TEMPERATURE

AVM 303 AVIATION METEOROLOGY

CACS 209 GENERAL METEOROLOGY
INTRODUCTION

Significance of Temperature:
• Temperature is a crucial variable in the atmosphere.
• Understanding temperature variations, both horizontally (across different regions) and vertically (at different
altitudes), is essential in meteorology.
• Temperature affects many atmospheric processes, including pressure systems, wind patterns, and precipitation.
MEASUREMENT

Temperature Scales
1. Fahrenheit Scale (°F) Conversion Factors
 Melting point of ice: +32°F
1. Celsius to Fahrenheit
 Boiling point of water: +212°F 5
°C=9×(°F−32)
2. Celsius Scale (°C)
2. Fahrenheit to Celsius
 Melting point of ice: 0°C
9
 Boiling point of water: +100°C
°F= ×°C+32
5

3. Kelvin Scale (K) 3. Celsius to Kelvin

 Melting point of ice: +273 K K=°C+273
 Boiling point of water: +373 K
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Ground-Based Instruments
1. Mercury Thermometer 3. Electrical Resistance Thermometers
 Usage: Standard means of temperature measurement on the  Usage: Alternative to mercury thermometers.
ground.
 Features: Measures temperature based on the change in
 Placement: Inside a Stevenson Screen. electrical resistance.

2. Stevenson Screen 4. Thermograph

 Description: A louvred box that houses thermometers and  Description: Similar to a barograph but for temperature.
other instruments.
 Placement: Inside the Stevenson Screen.
 Height: 4 feet (1.22 meters) above the ground.
 Purpose: Provides a continuous record of temperature
 Purpose: Protects instruments from direct sunlight, changes over time.
precipitation, and radiation while allowing air to circulate
freely.
ELECTRICAL THERMOMETER
THE STEVENSON SCREEN
THERMOGRAPH
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Upper Air Instruments: Radiosonde

 Description: Device carried in the air beneath a balloon
Aircraft Instruments :Aircraft Temperature
to measure temperature, pressure, and humidity. Measurements
 Function: Transmits continuous readings during ascent.  Usage: Essential for measuring atmospheric temperature
over oceans and remote areas.
 Rate of Climb: 1200 feet per minute.
 Digital Readout: Modern aircraft may use electrical
 Ceiling: Between 65,000 and 115,000 feet. thermometers with digital displays, automatic
 Modern Tracking: Uses GPS for accurate 3D position and calibration, and data transmission.
data transmission.
A RADIOSONDE
SOURCES OF HEAT

Solar Radiation
• Characteristics: Short wavelength (0.15 - 4 microns).
• Impact: Passes through the troposphere with minimal
heating effect.
• Reflection: Some radiation is reflected back from cloud
tops and water surfaces.
• Insolation: Solar radiation heats the Earth's surface.
SOURCES OF HEAT

Terrestrial Radiation
• Characteristics: Long wavelength (4 to 80 microns),
peaking at 10 microns.
• Impact: Absorbed by greenhouse gases (water vapour,
carbon dioxide, methane).
• Note: Increased carbon dioxide contributes to global
warming.
SOURCES OF HEAT

Conduction
• Description: Direct heating or cooling of air in contact
with the Earth's surface.
• Daytime: Air is heated by conduction.
• Nighttime: Air cools by conduction, potentially leading
to temperature inversions due to poor air conductivity.
SOURCES OF HEAT

Convection
• Description: Air heated by conduction becomes less
dense and rises.
• Process: Creates thermals or convection currents that
carry warm air to higher levels.
• Significance: Main processes heating the troposphere,
alongside terrestrial radiation.
SOURCES OF HEAT

Condensation
• Process: Lifting air cools adiabatically, causing water
vapour to condense into droplets, forming clouds.
• Impact: Latent heat is released during condensation,
contributing to tropospheric heating.
HEAT PROCESSES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH HEIGHT

 Near the Surface: The temperature is typically higher due to

direct heating from the Earth's surface. The closer air is to
the surface, the more it is heated by terrestrial radiation
and conduction.
 As Altitude Increases: The effect of heating diminishes as
the altitude increases. This is because:
• The influence of terrestrial radiation decreases with height.
• Air density decreases with height, leading to less efficient heat
transfer.
• The primary heating effect is localized near the surface.
LAPSE RATE

 Lapse Rate: The rate at which temperature decreases with an increase in height in the atmosphere.

 Standard Lapse Rate

• Ideal Atmosphere: In an ideal, uniform atmosphere, the lapse rate is constant.
• International Standard Atmosphere (ISA): The standard lapse rate is defined as 0.65°C per 100 meters (1.98°C or approximately 2°C
per 1,000 feet).
ISOTHERM

Definition
• Isotherm: A line on a weather map that connects points with the same temperature.
• Isothermal Layer: A layer of the atmosphere where the temperature remains constant with height.
Characteristics
• Temperature Consistency: In an isothermal layer, despite changes in altitude, the temperature does not change.
This is different from the typical lapse rate where temperature decreases with height.
• Weather Implications: Isothermal layers can influence weather patterns by stabilizing the atmosphere and affecting
cloud formation.
INVERSIONS

Definition
• Inversion: A situation in the atmosphere where
temperature increases with height, contrary to the
normal lapse rate where temperature decreases with
height.
TYPES OF INVERSIONS

Radiation Inversion:
• Description: Occurs at night when clear skies allow for the rapid cooling of the earth’s surface, leading to cooler
temperatures near the ground compared to higher altitudes.
• Formation: Clear nights cause the ground to cool quickly by radiating heat, cooling the air in contact with the
surface. The air higher up, which is less affected, remains warmer.
• Impact: Can lead to fog or frost formation due to the cool, moist air near the surface.
TYPES OF INVERSIONS

Turbulence Inversion:
• Description: Found at heights of 2,000 to 3,000 feet, often caused by turbulence in the lower layers of the
atmosphere.
• Formation: Turbulence from surface heating or mechanical effects can cause a layer of warmer air to sit above
cooler, more turbulent air near the surface.
• Impact: Can affect flight conditions and weather patterns due to the turbulence and inversion layer.
TYPES OF INVERSIONS

Tropopause Inversion:
• Description: A slight rise in temperature can occur at the tropopause, which is the boundary between the
troposphere and stratosphere.
• Formation: Temperature increases slightly with height within the tropopause, which is the normal boundary layer
between these two atmospheric layers.
• Impact: This inversion is typical and affects the stability of the troposphere and weather patterns.
TYPES OF INVERSIONS

Stratospheric Inversion:
• Description: In the stratosphere, temperature increases with height, typically from 20 km to 32 km.
• Formation: The stratosphere experiences warming due to the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer,
which increases the temperature with altitude.
• Impact: This inversion helps to limit vertical mixing between the stratosphere and troposphere.
TYPES OF INVERSIONS

Subsidence Inversion:
• Description: Occurs in high-pressure systems were descending air warms adiabatically.
• Formation: Air descending in a high-pressure system compresses and warms, creating a layer of warmer air above
cooler surface air.
• Impact: Can lead to stable atmospheric conditions, clear skies, and limited vertical air movement.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Latitude Effect:
• Description: The angle at which sunlight strikes the
earth varies with latitude. Near the Equator, sunlight is
concentrated over a smaller area, leading to higher
temperatures. At the poles, sunlight is spread over a
larger area, resulting in lower temperatures.
• Impact: The Equator experiences the highest
temperatures, while polar regions have the lowest
temperatures due to the difference in heat per unit
area.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Seasonal Effect:
• Description: Seasonal changes affect temperature due to the tilt of
the Earth's axis.
• Key Dates:
• Equinoxes (around March 21 and September 21): Sun is directly
overhead the Equator, leading to maximum heating at the Equator.
• Summer Solstice (around June 21): Sun is at its most northerly
latitude, resulting in maximum heating in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Winter Solstice (around December 21): Sun is at its most southerly
latitude, leading to minimum heating in the Northern Hemisphere.

• Impact: Maximum temperatures in temperate latitudes occur later

in summer (July/August) and minimum temperatures occur later in
winter (January/February).
SURFACE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Diurnal Variation:
• Description: The daily temperature variation between
day and night. Assumes clear skies and light winds.
• Key Points:
• Maximum Temperature: Reached around 1500 local time
when incoming solar radiation balances outgoing terrestrial
radiation.
• Minimum Temperature: Occurs about 30 minutes after
sunrise when incoming solar radiation starts to exceed
outgoing radiation.

• Impact: Diurnal variation (DV) is about ±6°C in

temperate latitudes, greatest with clear skies and light
winds.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Cloud Cover:
• Daytime: Clouds reflect some solar radiation back to
space, reducing maximum temperatures (T Max).
• Nighttime: Clouds absorb and re-radiate terrestrial
radiation, increasing minimum temperatures (T min).
• Impact: Cloud cover generally reduces DV by affecting
both T Max and T min.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Wind:
• Daytime: Winds mix warm surface air with cooler air
aloft, reducing T Max and limiting the time air remains
in contact with the warm ground.
• Nighttime: Winds mix cooler surface air with warmer air
aloft, increasing T min and reducing temperature
inversions.
• Impact: Wind reduces DV by affecting both T Max and T
min.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Specific Heat of Water vs. Land:

• Sea: Water has a high specific heat capacity, meaning it heats and cools slowly. Diurnal variation over the sea is
small, generally less than 1°C.
• Land: Land heats and cools rapidly, leading to higher diurnal temperature variations.
• Impact: Land-sea temperature differences create sea breezes and influence local weather patterns.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Nature of the Surface:

• Sea: Slow to heat and cool, minimal DV. Sea
temperatures remain relatively stable compared to
land.
• Land: Different surfaces (e.g., bare rock, sand,
concrete) absorb and release heat at different rates,
affecting local temperatures.
• Snow: High albedo reflects most solar radiation,
leading to very low temperatures over snow-covered
areas.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Location:
• Over Land: Valleys often experience cooler
temperatures at night due to cold air drainage and
prolonged contact with the ground. Mist and fog are
more common in valleys.
• Over Oceans: Oceans have smaller DV, leading to
milder temperatures and affecting wind patterns (e.g.,
monsoon effects).
Why is temperature an important variable in meteorology?
A) It only affects pressure systems
B) It has no impact on atmospheric processes
C) It influences pressure systems, wind patterns, and precipitation
D) It only affects wind patterns
Why is temperature an important variable in meteorology?
A) It only affects pressure systems
B) It has no impact on atmospheric processes
C) It influences pressure systems, wind patterns, and precipitation
D) It only affects wind patterns
What is the significance of studying temperature variations both horizontally and vertically?
A) It helps in predicting temperature changes only
B) It has no practical use in meteorology
C) It only affects vertical temperature gradients
D) It is crucial for understanding atmospheric processes and weather forecasting
What is the significance of studying temperature variations both horizontally and vertically?
A) It helps in predicting temperature changes only
B) It has no practical use in meteorology
C) It only affects vertical temperature gradients
D) It is crucial for understanding atmospheric processes and weather forecasting
What is the purpose of a Stevenson Screen?
A) To protect instruments from sunlight and precipitation
B) To increase the accuracy of mercury thermometers
C) To measure wind speed
D) To transmit temperature data to satellites
What is the purpose of a Stevenson Screen?
A) To protect instruments from sunlight and precipitation
B) To increase the accuracy of mercury thermometers
C) To measure wind speed
D) To transmit temperature data to satellites
What atmospheric condition might cause temperature to increase with height?
A) A temperature inversion
B) Normal lapse rate
C) High pressure system
D) Low pressure system
What atmospheric condition might cause temperature to increase with height?
A) A temperature inversion
B) Normal lapse rate
C) High pressure system
D) Low pressure system
What is the standard lapse rate according to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)?
A) 0.25°C per 100 meters
B) 0.50°C per 100 meters
C) 0.65°C per 100 meters
D) 1.00°C per 100 meters
What is the standard lapse rate according to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)?
A) 0.25°C per 100 meters
B) 0.50°C per 100 meters
C) 0.65°C per 100 meters
D) 1.00°C per 100 meters
What is an isotherm?
A) A line connecting points of equal pressure
B) A line connecting points of equal humidity
C) A line connecting points of equal temperature
D) A line connecting points of equal altitude
What is an isotherm?
A) A line connecting points of equal pressure
B) A line connecting points of equal humidity
C) A line connecting points of equal temperature
D) A line connecting points of equal altitude
What does an isothermal layer indicate about temperature changes with height?
A) Temperature increases with height
B) Temperature decreases with height
C) Temperature fluctuates with height
D) Temperature remains constant with height
What does an isothermal layer indicate about temperature changes with height?
A) Temperature increases with height
B) Temperature decreases with height
C) Temperature fluctuates with height
D) Temperature remains constant with height
What characterizes an inversion in the atmosphere?
A) Temperature decreases with height
B) Temperature remains constant with height
C) Temperature increases with height
D) Temperature fluctuates randomly
What characterizes an inversion in the atmosphere?
A) Temperature decreases with height
B) Temperature remains constant with height
C) Temperature increases with height
D) Temperature fluctuates randomly
What causes the highest temperatures at the Equator?
A) High latitude angle of sunlight
B) Concentrated solar radiation
C) Increased distance from the sun
D) High specific heat of water
What causes the highest temperatures at the Equator?
A) High latitude angle of sunlight
B) Concentrated solar radiation
C) Increased distance from the sun
D) High specific heat of water
Temperature variation has little to no significance in meteorology.
A) True
B) False
Temperature variation has little to no significance in meteorology.
A) True
B) False
Horizontal and vertical temperature variations are both important for studying meteorology.
A) True
B) False
Horizontal and vertical temperature variations are both important for studying meteorology.
A) True
B) False
Latent heat is released when water vapour condenses into droplets.
A) True
B) False
Latent heat is released when water vapour condenses into droplets.
A) True
B) False
Temperature generally decreases with height in the troposphere.
A) True
B) False
Temperature generally decreases with height in the troposphere.
A) True
B) False
The standard lapse rate in the ISA is 1.00°C per 100 meters.
A) True
B) False
The standard lapse rate in the ISA is 1.00°C per 100 meters.
A) True
B) False
An isothermal layer is a region where temperature decreases with height.
A) True
B) False
An isothermal layer is a region where temperature decreases with height.
A) True
B) False
Isothermal layers can influence weather patterns by stabilizing the atmosphere.
A) True
B) False
Isothermal layers can influence weather patterns by stabilizing the atmosphere.
A) True
B) False
Isotherms on a weather map connect points with the same pressure.
A) True
B) False
Isotherms on a weather map connect points with the same pressure.
A) True
B) False
In valleys, cold air tends to drain from higher elevations, leading to lower temperatures at night.
A) True
B) False
In valleys, cold air tends to drain from higher elevations, leading to lower temperatures at night.
A) True
B) False
EXPLAIN WHY THE STUDY OF TEMPERATURE VARIATION IS
IMPORTANT IN METEOROLOGY.
EXPLAIN WHY THE STUDY OF TEMPERATURE VARIATION IS
IMPORTANT IN METEOROLOGY.

The study of temperature variation is important in meteorology because temperature

affects atmospheric pressure systems, wind patterns, and precipitation. By
understanding how temperature changes horizontally across different regions and
vertically at different altitudes, meteorologists can better predict and analyze
weather patterns and atmospheric behavior.
EXPLAIN WHY TEMPERATURE DECREASES WITH HEIGHT IN THE
TROPOSPHERE.
EXPLAIN WHY TEMPERATURE DECREASES WITH HEIGHT IN THE
TROPOSPHERE.

Temperature decreases with height in the troposphere because the troposphere is

heated from the surface upwards. As altitude increases, the influence of terrestrial
radiation diminishes, and air density decreases, which reduces the efficiency of heat
transfer.
WHAT IS A TEMPERATURE INVERSION, AND HOW DOES IT DIFFER
FROM THE NORMAL LAPSE RATE?
WHAT IS A TEMPERATURE INVERSION, AND HOW DOES IT DIFFER
FROM THE NORMAL LAPSE RATE?

A temperature inversion is a situation where temperature increases with height,

contrary to the normal lapse rate where temperature decreases with height.
Inversions occur due to specific atmospheric conditions such as high-pressure
systems, which trap warmer air above cooler air, leading to an increase in
temperature with altitude.
WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LAPSE RATE IN METEOROLOGY?
WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LAPSE RATE IN METEOROLOGY?

The lapse rate is significant in meteorology as it helps in understanding temperature

changes with altitude, which affects weather patterns, cloud formation, and
atmospheric stability. It provides a standard reference for comparing actual
atmospheric conditions to the ideal model.
EXPLAIN WHAT AN ISOTHERMAL LAYER IS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN
METEOROLOGY.
EXPLAIN WHAT AN ISOTHERMAL LAYER IS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN
METEOROLOGY.

An isothermal layer is a section of the atmosphere where the temperature remains

constant regardless of altitude. This layer is significant in meteorology because it
can indicate stable atmospheric conditions, influence cloud formation, and affect
weather patterns by preventing vertical mixing of air.