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SL IB Physics Your notes

Simple Harmonic Motion

Contents
Describing Oscillations
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
Time Period of a Mass–Spring System
Time Period of a Simple Pendulum
Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

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Describing Oscillations
Your notes
Properties of Oscillations
An oscillation is defined as follows:
The repetitive variation with time t of the displacement x of an object about the
equilibrium position (x = 0)

A pendulum oscillates between A and B. On a displacement-time graph, the oscillating motion of the
pendulum is represented by a wave, with an amplitude equal to x0
A particle undergoing an oscillation can be described using the following properties:
Equilibrium position (x = 0) is the position when there is no resultant force acting on an object
This is the fixed central point that the object oscillates around
Displacement (x) is the horizontal or vertical distance of a point on the wave from its equilibrium
position
It is a vector quantity
It can be positive or negative depending on which side of the oscillation it is
It is measured in metres (m)
Period (T) or time period, is the time interval for one complete oscillation measured in seconds (s)
If the oscillations have a constant period, they are said to be isochronous

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Your notes

Diagram showing the time period of a wave

Amplitude (x0) is the maximum value of the displacement on either side of the equilibrium
position
Amplitude is measured in metres (m)

When the pendulum is in its extreme position this is its amplitude

Frequency (f) is the number of oscillations per second and it is measured in hertz (Hz)
1
Hz has the SI units per second s−1 because f = see below
T
Angular frequency (ω) is the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time
It is measured in radians per second (rad s−1)

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Worked example
Your notes
The diagram below shows plane waves on the surface of water at a particular instant. A and B are two
points on the wave.

Determine:
(a) The amplitude
(b) The wavelength
Answer:

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
When labelling the amplitude and time period on a diagram:
Make sure that your arrows go from the very top of a wave to the very top of the next one
If your arrow is too short, you will lose marks
The same goes for labelling amplitude, don’t draw an arrow from the bottom to the top of the
wave, this will lose you marks too.

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Calculating Time Period of an Oscillation

This equation relates the frequency and the time period of an oscillation: Your notes

The equation linking time period and frequency

Angular frequency (⍵) can be calculated using the equation:
2π
ω= = 2πf
T
Where:
⍵ = angular frequency (rad s-1)
2π = circumference of a circle
T = time period (s)
f = frequency of oscillation (Hz)
The angular displacement of objects in oscillation can be determined by matching the displacement
to an object in circular motion:
After moving from one amplitude position x = −A to the equilibrium position x = 0 the mass on the
1 1
× 2π =
π radians
spring has moved an angular displacement of
4
of a circle =
4 2
Continuing the oscillation from the equilibrium position to the other amplitude position the
π radians
angular displacement is also
2
Continuing the oscillation back to the starting point means the mass travels a further angular
π π
displacement of
2
+
2
= π radians
Hence, the total angular displacement in one oscillation is π + π = 2π radians

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Your notes

The motion of an oscillating object can be analysed in terms of a fraction of an object in circular
motion

Worked example
A child on a swing performs 0.2 oscillations per second.
Calculate the time period of the oscillation.
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Frequency, f = 0.2 Hz
Step 2: Write down the relationship between the period T and the frequency f

1
T=
f
Step 3: Substitute the value of the frequency into the above equation and calculate the period

1
T= = 5.0 s
0.2

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Worked example
Your notes
A cuckoo in a cuckoo clock emerges from a fully compressed position to a fully extended position in
1.5 seconds.
Calculate the angular frequency of the cuckoo as it emerges from the clock.
Answer:
Step 1: Consider the motion of the cuckoo
The cuckoo goes from being fully compressed to fully extended which means that it travels for
an angular displacement of half a circle and not a full circle
So, the angular displacement will be π

Step 2: Substitute into the equation for angular velocity and time period

2π π
ω= = = 2.09 rad s-1
T 1.5
Step 3: State the final answer
The angular frequency of the cuckoo as it emerges from the clock is 2.1 rad s-1 (2 s.f.)

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Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Your notes
Conditions for Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a specific type of oscillation where:
There is repetitive movement back and forth through an equilibrium, or central, position, so the
maximum horizontal or vertical displacement on one side of this position is equal to the maximum
horizontal or vertical displacement on the other
The time interval of each complete vibration is the same (periodic)
The force responsible for the motion (restoring force) is always directed horizontally or vertically
towards the equilibrium position and is directly proportional to the distance from it

Examples of SHM
Examples of oscillators that undergo SHM are:
The pendulum of a clock
A child on a swing
The vibrations of a bowl
A bungee jumper reaching the bottom of his fall
A mass on a spring
Guitar strings vibrating
A ruler vibrating off the end of a table
The electrons in alternating current flowing through a wire
The movement of a swing bridge when someone crosses
A marble dropped into a bowl

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Your notes

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Your notes

Examples of objects that undergo SHM

Modelling SHM
Not all oscillations are as simple as SHM
This is a particularly simple kind
It is relatively easy to analyse mathematically
Many other types of oscillatory motion can be broken down into a combination of SHMs
An oscillation is defined to be SHM when:
The acceleration is proportional to the horizontal or vertical displacement
The acceleration is in the opposite direction to the displacement (directed towards the
equilibrium position)
The time period of oscillation is independent of the amplitude of the oscillation, for small angles of
oscillation
So, for acceleration a and horizontal displacement x
a ∝ −x
You will be required to perform calculations on and explain two models of simple harmonic motion:
A simple pendulum oscillating from side to side attached to a fixed point above
A mass-spring system oscillating vertically up and down or horizontally back and forth

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Your notes

Force, acceleration and displacement of a simple pendulum in SHM

Force, acceleration and displacement of a mass-spring system in SHM

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An Example of not SHM

A person jumping on a trampoline is not an example of simple harmonic motion because: Your notes
The restoring force on the person is not proportional to their displacement from the equilibrium
position and always acts down
When the person is not in contact with the trampoline, the restoring force is equal to their weight,
which is constant
This does not change, even if they jump higher

The restoring force of the person bouncing is equal to their weight and always acts downwards

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Worked example
Your notes
Explain why a person jumping on a trampoline is not an example of simple harmonic motion.
Answer:
Step 1: Recall the conditions for simple harmonic motion
The conditions required for SHM:
The restoring force/acceleration is proportional to the displacement
The restoring force/acceleration is in the opposite direction to the displacement
Step 2: Consider the forces in the scenario given
When the person is not in contact with the trampoline, the restoring force is equal to their weight,
which is constant
The value of their weight does not change, even if they jump higher (increase displacement)
Step 3: Write a concluding sentence
The restoring force on the person is not proportional to their distance from the equilibrium
position, therefore, this scenario does not fulfil the conditions for SHM

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The Defining Equation of Simple Harmonic Motion

The acceleration of an object oscillating in simple harmonic motion is given by the equation: Your notes
a = −⍵ 2 x
Where:
a = acceleration (m s-2)
⍵ = angular frequency (rad s-1)
x = displacement (m)
The equation demonstrates:
Acceleration reaches its maximum value when the displacement is at a maximum, i.e. x = x0 at its
amplitude
The minus sign shows that when the object is displaced to the right, the direction of the
acceleration is to the left and vice versa (a and x are always in opposite directions to each other)
Consider the oscillation of a simple pendulum:
The bob accelerates as it moves towards the midpoint
Velocity is at a maximum when it passes through the equilibrium position
The pendulum slows down as it continues towards the other extreme of oscillation
v = 0 at xo as it changes direction
The pendulum then reverses and starts to accelerate again towards the midpoin
Graphical Representation of SHM
The displacement, velocity and acceleration of an object in simple harmonic motion can be
represented by graphs against time
All undamped SHM graphs are represented by periodic functions
This means they can all be described by sine and cosine curves
You need to know what each graph looks like and how it relates to the other graphs
Remember that:
s
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement v =
t
∆v
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity a =
t
Graphs that Start at the Equilibrium Position
When oscillations start from the equilibrium position, then:
The displacement-time graph is a sine curve
The velocity-time graph is the gradient of the displacement-time graph, so a cosine graph
and 90o out of phase with the displacement-time graph
The acceleration-time graph is the gradient of the velocity-time graph, so a negative sine graph
and 90o out of phase with the velocity-time graph

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More information on this can be found in the IB DP Maths Differentiating Special Functions on
trigonometric differentiation
Your notes

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The displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs in SHM are all 90° out of phase with each other
Graphs that Start at the Amplitude Position Your notes
When oscillations start from the amplitude position, then:
The displacement-time graph is a cosine curve
The velocity-time graph is the gradient of the displacement-time graph, so a negative sine
graph and 90o out of phase with the displacement-time graph
The acceleration-time graph is the gradient of the velocity-time graph, so a negative cosine
graph and 90o out of phase with the velocity-time graph

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Your notes

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Your notes

The displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs in SHM are all 90° out of phase with each other
Relationship Between Graphs
Key features of the displacement-time graphs:
The amplitude of oscillations A is the maximum value of x
The time period of oscillations T is the time taken for one full wavelength cycle
Key features of the velocity-time graphs:
The velocity of an oscillator at any time can be determined from the gradient of the
displacement-time graph:

Key features of the acceleration-time graph:

The acceleration graph is a reflection of the displacement graph on the x-axis
This means when a mass has positive displacement (to the right), the acceleration is in the
opposite direction (to the left) and vice versa (from a = −ω2x)
The acceleration of an oscillator at any time can be determined from the gradient of the velocity-
time graph:

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Your notes

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Worked example
Your notes

The swing exhibits simple harmonic motion.

Use data from the graph to determine at what time the velocity of the swing is first at its maximum.
Step 1: The velocity is at its maximum when the displacement x = 0
Step 2: Reading value of time when x = 0

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Your notes

From the graph, this is equal to 0.2 s

Examiner Tip
The defining equation of SHM shows acceleration, as a positive value, and displacement, −x as a
negative one. This reminds us that acceleration and displacement are vector quantities and are always
in the opposite direction to each other in SHM.

Since displacement is a vector quantity, remember to keep the minus sign in your solutions if they are
negative. Getting the marks will depend on keeping your positive and negative numbers distinct from
each other! Also remember that your calculator must be in radians mode when using the cosine and
sine functions. This is because the angular frequency ⍵ is calculated in rad s-1, not degrees.
These graphs might not look identical to what is in your textbook, because they depend on the starting
position of the oscillation of the object when t = 0. If there is no damping, they will be a sine or cosine
curve.

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Time Period of a Mass–Spring System

Your notes
Time Period of a Mass–Spring System
A mass-spring system consists of a mass attached to the end of a spring
The equation for the restoring force (the force responsible for the SHM) is FH = - kx
This is the same as the equation for Hooke's Law

The time period of a mass-spring system is given by:

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Your notes

Where:
T = time period (s)
m = mass on the end of the spring (kg)
k = spring constant (N m-1)
This equation applies to both horizontal and vertical mass-spring systems:

A mass-spring system can be either vertical or horizontal. The time period equation applies to both
The equation shows that the time period and frequency, of a mass-spring system, does not depend on
the force of gravity
Therefore, the oscillations would have the same time period on Earth and the Moon
The higher the spring constant k, the stiffer the spring and the shorter the time period of the oscillation

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Worked example
Your notes
A 200 g toy robot is attached to a pole by a spring, which has a spring constant of 90 N m−1 and made
to oscillate horizontally.
Calculate:
(a) The force that acts on the robot when the spring is extended by 5 cm.
(b) The acceleration of the robot whilst at its amplitude position.

Answer:
(a)
Consider the motion of the robot at the equilibrium and stretched (amplitude) positions:

The restoring force is given by

F = − kx
Using:
Extension, x = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Spring constant, k = 90 N m−1
F = −90 × 0.05 = −4.5 N
A force of 4.5 N will act on the robot, trying to pull it back towards the equilibrium position.

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(b)
Newton's second law relates force and acceleration by Your notes
F = ma
Using:
Mass, m = 200 g = 0.2 kg
F −4 . 5
a= = = −22.5 m s−2
m 0.2
The robot will decelerate at a rate of 22.5 m s−2 when at this amplitude position

Worked example
Calculate the frequency of a mass of 2.0 kg attached to a spring with a spring constant of 0.9 N m–1
oscillating with simple harmonic motion.
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Mass, m = 2.0 kg
Spring constant, k = 0.9 N m−1
Step 2: Write down the equation for the time period of a mass-spring system

m
T = 2π
k
Step 3: Combine with the equation relating time period T and frequency, f

1
T=
f

1 m 1 k
= 2π ⇒ f =
f k 2π m
Step 4: Substitute in the values to calculate frequency

1 0.9
f =
2π 2
Frequency: f = 0.11 Hz

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Another area of physics where you may have seen the spring constant k is from Hooke's Law. Exam
questions commonly merge these two topics together, so make sure you're familiar with the Hooke's
Law equation too.
In the second worked example, the frequency calculated is the natural frequency of the mass-spring
system, a concept that comes up in the topic of resonance.

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Time Period of a Simple Pendulum

Your notes
Time Period of a Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a string and a bob at the end
The bob is a weight, generally spherical and considered a point mass
The bob moves from side to side
The string is light and inextensible remaining in tension throughout the oscillations
The string is attached to a fixed point above the equilibrium position
The time period of a simple pendulum for small angles of oscillation is given by:
L
T = 2π
g
Where:
T = time period (s)
L = length of string (from the pivot to the centre of mass of the bob) (m)
g = gravitational field strength (N kg-1)

A simple pendulum
The time period of a pendulum depends on gravitational field strength
Therefore, the time for a pendulum to complete one oscillation would be different on the Earth and
the Moon
Small Angle Approximation
This formula for time period is limited to small angles (θ < 10°) and therefore small amplitudes of
oscillation from the equilibrium point
The restoring force of a pendulum is equal to the component of weight acting along the arc of the
circle towards the equilibrium position

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It is assumed to act at an angle θ to the horizontal

Using the small angle approximation: sin θ ≅ θ
Your notes

Forces on a pendulum when it is displaced. Assuming θ < 10°, the small angle approximation can be
used to describe the time period of a simple pendulum

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Worked example
Your notes
A swinging pendulum with a length of 80.0 cm has a maximum angle of displacement of 8°.
Determine the angular frequency of the oscillation.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Length of the pendulum, L = 80 cm = 0.8 m
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m s−2
Step 2: Write down the relationship between angular frequency, ω, and period, T

2π
T=
ω
Step 3: Write down the equation for the time period of a simple pendulum

L
T = 2π
g
This equation is valid for this scenario since the maximum angle of displacement is less than 10°
Step 4: Equate the two equations and rearrange for ω

2π L g
= 2π ⇒ ω=
ω g L
Step 5: Substitute the values to calculate ω

9 . 81
ω= = 3.50 rad s−1
0.8
Angular frequency: ω = 3.5 rad s−1
Note: angular frequency ω is also known as angular speed or velocity

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Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Your notes
Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion also involves an interplay between different types of energy: potential and
kinetic
The swinging of a pendulum is an interplay between gravitational potential energy and kinetic
energy
The horizontal oscillation of a mass on a spring is an interplay between elastic potential energy
and kinetic energy
Energy of a Horizontal Mass-Spring System
The system has the maximum amount of elastic potential energy when held so the string is stretched
beyond its equilibrium position
When the mass is released, it moves back towards the equilibrium position, accelerating as it goes so
the kinetic energy increases
At the equilibrium position, kinetic energy is at its maximum and elastic potential energy is at its
minimum
Once past the equilibrium position, the kinetic energy decreases and elastic potential energy
increases

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Your notes

In a horizontal mass-spring system the kinetic energy is maximum in the equilibrium position and the
elastic potential energy is maximum in the amplitude position
Energy of a Simple-Pendulum
At the amplitude at the top of the swing, the pendulum has a maximum amount of gravitational
potential energy
When the pendulum is released, it moves back towards the equilibrium position, accelerating as it
goes so the kinetic energy increases
As the height of the pendulum decreases, the gravitational potential energy also decreases
Once the mass has passed the equilibrium position, kinetic energy decreases and gravitational
potential energy increases

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Your notes

In a simple pendulum system the kinetic energy is maximum in the equilibrium position and the
gravitational potential energy is maximum in the amplitude position
Total Energy of an SHM System
The total energy in the system remains constant, but the amount of energy in one form goes up while
the amount in the other form goes down
This constant total energy shows how energy in a closed system is never created or destroyed; it is
transferred from one store to another
This is the law of conservation of energy
The total energy of a simple harmonic system always remains constant and is equal to the sum of the
kinetic and potential energy
The total energy is calculated using the equation:
E = E P + EK
Where:
E = total energy in joules (J)
EP = potential energy in joules (J)
EK = kinetic energy in joules (J)
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Remember the equations for potential and kinetic energy:

Gravitational potential energy: Ep = mgh
1 Your notes
Elastic potential energy, Ep = kx 2
2
1
Kinetic energy, Ek = mv 2
2
Energy-Displacement Graph
The kinetic and potential energy transfers go through two complete cycles during one period of
oscillation
One complete oscillation reaches the maximum displacement twice (on both the positive and
negative sides of the equilibrium position)
You need to be familiar with the graph showing the total, potential and kinetic energy transfers in half
an SHM oscillation (half a cycle)

Graph showing the potential and kinetic energy against displacement in half a period of an SHM
oscillation
The key features of the energy-displacement graph for half a period of oscillation are:
Displacement is a vector, so, the graph has both positive and negative x values
The potential energy is always maximum at the amplitude positions x = x0, and 0 at the equilibrium
position x = 0
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This is represented by a ‘U’ shaped curve

The kinetic energy is the opposite: it is 0 at the amplitude positions x = x0, and maximum at the
equilibrium position x = 0 Your notes
This is represented by an ‘n’ shaped curve
The total energy is represented by a horizontal straight line above the curves
Energy-Time Graph for a Simple Pendulum
You also need to be familiar with the graph showing the total, gravitational potential and kinetic
energy transfers against time for multiple cycles of a simple pendulum oscillating in simple harmonic
motion

The kinetic and gravitational potential energy of a simple pendulum oscillating in SHM vary periodically
The key features of the simple pendulum energy-time graph are:
Both the kinetic and gravitational potential energy transfers are represented by periodic
functions (sine or cosine) which vary in opposite directions to one another
When the gravitational potential energy is 0, the kinetic energy is at its maximum and vice versa
The total energy is represented by a horizontal straight line directly above the energy curves at
the maximum kinetic and gravitational potential energy value

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Energy is always positive so there are no negative values on the y-axis (Any SHM energy graph
drawn with negative energy values is incorrect)
Your notes

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Worked example
Your notes
The following graph shows the variation with displacement of the kinetic energy of an object of mass
0.50 kg oscillating with simple harmonic motion. Energy losses can be neglected.

Determine:
(a) The total energy of the object
(b) The amplitude of the oscillations
(c) The maximum velocity of the object
(d) The potential energy of the object when the displacement is x = 1.0 cm
Answer:
(a)
From the graph, the maximum value of kinetic energy is 60 mJ
At the equilibrium position (x = 0) , the total energy E is exactly equal to the maximum value of
kinetic energy
Since energy losses can be neglected, the total energy is constant
Total energy: E = 60 mJ
(b)
The amplitude is equal to the maximum displacement on either side of the equilibrium position
(where the kinetic energy is zero)

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Amplitude: x = 2.0 cm
0

(c) Your notes

The maximum velocity can be found using the maximum kinetic energy in the equation:

1 2E k
Ek = mv 2 ⇒ v=
2 m
Using:
Mass of the object, m = 0.50 kg
Maximum kinetic energy, Ek = 60 mJ = 0.06 J
2 × 0 . 06
v=
0 . 50
Maximum velocity: v = 0.49 m s–1
(d)
From the graph, when the displacement is x = 1.0 cm, kinetic energy is EK = 50 mJ
The relationship between total energy E, kinetic energy EK and potential energy EP is:
E = EP + E K
Therefore, the potential energy is
EP = E – EK
EP = 60 – 50 = 10 mJ

Examiner Tip
You may be expected to draw as well as interpret energy graphs against time or displacement in exam
questions. Make sure the sketches of the curves are as even as possible and use a ruler to draw
straight lines, for example, to represent the total energy.

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