Unit 5 Topic 11

Challenges of
Contemporary
Agriculture
Learning Objective
Explain challenges and
debates related to the
changing nature of
contemporary agriculture
and food-production
practices. 2
Essential Knowledge
● Agricultural innovations such as biotechnology, genetically modified
organisms, and aquaculture have been accompanied by debates
over sustainability, soil and water usage, reductions in
biodiversity, and extensive fertilizer and pesticide use
● Patterns of food production and consumption are influenced by
movements relating to individual food choice, such as urban farming,
community-supported agriculture (CSA), organic farming,
value-added specialty crops, fair trade, local-food movements, and
dietary shifts
● Challenges of feeding a global population include lack of food access,
as in cases of food insecurity and food deserts; problems with
distribution systems; adverse weather, and land use lost to
suburbanization
● The location of food processing facilities and markets, economies
of scale, distribution systems, and government policies all have
economic effects on food-production practices
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 Agricultural Innovations
Biotechnology-controversial innovation used to improve quality/health of plants and animals.
Includes:

▪ Plant and animal breeding & animals injected with antibiotics & growth hormones (to
increase production of milk or make them larger to produce more meat)
▪ Genetically modified organisms (GMOs): plants and animals that scientists have
modified by extracting genes of one species and inserting them into the DNA of
another species
Cons:
Pros:
● Leads to monocropping; less diversity
● More nutritious
● Potential health effects
● Resistant to pests/weather
● Resistance to pests/herb. = superpests
● Less susceptible to spoilage
● Sterile (have to buy more),
● Not linked to bad health effects
● Weakens plants natural defense
● Reduces use of pesticides (lessens
mechanisms=more pesticides
chance of residue being ingested)
▪ Occurs more in MDC’s- have $$ to buy GMO seeds, larger agribusinesses/commercial
agriculture

*Biotechnology can also include other practices to improve health: vaccines, molecular
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diagnostics, and tissue cultures
 Agricultural Innovations
Productivity of GMOs – how do they benefit agriculture?

▪ GMOs are engineered to increase their drought resistance and resistance to pests which allows them
to survive in places originally not capable of producing crops or only yielding low levels of crops.
They have significantly increased overall agricultural productivity → because GMOs are developed at
the genetic level to be resistant to pests and insects it reduces the need to spray or use additional
pesticides or insecticides during the growing process → farmers save money and cause less
environmental pollution by using less fertilizers and pesticides

Banning of GMOs

▪ Many countries do not feel that GMOs are beneficial to agriculture or to people so they have either
fully banned them (Russia, France, China, India, Italy, Mexico, Switzerland) or have very heavily
restricted them (60 other countries around the world!) → Why?
▫ GMO seeds are patented and under copyright protections → to get these seeds you have to
sign a contract saying you will not save the seeds and replant them → you have to buy NEW
seeds every planting season → less profit for farmers and more money for GMO companies
like Monsanto, which can hurt small family farmers who can’t afford new seeds every season
▫ However, banning GMOs takes away large-scale agricultural operations ability to reduce
costs, and the products of small family farms become more competitive in price → ensuring
non-GMO crops are healthy can be a more time-consuming process, which would not
accommodate the economies of scale in large commercial farms, but would favor the smaller
family farm 5
 *Aquaculture can challenge traditional
fishing and lead to conflicts between
fishing groups, disrupting the local way
Aquaculture
Aquaculture - practice of raising and harvesting fish and
of life.

other forms of food that live in water under controlled

conditions

Blue Revolution - fastest growing form of food production on

the planet and responsible for 50% of the world’s seafood →
caused by the overharvesting of wild fish stock as well as an
increased demand for seafood by consumers

Open-pen systems - a cage or net is anchored to the seafloor

and the fish are able to interact with the wild surroundings
to some extent

Issues:

- High fish density = diseases and parasites

thrive and spread easily
- Parasites/diseases can easily spread to nearby
wild stock
- Chemicals/antibiotics can damage the
ecosystem around the enclosures
- Loss of biodiversity
- Excess fish waste can pollute nearby
ecosystem

*Without aquaculture, demand for wild caught fish

increases stress on ocean and ecosystems
 Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture: the farming methods that preserve long-term productivity of land for future
generations and minimize pollution, typically by rotating soil-restoring crops with cash crops and
reducing inputs of fertilizers and pesticides

Today, we see many countries such as the U.S., Canada, UK, France, Australia, and most Western
European countries turning towards more sustainable agricultural practices:

Why?

▪ Soil degradation/desertification/soil erosion → planting of repetitive crops (monocropping

or double cropping) can cause the depletion of nutrients in the soil which can in turn lead
to erosion and even possibly desertification which then reduces arable land available for
agriculture
▪ Reduction in biodiversity → a reduction in biodiversity can create unsustainable
ecosystems for wildlife as well as a lack of soil usage over time
▪ Overgrazing → overgrazing has led to issues such as soil erosion and the lack of grasses
or other crops to be able to grow in a timely manner
▪ River/aquifer depletion → leads to a lack of available water as well as killing water
ecosystems, this can also cause widespread drought and famine
▪ Animal wastes- excess animal wastes, especially from CAFOs, can cause water pollution
and contamination of drinking water for humans as well as spread disease
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 Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture: the farming methods that preserve long-term productivity
of land for future generations and minimize pollution, typically by rotating
soil-restoring crops with cash crops and reducing inputs of fertilizers and pesticides

How humans have altered the environment to decrease sustainability

▪ Overuse of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and/or herbicides that harm ecosystems

(water, air, soil) and increase pollution
▪ Overuse of resources (air, water) → reducing productivity
▪ Overuse, erosion, or nutrient depletion of soil → reducing productivity
▪ Overuse of irrigation, depleting water resources, reducing soil nutrients through
runoff, or contributing to soil salinization
▪ Agricultural practices such as monocropping and commercial agriculture, increased
use of high-yield seeds, GMOs, or biotechnology have reduced biodiversity and
depleted soil nutrients
▪ Deforestation (in both MDCs and LDCs) to make room for more agricultural land or
urbanization has diminished sustainability due to climate change impacts of forest
cover loss (less carbon storage and more carbon release → increased greenhouse
gases → increased climate change) and a reduction in biodiversity and ecosystems 8
 Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture: the farming methods that preserve long-term productivity
of land for future generations and minimize pollution, typically by rotating
soil-restoring crops with cash crops and reducing inputs of fertilizers and pesticides

How humans have altered the environment to increase sustainability

▪ Improved management of farm resources (water, soil, fertilizers, pesticides) has

helped ecosystems
▪ Use of organic agricultural practices, including natural fertilizers, pesticides, and
herbicides
▪ Restoration of environmentally damaged areas by implementing sustainable
agricultural practices
▪ Crop rotation which supports soil health (fertility) and avoids large-scale
environmental damage
▪ Conservation of farmland (fallowing, erosion control) and local resources
▪ Reforestation (re-planting trees in a deforested area) and afforestation (planting
trees in an area that previously had not been forested) efforts (especially in MDCs)
to try to increase environmental sustainability
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 Agricultural Chemicals & Fossil Fuels/ Soil
Degradation & Erosion
Much of the environmental impact of farming comes from the use of chemicals.

▪ Fertilizers : excess contaminates nearby water=significant enviro damage→ growth of

toxic algae that uses O2 in water→kills fish and other organisms

▪ Pesticides/Insecticides/Herbicides - destroy parts of natural ecosystem; major damage

to other life forms, including humans

▪ Livestock Chemicals - dev. of antibiotic resistant bacteria (superbugs) due to

antibiotics & hormones given to livestock
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▪ Fossil Fuels: more pollution from mechanization

Soil Degradation & Erosion

▪ If density of animals is too high than expansive grasslands can support → animals
overgraze in search of food.

▫ Too many animals on too little land or climate conditions worsen

▫ Ex: Sahel region of Africa-less land for nomads (now used for crops, mining,
or gov. protective of borders)=remaining longer in fewer locations=erosion

▪ GMOs and intensive farming practices such as monocropping can deplete essential
nutrients from the soil → reduces the fertility of the soil making it less productive
 Environmental Issues
Depletion of Water Supplies Loss of Biodiversity
70% of all accessible fresh Causes: Improved varieties of
water is used for agri. crops= farmers often abandon
Cause: Wasteful with older varieties→ less crop
water-using irrigation systems diversity
with pipes that leak, or growing Effect: Specializing in one crop
crops in arid places that require (monocropping) reduces diversity
excessive amounts of water of insects, animals, and other
Effect of poor irrigation= organisms that depend on other
salinization and water varieties of plants, biodiversity
depletion. decr. due to-rural to urban
landscape
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Changes in Food Production & Consumption-Urban
Farming-in support of sustainable practices
Urban farming - the practice of growing fruits and
vegetables on small private plots or shared community
gardens within the confines of a city- allows for FOOD
SECURITY
Effect:
▪ Reduced distance between producer and consumer;
consumers enjoy fresh products
▪ Ex: China-90% of veggies from UF’s
▪ **Occuring in MDC’s-Canada, US (Detroit, Michigan, 12
Cali.)due to lack of nutritious foods in cities-food
deserts→ provides cheaper access to food that is also
healthier
Community gardens - people of the community grow food
to harvest for themselves or give to eco. disadv. Citizens (in
parks, tops of buildings, abandoned lots)
Vertical farms - growing crops inside stackable trays, using
greenhouses, artificial lights and hydroponics; uses less
water and less land
-Hydroponics - crops grow without soil using
mineral-enriched solutions (liquids)-less water/land
 Organic Foods
(1960’s & 70’s)
Organic Farming: The production of crops and livestock using ecological processes, natural biodiversity, and
renewable resources rather than industrial practices and synthetic inputs

To be organic, crops must be non-GMO, produced without pesticides or synthetic fertilizers, and use
sustainable growing practices. Livestock must be fed 100% organic feed and not administered antibiotics
or hormones. Ex: Whole Foods

Organic farming = more labor-intensive → it creates more jobs, BUT the food is more expensive.

Drawbacks:

▪ More land is needed to produce same quantity → may lead to more greenhouse gases as
deforestation happens to clear land for agricultural use
▪ Allow use of naturally occurring chemicals that can be harmful to living things → just because
something is “natural” doesn’t mean you can’t still over use it and cause pollution

Just because it is organic farming doesn’t automatically mean it’s sustainable → there is A LOT of profit to
be made in organic foods as people become more health conscious → agribusinesses are purchasing
organic farms to turn profit from the premium prices → Ex: Organic truck farming - uses high levels of
natural fertilizers and pesticides, which still damage the environment, AND lots of machines that run on
fossil fuels, creating C02 emissions → NOT sustainable
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 Community-Supported
Agriculture (CSA)

Community-Supported Agriculture (CSA): a producer-consumer

partnership- farmers are guaranteed buyers for their produce at guaranteed
prices and consumers receive fresh food directly

Consumers buy a share, or subscribe to a certain quantity of crops for a

season. The food is made available to the consumer throughout the growing
season. This ensures the consumers a local supply of fresh products and the
farmer receives revenue throughout the season, rather than only at the end.
It also allows for a connection between consumers and producers because
consumers can often participate in the process of growing and harvesting.

Benefits:

▪ Ensures consumers a local supply of fresh products

▪ Farmer = revenue throughout the season, rather than only at the end
▪ Connection between consumers and producers
▪ Consumers= appreciation/involvement of production process
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▪ Producer understands consumer wants
“ **Value-Added
Specialty Crops
Value-Added Crops: crops/livestock consumers are willing to
pay more for because of special qualities - difficult to acquire
OR processing crops into high-value products, rather than
selling the raw product
Ex:
● Organically grown crops/meats
● Rare subtropical plants (passion fruit, star fruit,
lychee ets.)
● Grass-fed beef and free-range chickens and eggs
Ex:
● Grapes → Wine
● Milk → Cheese, Butter, Ice Cream
● Fruits → Jams & Jellies
● Tomatoes & Peppers → Salsa

Benefits to Farmers: Compared to plain milk or fresh

fruit/produce, value-added agricultural goods significantly
increase the price of the farm products sold and increase
earnings for farmers → beneficial for farms further away from
the urban areas/market areas as these items are less perishable

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 Fair Trade
Consumers aware of disparity between the high incomes in MDC’s who manage trade, and the low
incomes of producers in LDC’s want to use their money to encourage agribusinesses to treat workers
better → creation of Fair Trade Movement → For crops such as: bananas, cane sugar, cocoa, cotton, coffee

Fair Trade - a certification program that supports good crop prices for farmers and environmentally sound
farming practices → goals: 1. promote higher incomes and better working conditions for producers (farmers)
in LDC’s instead of transnational corps, 2. Provide a bigger share of revenue to producers and growers in
developing countries, 3. Advocate for more sustainable farming practices → these goals increase the cost of
production but consumers are willing to pay higher price for these items to know that they’re money is going
towards a good cause

**Fair Trade principles:

▪ Fair price paid to farmers by importers & pay workers a fair price
▪ Decent work conditions- safe working enviro. & no child labor
▪ Environmental sustainability-safe practices & no GMOS
▪ Respect for local culture through shared agricultural techniques with farmers

Impact→better living standards for workers BUT many consumers feel fair trade products too expensive
**Differences between fair trade farms and regular plantation farms: Fair-trade farms are locally owned and operated while
plantations are owned by large corporations, the workers are local but the management is not; Fair-trade farms promote higher
Ex: Starbucks sells fair
incomes for producers and sustainable practices in farming, while the goal of plantations is profit for the multinational 16
corporation/company at the expense of the workers and environment trade coffees at higher $$
 Local-Food Movement
In response to the high consumption of processed foods/restaurants

Eat-local Movement: a trend among consumers seeking out food (fruits/veggies) produced
nearby

Locavores - people who dedicate themselves to slow-food diets and to obtaining as much of their
nutrition as possible from local farmers

Benefits:
▪ Supports local farmers and the local economy
▪ Reduces use of fossil fuels used to transport products; large grocery chains are
receiving food from thousands of miles away = CO2

Started in the 1990s with farmers markets-purchase fruits, vegetables, etc. directly from
farmers

Many farmers cater to local consumers by producing specialty crops such as herbs,
mushrooms, and eggs from free-range chickens, in small quantities but at relatively high
prices
Dietary shifts towards more health-conscious choices has drastically increased organic and
community supported agriculture, and has expanded the local food movement in more
developed countries 17
 Challenges to Feeding
Global Populations
Even though we have seen a massive amount of growth in agricultural goods, and
agricultural SURPLUS of food (to the point that countries are literally THROWING AWAY
food because it's going uneaten/unused) → hunger and famine STILL continues!

Why?
▪ Lack of food access → food insecurity/food deserts → people either do not have the
MONEY to be able to afford food on a regular basis (food insecurity) OR they do not
have stores near them that sell fresh nutritious food and have to rely on heavily
processed foods that are nearby (food desert)
▪ Adverse weather → climate change has brought about more severe weather
(droughts, hurricanes, monsoons, blizzards) which can directly impact growing
seasons and destroy crops → leads to less food and more hunger
▪ Problems with distribution systems → Issues with infrastructure (roads, airports,
ports) can cause food to not be able to make it to communities that need it → Ex:
Places with dirt roads may lose the ability to use those roads during rainy seasons as
the roads become muddy and trucks are unable to pass through, which leads to less
food availability
▪ Land use lost to suburbanization → as more and more people move into urban areas
looking for work, more housing is needed for them, this causes cities to expand
outward, often taking over agricultural land to build new housing → loss of
agricultural land leads to less food being grown and less food availability
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 Monocropping
Food Insecurity
increases food Food insecurity - occurs when large numbers of
insecurity → crop
failure and the loss
people experience long periods of inadequate
of a variety of local diets (bc of limited money or physical/economic
crops due to
monocropping ( a
access) → this means NO food, no nutritious
disease could food, no processed foods, NO FOOD!!
destroy the entire
crop production
within an area
Children are particularly vulnerable - hinders their
resulting in ability to learn and negatively affects growth
financial loss → no
money to buy food This problem affects BOTH MDC’s & LDC’s
and no subsistence
crops grown to feed
people) → loss of Ex: US= 14% of the pop. suffer from some level
soil fertility and
biodiversity Causes in MDC’s- poverty, unemployment
because it reduced
the variety of local
food (less profit for
Causes in LDC’s- high population growth, political
farmers to buy food instability, and environmental challenges are additional
and low soil quality
to grow their own) issues
→ fewer local foods
are produced and Solution: urban farming
become less
available resulting
in the price of local
People malnourished from food desserts AND food
food increasing (too insecurity
expensive for local
people to purchase)

*goes hand in hand

w/ food desserts
 Food Deserts
Food desert - an area with limited access to fresh, nutritious, and affordable food; typically in low income/high poverty areas
Characteristics:
● Areas usually home to racial/ethnic minorities, elderly, and disabled people; ECONOMIC and PHYSICAL constraints = no way to get to grocery stores
outside of their area of the city
○ Suburbs vs Food Deserts → Suburbs are typically wealthier than inner-city urban areas where food deserts exist → suburbs: grocery stores that provide
a wide variety of healthy and affordable food choice and people have adequate wealth and transportation to get customers to stores, there are more
fresh fruits/vegetables and far more choices of less processed food and more reasonable prices VS food deserts: fast food and heavily processed foods
are more common, some healthy options may be available at convenience stores, but the cost is much higher than at a larger grocery store
○ MDC Food Deserts Rural vs Urban
■ Cities: 33% more than 1 mile away from grocery store and often lack a vehicle, but may have access to public transportation to travel to stores →
Rural: also lack supermarkets (grocery stores >10 miles away) AND lack public transportation/vehicle → making food deserts more impactful on
them 20
○ Reasons:
■ E-Only smaller grocery stores available with processed foods bc larger grocery stores know poorer areas have less $ to spend on
food; nutrient poor foods are cheaper→health issues
■ Physical- don’t have a car, and can’t afford public transp. to suburbs (where grocery stores are)
■ S- elderly have fixed income and can’t afford healthy food or no car
○ Impacts:
■ Diet related health problems → obesity, diabetes, cancer, hypertension
■ Unbalanced diets → lead to malnutrition or undernutrition, which may affect long term health
■ Available foods may not be culturally appropriate for the local population
■ People in poverty spend more on food as a percentage of their income and many not get sufficient healthful food
■ *POSITIVE* → residents may work together on community gardens, community supported agriculture, or other food access options
(urban farming! → can provide food security for families as well as substantial incomes from vegetable sales; increases access to
food and supply is less affected by changes in economic, political, or environmental systems)
**Food Deserts

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 Factors Affecting Food Production- Location
of Food Processing Facilities and Markets
Location of Food Processing Facilities and Markets
When companies have to decide where to locate their food-processing facilities (meat-packing plants, orange juice factories, etc.) they
will take the following cost factors into account: labor costs, transportation costs, distance from market

Labor Costs → Food processing companies may locate in places (rural areas, small towns/cities, areas with high unemployment, areas
with low labor unions)where labor costs are lower → places where they have access to workers who may be paid below market
rates, at minimum wage, and with few benefits (migrant labor, female labor) → food-processing facilities agglomerate (cluster) in
rural areas or towns to draw from a lower-paid labor pool than urban areas

Transportation Costs → local infrastructure, such as roads and transportation networks are crucial to reducing transportation costs,
well-developed infrastructure facilitates the movement of raw materials and finished products, improving supply chain efficiency
→ leads to greater economies of scale as facilities can produce larger quantities at lower costs (this is why raw goods are
shipped to MDCs to be processed into the final product being sold) → food-processing facilities that process grains, vegetables,
and/or meat into food and/or fuel agglomerate (cluster) in rural areas or towns in grain-growing areas to reduce costs associated with
transportation and to take advantage of shared infrastructure

Market Accessibility → Food-processing facilities located near consumer bases can respond quickly to market demands, adapting their
production to meet consumer preferences → closeness depending on freshness of product (perishable is closer to urban markets) →
food-processing facilities that process perishable products (dairy, fruits) tend to locate in rural areas or towns in close proximity
to urban areas to be close to consumers and to limit food spoilage

**Fewer, but larger/more efficient processing plants in rural areas because low land cost = process more at lower cost = reach
economies of scale 22
 Factors Affecting Food Production-
Economies of Scale
Economies of Scale

When food-processing facilities produce goods in larger quantities, the average cost per unit decreases. This
reduction occurs because fixed costs, such as equipment and facility maintenance, are spread over a larger
number of products. Lower production costs can lead to reduced prices for consumers, making food more
affordable.

Additionally, larger production volumes can lead to more significant bargaining power with suppliers. Food
processors can negotiate better prices for raw materials, further decreasing costs. This competitive advantage
allows larger firms to dominate the market, potentially pushing smaller producers out of business.

Moreover, economies of scale can foster innovation. Larger companies tend to have more resources to invest in
research and development. This investment can lead to new products, improved production techniques, and
more efficient processes, enhancing overall productivity in the food industry.

However, it is essential to recognize the potential downsides. As larger companies grow, they may prioritize
profit over local needs, leading to issues such as reduced product diversity and negative environmental
impacts.
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 Factors Affecting Food Production-
Distribution Systems
Distribution systems → channels through which food products reach consumers → efficient distributions
system is vital for the economic success of food production

▪ Food availability → ensures that food reaches markets quickly and efficiently → speed reduced
spoilage and waste, lowering costs for producers
▪ Pricing → when companies can efficiently move products from processing facilities to retailers they can
maintain low prices → inefficiencies lead to higher costs, which may be passed on to consumers
▪ Technology → innovations like refrigeration, tracking systems, and online ordering have transformed
how food is distributed → increase efficiency and improve the overall consumer experience, leading to
higher demand for products
▪ Expanded market → global distribution system has expanded market access for food producers →
producers can reach consumers worldwide, increasing sales opportunities → local producers must now
compete with international brands, affecting local economies
▪ Sustainability → consumers now looking for eco-friendly options → pushes companies to adopt
greener practices in their distribution systems which can lead to increased costs initially but may result
in long-term benefits and consumer loyalty
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 Factors Affecting Food Production-
Government Policies
Government policies affect everything from regulations to subsidies, significantly influence the economic landscape of
the food industry

▪ Regulations governing migrant workers → can prevent or encourage workers to help harvest
▪ Financial assistance - low-interest loans or subsidies → subsidies help stabilize prices and ensure food security,
allowing producers to invest in better practices and technology
▪ Investment in transportation and storage (grain elevators) infrastructure → increases efficiency and storage
for producers
▪ Regulations on how much grown → prevents surplus of shortage of crops
▪ Regulations → food safety, environmental impact, labor standards → affect production costs → increase
operation costs for producers
▪ Taxes to discourage production
▪ International trade → tariffs, import quotas, and trade agreements can either protect domestic industries or
expose them to international competition → Ex: impose tariffs like US and China did to protect domestic goods
▪ Land Use and Zoning (laws about how land is used) → affect where food is produced → restrictions on land
development may limit agricultural expansions, impacting food supply and prices → policies for sustainable land
use can promote long-term agricultural productivity
▪ Government Programs → programs aimed at promoting healthy eating can influence food production practices
→ encourages the production of fruits, vegetables, and whole foods → can shift market demand, affecting what
producers grow
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