CAPS

Physical Sciences
Grade 11
Electricity & Magnetism II

Electric Circuits

Copyright of the GMMDC© 2020

Exam Guidelines: Electricity & Magnetism

ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM is examined in Paper 1 (3 hr)

Exam Weighting
• 50 marks out of 150 – 33%

Examinable Materials
• Electrostatics (Electricity & Magnetism I)
• Coulomb’s law, electric fields
• Electric Circuits (Electricity & Magnetism II)
• Ohm’s law, power & energy
• Electromagnetism (Electricity & Magnetism III)
• Magnetic fields associated with current-carrying
conductors, Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
 Ohm’s Law
Georg Ohm discovered that, at constant temp., the current in a
resistive circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference
applied across it. We refer to this relationship as OHM’S LAW.
in mathematical terms …
𝑉 ∝ 𝐼 or as equation 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅 = 𝑉 Τ𝐼
where V – voltage, is measured in volts (V), I – current, is measured
in ampere (A), and R – resistance, in ohm (Ω).

current (I)
voltage (V)

Both graphs show that

V∝I
In which one does the
current (I) gradient represent R? voltage (V)

… the amount of electric current through a metal conductor in a circuit,

Ohm’s
Law

at constant temp., is directly proportional to the voltage across it.

Ohmic vs Non-Ohmic
For a voltage vs current graph (with
current represented on the x-axis, the
∆𝑦 ∆𝑉
gradient = = = 𝑅
∆𝑥 ∆𝐼
When voltage is represented on the
x-axis, the gradient = ∆𝐼 Τ∆𝑉 = 1Τ𝑅

All conductors, resistors, etc. that obey Ohm’s Law – where

voltage ∝ current – are called OHMIC CONDUCTORS.
• those that do not obey Ohm’s Law are non-ohmic.
Examples of non-ohmic conductors are … light bulbs (the old-
fashioned filament bulbs), LEDs (light emitting diodes), normal
diodes, transistors, most metals, etc.

current (I)
For non-ohmic conductors, the relationship
between voltage and current is non-linear.
In the case of a filament bulb, the wire …. voltage (V)
Non-Ohmic
… heats rapidly until it reaches operating temperature. When the
voltage is increased, the temperature rises, increasing the
filament’s resistance, thus limiting the increase in current.
Most metal conductors are in fact non-ohmic conductors – within a
range around a particular temp., they will obey Ohm’s law. When
temp. are very high or very low, that is not necessarily the case.
𝑉 R
𝑅=
The Ohm’s Law equation: 𝐼
I
which can be rewritten as … 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 or 𝐼=
𝑉 V
𝑅
Applied to the diagram: the resistance (R) of the resistor is equal
to the voltage across the resistor (provided by the battery) divided
by the current flowing through it; alternatively ….
… the voltage across the resistor is equal to the product of the
current flowing through it and the size of the resistance.
 Series Circuits
Given this circuit, with three resistors, R1,
I22 R2 1
1 R2 and R3 connected in series to a single
V2 cell – note ….
R1 V1 2I3 • It’s a series circuit since there is only
I1
2 one path along which charge can flow …
VT V3 R3
• total (equivalent) resistance of circuit:
1 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
IT 1 2
• measuring devices, volt- or ammeters,
have no effect / impact on the circuit …
… and connecting leads have no resistance
i.e. the potential difference between each pair pts 1 and 2 is zero (0 V)
• the same current flows through all components, ∴ IT = I1 = I2 = I3
• resistors in series are voltage dividers, ∴ VT = V1 + V2 + V3
• Ohm’s law applies, ∴ Vi = Ii×Ri (or Ri = Vi ÷ Ii or Ii = Vi ÷ Ri)
for the circuit as a whole, and for each individual component
 More On Circuits
Remember the following:
• Voltage is work per unit charge, i.e. energy supplied / used
• Batteries supply voltage: circuits use voltage.
• A circuit uses up all the voltage (energy) given by the battery
• The neg. end of the battery / cell is assumed to be at 0 V
0 – voltage at neg. end of battery is 0 V
4 R2 5 1 – battery supplies 12 V of energy
3 2 – at 12 V (conductor has no resistance – does
3V
R1 2 V not use / dissipate any electrical energy)
6 3 – R1 uses 2V, voltage drops to 12 - 2 = 10 V
2 4 – stays at 10 V – no energy used by cond.
12 7 V R 3
5 – R2 uses 3 V, voltage drops to 7 V
1 0
7 6 – stays at 7 V – no energy used by cond.
7 – R3 uses 7 V, voltage drops to 7 - 7 = 0 V
There are no voltage drops across networks of wires between devices
(resistors, voltmeters, battery) – they are at the same potential.
 Parallel Circuits
Consider the following circuit – two light bulbs
connected in series to a battery.
What happens when I connect a lead as shown?
Because the red connector has zero resistance,
all the current will flow through it and bypass the
light. As a result, only the bulb on the left will burn.

PARALLEL CIRCUITS I1 I2 I3
Given a circuit with 3 resistors, VT
R1, R2 and R3, connected in R1 R2 R3
parallel to a battery – note … IT
• there are multiple paths along which the current may flow
(no current flows through the voltmeter: infinite resistance)
• the parallel paths act as current dividers – the total current
(IT) is equal to the sum of the currents through each resist.
Equal Potentials
• IT = I1 + I2 + I3
• since there is no voltage
24 V R1 R VT R3
drop across connect. leads, 2
the following are two equal
potential surfaces …
the ‘blue’ lead – linked to the neg. end of the battery, at 0 V
the ‘red’ lead – at a pos. potential of 24 V (battery supplies)
• clearly, the potential difference across each of the resistors
must be the same (a difference of 24 V)
• the different paths are often called branches – the circuit above
has three branches, each with the same potential difference
• Ohm’s law applies, ∴ Vi = Ii×Ri (or Ri = Vi ÷ Ii or Ii = Vi ÷ Ri)
for the circuit as a whole, and for each individual component
• the equivalent resistance of a
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
parallel combination of resistors: = + + + …
𝑹𝒑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
 Examples 1
1) Two 20 Ω resistors are connected in parallel to a 12 V battery.
Calculate a) the effective resistance, b) the current through
each resistor, c) the total current flowing, and d) the voltage
across each resistor.
(Even if not required, it is always very useful to draw

10 Ω

10 Ω
the circuit diagram)
1 1 1 1 1 1
a) = + = + = , ∴ Rp = 5 Ω
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 10 10 5
A note: the effective resistance of a parallel combination will
always be smaller than the smallest resistance in the par.
combination.
b) I = V/ R = 12 / 10 = 1,2 A
c) I = V / R = 12 / 5 = 2,4 A
the current is split into two equal portions by the two
branches, hence the total current should be 1,2 + 1,2 =
2,4 A – as the calculated value confirms.
 Examples 2

d) The voltage across each resistor is 12 V. 12 V

2) Consider the given circuit diagram …
a) Without any calculation ….
i. estimate the size of the effective resistance.
ii. the 6 Ω resistor malfunctions: what happens to
the effective resistance?
iii. which resistor will carry the smallest current?
iv. how does the voltage across each resistor vary?
by size? by branch? by distance from battery?
( < 6 Ω; it increases; the 36 Ω resistor; it doesn’t)
b) Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit. 3Ω
c) Calculate the total current flowing, and the current through
each resistor ..
IT = V / Rp = 12 / 3 = 4 A
6Ω: I = V/R = 12/6 = 2 A; 12Ω: 12/12 = 1 A;
36Ω: 12/36 = 1/3 A; 18Ω: 12/18 = 2/3 A
 In Series or In Parallel?
Are these resistors connected in series or in parallel?

1 R1 2 2 R2 1 1 R3 2

A simple way of answering this is to consider the connectors / wires

that are at the same potential …
The connectors in red are at the same potential (there are no voltage
drops across any resistances), and similarly, the wires in blue are at
the same potential.
Accordingly, the voltages (voltage drops: Vat 1 – Vat 2) across each of
the resistors is the same.
This can only happen if the resistors are CONNECTED IN PARALLEL.
To validate the answer, we redraw the diagram to show the parallel
arrangement (with 1 at the top, 2 at the bottom – see next page)
In Parallel
 In Parallel
Alternately, consider the paths current might travel from A to B.

A B
R1 R2 R3

Incoming current (at point A) has three possible paths along which
to flow. Current leaving the three resistors combines at point B to
flow into the rest of the circuit.

COMBINATION SERIES-PARALLEL NETWORKS

Most actual circuits are not either purely series or purely parallel
circuits. Most are a (often quite complex) mix of series and parallel
combinations of resistors and other electrical devices such as
diodes, capacitors, inductance loops, etc.
We will only consider series-parallel networks of resistors.
 In Stages
Consider the following diagram … 15 45
• the 15 & 45 Ω resistors are in series ...
• the 100 & 150 Ω resistors are in parallel 150
…
• and these two combinations are in 100
parallel with each other
By taking each of these sections in stages, it is quite easy to
calculate the effective resistance of these four resistors.
(as you work, replace any combination with a singe resistor of equivalent resistance)
• series combo: RS = R1 + R2 = 15 + 45 = 60 Ω
• parallel combo: 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/150 + 1/100 = 1/60
Rp = 60 Ω
• combined total: 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/60 + 1/60 = 1/30
Rp = 30 Ω
The total resistance for the series-parallel combo is 30 Ω
Another Example
Follow the same procedure as above 15 35
to calculate the equivalent
resistance for this circuit. 15
• the 15 & 35 Ω series combo 44
15 + 35 = 50 Ω 10
• the 10 & 15 Ω parallel combo
1/10 + 1/15 = 1/6, Rp = 6 Ω
• the equivalent 6 Ω resistance & the 44 Ω resistor in series
6 + 44 = 50 Ω
• the two equivalent 50 Ω resistances in parallel
1/50 + 1/50 = 1/25; Rp = 25 Ω
• the 25 Ω resistance and the 25 Ω equivalent resistance …
25 + 25 = 50 Ω
There’s nothing really complex about this – just be systematic
and work through the stages step by step.
 Methodology …
The key to finding the equivalent resistance of a series-parallel
network is to work from inside to the outside, or from one end to
the other (always towards the battery). 10
12
4
To determine the equiv. resistance of the
resistors shown, proceed as follows …. 4 12
3
2
Start on the right, working towards the left …
• 10 & 2 Ω resistors in series
10 + 2 = 12 Ω
8
• 12 Ω equiv. resistance & the 6 Ω resistor in parallel
1/12 + 1/6 = ¼; Rp = 4 Ω
• the 4 Ω resistance & the 8 Ω resistor are in series …
4 + 8 = 12 Ω
• finally, the 12 Ω equiv. resistance & 4 Ω resistor are in par.
1/12 + 1/4 = 1/3; Rp = 3 Ω
A Transfer of Energy
Electricity? What’s it about?
Do you plug in a kettle to transfer electrons from
the mains to the kettle? Of course not!
You plug in a kettle to boil water – by transferring
electrical energy from a power source (an Eskom
power station somewhere) to the water. Batteries (e.g. your phone
battery) may also act as power source.
Electricity is, first & foremost, about the TRANSFER OF ENERGY.
Yes, the energy transfer does involve some movement of
electrons, but what is transferred is energy, not electrons.
The symbol for electrical energy is E. Like all other forms of energy,
it is measured in joule (J).
Some kettles boil a litre of water much faster than others – the
transfer of energy takes place much quicker. In more concise,
scientific terms: the rate of energy transfer is greater.
Electrical Power
We use the term POWER to describe the rate of energy transfer. To
define it properly, in the context of an electric circuit …
POWER (symbol: P) is the rate at which electrical energy is
converted in an electric circuit. It is measured in watts (W).
The word rate, as used here, has to do with time – how fast, or
how slow, the conversion of energy is.
In an electric circuit, the rate at which energy is used (or dissipated)
by a device (e.g.: a resistor) is equal to the product of the potential
difference across the device and the current through that device. This
applies equally to the circuit as a whole.
As formula:
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
where power (P) is measured in watt (W), the potential difference /
voltage (V) is measured in volts (V), and the current (I) is
measured in ampere (A)
 Power & Ohm’s Law
Using Ohm’s Law (V = I·R), the formula for power can be
developed further …
P=V×I P=V×I
but V = I·R (Ohm’s law) but I = V/R (Ohm’s law)
∴ P = (I·R) × I ∴ P = V × (V/R)
= I2R = V2/R
2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑃=𝐼 𝑅 2 𝑉
𝑃 = ൗ𝑅

1) A 6 V battery delivers a 0,5 A current to an electric motor. What

power is delivered to the motor? P = VI = 6 × 0,5 = 3 W
2) The current through a light bulb connected to a 240 V source is
0,25 A. At what rate does the bulb convert energy to light?
P = VI = 240 × 0,25 = 60 W
 Electrical Energy
When electric current flows through a filament lamp or through any
other kind of resistive device, energy is dissipated. The lamp gets
hot, water begins to boil, etc.
The amount of energy used, denoted by the symbol, E, can be
determined from the power used by a device, and the time (in
seconds) over which the energy transfer takes place.
As formula:
𝑬=𝑷·𝒕 where energy, E, is measured in
joule (J), & time in seconds (s)
Consider again the 6 V battery delivering 0,5 A of current to an
electrical motor. The power delivered we calculated as 3 W. If the
motor runs for 5 minutes, how much electrical energy is
transferred?
E = P·t = 3 × (5 × 60) = 900 J.
900 J of energy is used to run the motor for 5 minutes.
kWh – kilowatt-hour
In South Africa, you are charged for your electricity usage in
KILOWATT-HOUR (kWh).
Consider this name: kilowatt – hour …
• the kilowatt (kW) – equal to 1000 watt (W), is the unit for
power (how fast energy is dissipated / consumed)
• hour (h) is a unit for time …
but not an SI unit, so we need to convert to seconds by
multiplying by 60 (min / h) and again by 60 (s / min), i.e. by
3600
• now power × time = energy (E = P·t), thus the kilowatt-hour
(kWh) is a unit of energy.
Using 1 kWh of energy, you use 1 kW of power for 1 hour, which
is equivalent to 1000 W × 3600 = 3 600 000 J of energy.
To determine the energy consumption in a particular time period:
kWh = [power (in watt: W) × time (in hours: h)] / 1000
 Examples 1
1) A 60 W light bulb is turned on. If the circuit is powered by a
120 V source, how much current is flowing through the bulb?
P = VI, ∴ 60 = 120 / I, ∴ I = 120 / 60 = 0,5 A
2) A toaster is plugged into a 240 V household circuit. It draws 0,5
A of current.
a) What is the resistance of the toaster?
R = V/I = 240 / 0,5 = 480 Ω
b) What is the power of the toaster in watts?
P = VI = 240·0,5 = 120 W … or
P = V2/R = 2402/480 = 120 W … or
P = I2R = 0,52 × 480 = 120 W
c) What is the power in kilowatts?
120 W = 120/1000 = 0,12 kW
3) A person replaces a 100 W bulb with a 75 W bulb. The light is
used for 3 hours per day. How much money will he save
 Examples 2
over 30 days if the cost of electricity is R 1,43 per kWh.
Energy saved per day = (100 – 75)×3 ÷ 1000 = 0,075 kWh.
Energy saved per month = 0,075 × 30 = 2,25 kWh
Money saved = 2,25 × 1,43 = R 3,22
4) A microwave oven operates on 1500 W of power and is used
for 20 minutes. How much electrical energy, in joules and kWh,
is used by the microwave oven?
E = Pt = 1500 × (20×60) = 1,8×106 J
to convert to kWh, divide by 3,6×106: E = 0,5 kWh
alternatively: 1,5 kW × (20/60) h = 0,5 kWh
5) A DC electric motor transforms 1,5 kW of electrical power into
mechanical form. If the motor's operating voltage is 300 V, how
much current does it "draw" when operating at full load (full
power output)?
P = VI, ∴ 1500 = 300 / I, ∴ I = 300/1500 = 0,2 A.
Exercises – Understanding: The End

Having studied this section on Electric Circuits, work through as

many of the associated exercises as possible.
Remember, practice (and more practice) makes perfect.
Where you are uncertain about something, consult with your
teacher, or your classmates. Always try to clarify difficulties as
soon as possible.
And remember too: is
key – the right answer will then take care of itself.