactivity. 111: 100–108. doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2011.10.007. PMID 22071362.
"London Convention and Protocol". International Maritime Organization. Archived
from the original on 6 November 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
"International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL
73/78)". International Maritime Organization. Archived from the original on 19
September 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
External links
sea
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Archived 24 April 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
vte
Earth's oceans and seas
vte
Physical oceanography
Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata
Categories: SeasBodies of waterCoastal and oceanic landformsLists of
landformsOceans
This page was last edited on 17 February 2025, at 07:46 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaCode of
ConductDevelopersStatisticsCookie statementMobile view
Wikimedia Foundation
Powered by MediaWiki

Sea

228 languages
Add topic