Mechanical Properties

UNIT 1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND and Their Determination

THEIR DETERMINATION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives

1.2 A Simple Tension Test

1.2.1 Modulus of Elasticity
1.2.2 Yield Strength
1.2.3 Measure of Ductility
1.2.4 Toughness
1.2.5 Fracture in Tension

1.3 True Stress and True Strain

1.4 Compression Test
1.5 Universal Testing Machine
1.6 Notched-bar Impact Tests
1.7 Temperature Effects
1.8 Hardness
1.8.1 Scratch Hardness
1.8.2 Indentation Hardness
1.8.3 Brinell Hardness
1.8.4 Rockwell Hardness
1.8.5 Vickers Hardness
1.8.6 Knoop Hardness
1.8.7 Other Methods of Hardness Measurement
1.8.8 Relationship between Hardness and Other Properties

1.9 Fatigue
1.9.1 Fatigue Curve
1.9.2 Fatigue Mechanism
1.9.3 Statistical Nature of Fatigue
1.9.4 Determination of Fatigue Strength
1.9.5 Factors Affecting Fatigue Behaviour

1.10 Material Problems at Elevated Temperatures

1.10.1 Creep and Creep Curves
1.10.2 Effect of Temperature and Stress
1.10.3 Stress Rupture
1.10.4 Creep Strength and Rupture Strength

1.11 Summary
1.12 Key Words
1.13 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Undoubtedly, the most commonly performed test on engineering materials is the static
tension test. From this test many mechanical properties of material are evaluated and
understanding about its behaviour is developed.
5
Materials Applications At the outset the distinction between static and dynamic load must be understood
carefully. A “static load” is the one which changes very slowly with respect to time
during its application. Once applied, the static load remains unchanged.
Very common static tests which are performed for evaluation of mechanical properties
are axial tension, compression loading, flexural loading or torsional loading. Axial load is
applied along the axis of specimen. Flexural loading is achieved by application of load
perpendicular to the axis while torsional loading result from eccentric transverse forces
which do not cause bending or change in length. Direct shearing test is also performed
sometimes but is not a very popular test. In all these the load is slowly increased from
zero till failure occurs; rate of loading being such that definition of static load is not
violated. Hardness is a very important mechanical property which is also determined
under static load by indentation. Hardness and tensile strength are related. Fatigue is
behaviour of material under load or stress which keeps changing with time and failure
depends upon stress level and number of stress reversal. Creep is yet another behaviour
under statically applied load over a long period of time. Temperature plays an important
role in deciding this behaviour.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• understand the effect of force on solids qualitatively as well as
quantitatively,
• differentiate between the true stress and true strain,
• analyse the compression test,
• know universal testing machine,
• understand tensile strengths and effect of strain rate,
• know different impact tests,
• explain temperature effects,
• understand hardness and fatigue, and
• identify material problems at elevated temperatures.

1.2 A SIMPLE TENSION TEST

A tension test is a destructive test in the sense that the specimen is finally broken or
fractured into pieces. For performing a tension test one needs a machine capable of
applying load to cause fracture. The testing machine will have suitable devices or holders
to hold the specimen so that a perfectly axial load is applied on the test piece. The
machine has to have device to measure the load at any instant and facility for
measurement of elongation of the test piece.
The test piece or specimen of the material is generally a straight piece, uniform in the
cross-section over the test length and often with enlarged ends which can be held in the
machine holders. Machines, however, can hold specimen without specially made or
enlarged ends. Two fine marks are often made near the ends of uniform test section of the
specimen and distance between the two points is termed “gauge length”. The gauge
length of a specimen bears a constant standardised ratio to the cross-sectional dimension
for reasons that will be discussed later.
The specimen is placed in the machine between the holders and any measuring device to
record change in length is fitted onto the specimen between the gauge points. If such a
device, often known as “extensometer” is not fitted, the machine itself can record the
displacement between its cross-heads on which the specimen is held.
Once the machine is started it begins to apply a slowly increasing load upon the
specimen. At present intervals the reading of load and elongation of specimen are
6 recorded. The increase in extension can be observed from the specimen and as the
extension begins to increase can be observed from the specimen and as the extension Mechanical Properties
begins to increase at a faster rate (it can be judged from experience) the extensometers if and Their Determination
attached to specimen may be removed. With further increase in the load the extension
increases at increased rate and record of extension may be obtained from displacement
between the cross-heads. At some level the load becomes stationary and the specimen
either fails or begins to reduce in cross-section rapidly. The latter phenomenon is known
as necking and is followed by reduction in load accompanied by further extension until
the specimen fractures into two pieces.
Fixed Upper Cross Head
Grip or Holder
Tension Specimen

Screw Column

Grip or Holder
Moving Cross Head
Space for Compression Specimen
Fixed Lower Cross Head

Figure 1.1 : The Schematic Diagram of a Test Machine

The results of tension test can be entirely presented in form of a stress-strain diagram in
which stress is plotted as ordinate and strain as abscissa. It may, however, be emphasized
here that in the definition of stress; it is assumed that area of cross-section will not
change. It must have become clear by this time that during a tension test area of
cross-section and length both change considerably. Therefore, there is a need to
reconsider the definition of stress.
The stress is defined as ratio of load to original area of cross-section (denoted by A0). It
will be defined as engineering stress. The prefix “engineering” is often dropped and
whenever term stress is used, it is understood that it is engineering stress. The ratio of
load to actual or current area of cross-section is defined as true stress. Likewise, the ratio
correspondingly the true strain is the sum of strains over small ranges of load upto the
current load.
Engineering stress (σ) and strain (ε) will be
P
σ= . . . (1.1)
A0

δL
ε= . . . (1.2)
L0

where, P is load at any moment. A0 the original area of cross-section, δL, the change in
length when load changed from zero to P and L0 is the original length.
Figure 1.2 and 1.3 show typical stress-strain diagrams for common engineering materials.
Diagram for ductile materials are depicted in Figure 1.2, while Figure 1.3 shows the same
for brittle materials. These two sets have the same strain scale and it can be seen that a
ductile materials shows considerable deformation before it fails while a brittle material
shows little deformation. To distinguish between these two types of material, materials
with strain less than 5% at fracture are regarded as brittle and those having strains greater
than 5% at fracture are called ductile.
The type A ductile materials (Figure 1.2(a)) include steels, aluminium alloys, copper
alloys etc., while type B ductile materials are mild steel and structural steels. The
difference between type A and type B ductile materials must be noted carefully. In both
cases the stress and strain vary linearly upto strain a. This region of deformation is elastic
in the sense that if load is removed at any point before reaching point a, the specimen
will regain its original length and area of cross-section. Beyond point a, ductile material
of type A changes the relationship which is more linear. During this deformation, the 7
strain changes at a faster rate than stress, although this rate tends to decrease. Type B of
Materials Applications ductile material shows distinctly different between behaviour than that shown in Figure
1.2(a). From a slightly higher point b (Figure 1.2(b)), the stress drops suddenly to point c,
remains approximately constant over a range, then follows a pattern similar to that of
type A.

Yield d Elastic Upper d

Strength Limits Yield
a b Point e
e
c c´
Lower
a Yield

Stress
Stress
Point
εo - Plastic Strain
Offset

o o
εo Strain Strain

(a) Type A (b) Type B

Figure 1.2 : Stress-strain Diagram for Ductile Materials

yp
el

Stress
lp

yp – Yield Point
el – Elastic Limit
Stress

lp – Limit of
Proportionality

o o
Strain Strain

(a) Type A (b) Type B

Figure 1.3 : Stress-strain Diagram for Brittle Materials

The sudden drop in stress from b to c, increase in strain from c to c′ while stress remains
approximately constant is known as “yielding”. The point b from which the stress drops
to point c, is known as “upper yield point” while point c is known as “lower yield point”.
The deformation at approximately constant stress is termed as yield deformation.
Once a ductile material has exceeded the elastic deformation it enters into plastic
deformation range. During this deformation, the stress reaches maximum value at d,
where necking in the specimen begins.
The stress at point d (the engineering stress) is termed as “Ultimate Tensile Strength”
which is a very important property. If loading is continued, the specimen fails eventually
at e and stress reduces from point d to e. the stress at point e is called “fracture stress”.
The deformation between point d and e in Figure 1.2 is plastic in the sense that if the
specimen is unloaded at any point between d and e the specimen will not regain its
original size. Figure 1.4 shows the range of elastic and plastic deformations. The
unloading of a specimen from any point f between a and d is known in Figure 1.5.
Unloading follows a curve which is somewhat parallel to original elastic line. When
specimen is fully unloaded to point g, some strain still remains in it. This residual strain
is the plastic component of strain by δp, a part of strain between f and g has been
recovered and this is elastic part of strain at point f and denoted by εe. Thus, strain at
point f,
d
a e ε f = ε fp + ε fe
σ . . . (1.3)

8
o
ε
Elastic

Plastic
 Mechanical Properties
and Their Determination

Figure 1.4 : Elastic Plastic Deformations

f
a h
σ

g
o
εp εe ε
ε

Figure 1.5 : Elastic and Plastic Strains

On reloading the specimen from point g, curve follows a path very close to unloading
curve and eventually joints the original curve at h. The area between loading and
unloading curve (shown hatched in Figure 1.5) represents the loss of energy due to
unloading-cycle and is termed “hysteresis”.
Type B brittle materials (Figure 1.3(b)) do not show linear relationship between stress
and strain. Concrete is the example. The maximum stress sustained by such material is
defined as ultimate tensile strength. Type A brittle materials, like cast iron, will also have
ultimate tensile strength and they show linear relationship between σ and ε.
SAQ 1
(a) What is meant by static load?
(b) What tests are performed under static load?
(c) Sketch a tension test specimen.
(d) Define stress and strain for a tension test specimen whose original area of
cross-section is A0 and original length is L0.
(e) Why should you call the stress defined in (d) as engineering stress? What is
true stress?
(f) How do you measure elongation of a tension specimen?
(g) Distinguish between a ductile and a brittle material. Give example of ductile
and brittle materials.
(h) What are upper and lower yield point and ultimate tensile strength?
(i) Distinguish between elastic and plastic deformation of a tension test
specimen.

9
Materials Applications 1.2.1 Modulus of Elasticity
It may be noted that in most materials which may be ductile or brittle, the elastic
behaviour is marked by linear relationship between stress (σ) and strain (ε). This is seen
for A and B type ductile materials in Figure 1.2 and for type A brittle material in
Figure 1.3. Such linear relationship was first identified through Hooke’s law which states
that “stress is directly proportional to strain within elastic limit.” This means that
σ∝ε

σ
or σ = E ε i.e. E = . . . (1.4)
ε
The constant of proportionality E is called Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus.
Apparently the slope of elastic part of stress-strain diagram (shown as oa in Figures 1.2
and 1.3) is the modulus of elasticity. Modulus of elasticity is a constant for a given class
of material and variation in small alloying contents does not cause change in E. For
example, wide range of carbon steel has E = 210 × 103 MPa. If stress-strain curve is
established accurately the slope of elastic part is E of the material. However, it may be
noted that this is not a reliable method because tension tests require such loads that may
cause small deformations in loading system, part of which may look like deformation of
the specimen.
1.2.2 Yield Strength
A material placed in a machine or structure to serve as a load carrying member is never
allowed to deform plastically. Therefore, designers often need to characterise a material
by its elastic strength. There are two types of strength that can be recognised from
diagram. They are “ideal” and practical elastic strengths. Ideal elastic strengths are,
“proportional limit” and “elastic limit”.
Proportional limit or a material is a stress upto which material has linear relationship
between stress and strain.
Elastic limit of a material is the stress upto which a material behaves elastically. The
meaning of elasticity or elastic behaviour has already been explained.
In Figure 1.6 stress level corresponding to point a is the proportional limit and that
corresponding to point b is the elastic limit. Both the ideal strength values are seldom
used in actual characterisation of material because of difficulties in their determination.
Therefore, practical elastic strength values are defined and determined.

f
50
c d
c
(kgf/cm )

40
2

b e
d e g
a
30

b 20

10
a
0 0.002 0.006 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
ε (mm/mm) ε (mm/mm)

Figure 1.6 : (a) With Strain Scale Expanded Showing Yield Deformation and (b) With Strain Scale
Shortened to Show Ultimate and Fracture Point alongwith Yield Point

The yielding behaviour of mild and structural steel is shown in Figure 1.6(a) on an
expanded scale of abscissa or strain axis. This figure exphasises the fact that total
deformation during yielding is about ten times the deformation upto elastic limit. The
yielding is shown to end at point e beyond which the plastic deformation continues as is
shown in Figure 1.6(b). The point c is the upper yield point and d the lower yield point.
The difference between upper and lower yield point exists because movement of the ends
of the specimen as produced by two machine cross-heads, does not proceed as fast as the
10
yield deformation of material. This fact may be confirmed by allowing the loading cross- Mechanical Properties
head to move very fast, which is the condition of the impact loading. In such a case only and Their Determination
one yield point (i.e. the upper yield point) will exist. For materials which show upper and
lower yield points, the latter is taken as the “yield strength” because it is less affected by
variables.
Most ductile materials do not yield and show curve of Figure 1.2(a) or as in Figure 1.7.
For such materials the end of elastic behaviour is defined as attaining a certain plastic
strain. The method of determination of this strength value is to measure a certain offset
strain from origin as in Figure 1.7 represented by oA. From point A a line parallel to
elastic strength line part is drawn to meet the curve at d. the stress corresponding to point
d is defined as the “yielding strength” or “proof strength” of the material. The values of
offset strain have been standarised for different materials. The yield strength determined
by the offset method is always described as yield strength for an offset. Table 1.1
describes the values of offset strains commonly used.

o
ε
εo

Figure 1.7 : Determination of Proof Stress

Table 1.1 : Commonly used Offset Values (A.S.T.M.E6-35T)

Material Types of Stress Percent Equivalent Strain
Aluminium alloys Tension and Compression 0.20 0.0020
Brass or bronze Tension and Compression 0.35 0.0035
Concrete Compression 0.02 0.0002
Cast Iron Tension 0.05 0.0005
Steel Tension and Compression 0.20 0.0020
Wood Compression 0.05 0.0005

1.2.3 Measure of Ductility

It has been stated earlier that a ductile material exhibits considerable deformation in the
plastic zone. Naturally, then this deformation or strain can be used as a measure of
ductility. The total deformation suffered by a specimen upto fracture divided by the
original length (between the gauge points) multiplied by 100 is termed as percent
elongation. Percent elongation is taken as in index to describe the ductility of material. It
would mean that higher the percentage deformation, more ductile is the material.
However, percent elongation will depend upon what gauge length is chosen. To
understand this the sequence of deformation as depicted in Figure 1.8 with reference to
diagram of Figure 1.6 will have to be understood well. During elastic deformation the
strain is very small and uniformly distributed over entire length of the specimen. Hardly
any change in length or diameter can be visually observed. Even beyond the yield point
or elastic limit such changes are small, but just before ultimate point the plastic
deformation starts to localize in a small part of length and reduction in diameter (in the
maximum change in length occurs in this region. Ultimately fracture occurs in the necked
region.

11
Materials Applications

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 1.8 : Sequence of Deformation of a Cylindrical Specimen with Reference to Figure 1.6 (a) Just
Before Point, a, (b) Just Before Point, f, (c) Just After Point, f and (d) At Point g

Figure 1.9 shows how the plastic deformation is distributed along the length of the
specimen. Different gauge points have been shown marked on the specimen. It can be
seen that by choosing any pair of gauge points, equidistant from the centre, one may
arrive at a value of percent elongation which will differ from that obtained by choosing a
different pair of gauge points. This example shows that percent elongation is not a unique
quantity for a material but may vary with gauge length. For this reason gauge length is
standardised so that comparison of ductility between two materials may be made
consistently. For cylindrical specimen gauge length of five times the diameter is chosen
as a standard. But in any case percent elongation is described with gauge length on which
it has been calculated.

Elongation

Figure 1.9 : Distribution of Elongation along the Length of Tension Specimen

The value of percent elongation may be obtained from diagram as the strain at the time of
fracture multiplied by 100. More practically, the two pieces of specimen after fracture
may be placed together touching at fracture surface and the distance between gauge
points noted to measure final length Lf. Then,
L f − Lo
% elongation = × 100 . . . (1.5)
Lo
The % reduction in area of cross-section is also used as a measure of ductility. It is
defined as :
Ao − A f
% reduction in area = × 100 . . . (1.6)
Ao
where A and L represent the area of cross-section and length respectively, f and o are
respectively the suffixes to denote final and original values.
It may be understood by above description that both % elongation and % reduction in
area would define the local ductility of the material. Maximum uniform strain, which is
the strain just before necking begins or the strain corresponding to ultimate stress may
sometimes be used to indicate the ductility of a material.
Ductility is an important property of material which governs its ability to be deformed in
such processes as drawing, forging and extrusion. Adequate ductility ensures that the
materials during these processes will not fracture. All associated property by virtue of
which sheets can be rolled from material is termed “malleability”.

12
SAQ 2 Mechanical Properties
and Their Determination
(a) Distinguish between proportional limit and elastic limit. Which one is higher
in a stress-strain diagram obtained from a tension test?
(b) Use sketch to distinguish between upper and lower yield points. Also show
the phenomenon of yielding.
(c) Yield strength which is the stress at lower yield point in a tension test is
used to define elastic strength. How do we define elastic strength in those
materials which do not show yielding?
(d) What are the measures of ductility? Name the manufacturing processes
which are performed upon ductile materials.
(e) What is a ductility associated property and in which process it is useful?
(f) On a uniform cross-section bar two gauge marks A and B are made at a
distances of 200 mm. The length between A and B is divided into 8 equal
intervals, each equal to 25 mm. The bar is put under tensile load in the
machine and pulled until fracture occurs. The two broken pieces are put
together and intervals measured. The measure distances before test and after
fracture are shown in figure below.

A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B

25 mm all intervals

27.1 27.2 28.0 30.0 32.2 27.5 27.0 26.8

All mm

Figure

Calculate the percent elongation for 50 mm length between 3 and 5.

Calculate the percent elongation for 100 mm length between 2 and 6.
Calculate the percent elongation for 150 mm length between 1 and 7.
Calculate the percent elongation for 200 mm length between A and B.
Plot % elongation against gauge length and conclude that gauge length has
to be standardised.

1.2.4 Toughness
When the load acts upon the specimen, certain work is done. This work it stored in the
specimen as its strain energy. If load P acts upon the specimen and causes certain
displacement, dL the work done,

U = ∫ P dL . . . (1.7)

If either side of above equation is divided by volume

U P dL
A0 L0
= ∫ A0 L0
= ∫ σdε . . . (1.8)

The integral ∫ σ d ε is nothing but the area under stress-strain curve. It means that the
work done upon the specimen per unit volume during stretching, which is stored in the
13
specimen as strain energy, can be measured by area under the curve. The maximum
Materials Applications elastic energy per unit volume that material can absorb without attaining plastic state is
known as “modulus of resilience”, while the energy stored in the specimen at any stress
within elastic limit may be referred to as resilience.
The toughness of a material is understood to be its ability to absorb energy during entire
elastic and plastic deformation. The “modulus of toughness” is measured as area under
entire stress-strain curve and is the energy absorbed by material of the specimen per unit
volume upto fracture.
From Figure 1.10 it can be seen that modulus of toughness will depend upon both the
ultimate tensile strength and strain at fracture and material which is very ductile will
exhibit a higher modulus of toughness as is the case with mild steel. On the other hand,
modulus of resilience depends upon yield strength (or proportional limit or elastic limit)
and hence a material with higher yield strength will have higher modulus or resilience.
Higher toughness is a desirable property in materials used for gears, chains, hooks,
freight car coupling etc. Higher resilience is desirable in springs.
σ

High Carbon Steel

Mild Steel

Mild Steel
High Carbon Steel

Figure 1.10 : σ − ε Curves for High Toughness (Mild Steel) and

Low Toughness (High Carbon Steel) Materials

For ductile materials like mild steel (Figure 1.10) the modulus of toughness may be
calculated by approximate formula :
σY + σu
Modulus of toughness = σu ε f = εf . . . (1.9)
2
where σY and σu are respectively yield and ultimate tensile strengths, and εf is the strain
as fracture.
Modulus of reliance is the area of triangle whose height is σY and base is the strain
1
corresponding to σY, i.e. εY. Hence modulus of resilience is σY εY .
2
σY
Since εY =
E
σY2
Modulus of resilience = . . . (1.10)
2E
Strain Hardening
Referring to Figure 1.5 in Section 1.2 it was stated that on reloading from g the
new curve joins the original curve at h, where point h is higher than point a. In
other words it can be said that due to the initial loading of the specimen upto point
f its yield strength has increased to h for if it were not so, the reloading curve must
follow a path similar to original curve showing a yield strength equal to the height
of point a. This rise in yield strength due to loading in plastic region is termed as
“strain hardening”. If the material does not strain harden during plastic
deformation it will extend at constant stress level. The materials that extend at
constant stress level are called ideally plastic. Very soft materials behave in this
manner.
The explanation to strain hardening is found in defects in crystalline materials at
atomic level. Dislocations are such defects. Strain hardening is a practical method
of increasing elastic strength. Wires that make helical springs are strain hardened.

14
1.2.5 Fracture in Tension Mechanical Properties
and Their Determination
The tension specimens of ductile are brittle materials show distinctly different fractures.
A brittle material in general fails due to tensile stresses, or in other words a brittle
materials is weak against tensile stress. Consequently, a brittle material will fail along a
cross-section on which maximum tensile stress is acting. The state of stress at any point
with respect to x-y axes, where y-axis is along the axis of the tension specimen is shown
in Figure 1.6(b). Over any cross-section of the specimen the tensile stress is uniformly
distributed. Therefore, a brittle material is expected to fail along the cross-section. This is
what actually happens. A cast iron specimen fails in tension along the cross-section,
normal to axis. The surfaces of the fracture has granular appearances. Same will be true
for any other brittle material.
P

y P/2A
y P/2A
σyy = P/A
P/2A x

y′
0
45
x x

P
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.11 : (a) A Tension Specimen; (b) State of Stress at any Pont with respect to x-y axes when y-
axis is Parallel to Axis of the Specimen; and (c) State of Stress with respect to x′ y′ axes when an Angle
45o with Axis of Specimen, the Maximum Shearing Stress equal to P/2A Acts Parallel to x′ and y′ Axes
at any Point

On the other hand a ductile material is stronger against tension than against shearing
stresses. In a tension specimen, the maximum shearing stress acts upon a plane that is
inclined at an angle 45o with the axis as shown in Figure 1.11(c). However, due to
formation of neck the state of stress changes considerably. Still the final fracture of a
ductile material shows a characteristics cup-and-cone fracture surface. The cup and cone
match at an angle 45o with the axis, showing that the final fracture has occurred along
these planes all around the periphery. If a highly polished specimen is tested in tension
then on the surface at yield point fine lines will appear. These lines are generally inclined
beginning of sliding of atomic planes under the effect of maximum shearing stress
(Figure 1.11(c)).
Direction
of Load

Direction
of Load

Cup

Cone

0 0
45 45

(a) (b)
Figure 1.12 : (a) Cup and Cone Fracture of a Ductile Material in Tension; and (b) Flat Fracture
Surface with Granular Appearances in Case of Brittle Material 15
Materials Applications Example 1.1
A steel specimen shows upper yield point at 210 MPa and lower yield point at
200 MPa. If modulus of elasticity, E, for steel is 210 × 103 MPa. Calculate
modulus of resilience.
Solution

σY2
Modulus of resilience =
2E
Where, σY is yield strength. σY corresponds to lower yield point.
Hence, σY = 200 MPa
(200) 2 × (106 ) 2
∴ Modulus of resilience = N-m/m3
2 × 210 × 10 × 10
3 6

(Note MPa = Pa × 106 = (N/m2 (10)6))

∴ Modulus resilience = 95.24 × 104 N-m/m3
or 95.24 × 10– 3 N-mm/mm3
Example 1.2
A steel specimen of 10 mm diameter and 50 mm gauge length was tested in
tension and following observations were recorded.
Load at upper yield point = 20600 N
Load at lower yield point = 19650 N
Maximum load = 35550 N
Gauge length after fracture = 62.43 N
Calculate modulus of resilience and modulus of toughness. Also calculate %
elongation. E = 210 × 103 N/mm 2 .
Solution
π 2
Area of cross-section of specimen, A0 = d
4
π
A0 = (10)2 = 78.57 mm 2
4
19650
∴ Yield strength, σY = = 250 N/mm 2
78.57
35550
Ultimate tensile strength, σu = = 452.5 N/mm 2
78.57
62.43 − 50
Strain at fracture or % elongation = ε f = = 0.25 or 25%
50

σY2
∴ Modulus of resilience =
2E
(250)2
= N-mm/mm3
2 × 210 × 10 3

= 148.8 × 10− 3 N-mm/mm3 ...

(i)

16
 (Compare with Example 1.1 to note that for higher yield strength modulus of Mechanical Properties
resilience is larger). and Their Determination

σu + σY
Modulus of toughness = εf
2
452.5 + 250
= × 0.25 N-mm/mm3
2
= 87.8 N-mm/mm3
% elongation = 25%
SAQ 3
(a) Define modulus of resilience and modulus of toughness.
(b) What is strain hardening? Is it used in practice?
(c) A steel wire having σY = 190 MPa is required to have a modulus of
resilience of 140 × 10– 6 N-m/mm3. The yield strength can be increased by
strain hardening. What should be the % increase in yield strength.
E = 210 × 103 N/mm2.
(d) Why should a ductile material fracture in cup and cone configuration
whereas brittle material fails on cross-section of a bar tested in tension?
(e) What are Luder’s bands? Are these bonds shown by cast iron? Give reasons.
(f) Why should modulus of resilience of spring material be high? For a given
material modulus of resilience can be increased either by increasing σY or
decreasing E. Which one is possible?

1.3 TRUE STRESS AND TRUE STRAIN

In Section 1.2 the idea of true stress and true strain was introduced. It is emphasised here
again that the stress and strain referred to so far were “engineering” stress and strain and
it is customary to drop the prefix “engineering”.
“True stress” at any point in the tension test specimen is defined as the ratio of load to
corresponding area of cross-section, or true stress,
P
σ=
A
where, A is the current area of cross-section corresponding to load P during the tension
test.
“True strain” is defined as summation of incremental strain over the entire load range
from zero to P. If the initial length L0 changes to length L during load change of 0 to P,
true strain
L
dL L
ε′ = ∫ L
= ln
L0
L0

Because of the final form of the true strain, it is often called logarithmic strain.
Since, L = L0 + Δ L

17
Materials Applications ΔL
where, Δ L is the extension in length L0 so that engineering strain ε = .
L0

⎛ L + ΔL⎞
Hence true strain = ε′ = ln ⎜ 0 ⎟ = ln (1 + ε) .
⎝ L0 ⎠
One confusion that sometimes arises regarding the nature of the stress-strain curve is the
decreasing of stress while the strain keeps on increasing. This is actually because of the
definition of stress which is based upon original area of cross-section. Once the necking,
begins (at ultimate point) the area of cross-section starts reducing fast. In this even the
engineering stress calculated as ratio of load to original area of cross-section falls much
short of actual stress, and hence apparently diagram behaves as shown earlier. If true
stress and true strain are plotted instead of σ and ε then the curve will not go down but
stress will keep in increasing with reduction in area. However, where σ′ is very small as
in elastic region the σ − ε and σ′ − ε′ diagrams will almost coincide. This is shown in
Figure 1.13.

True Stress Strain

Stress

Engineering
Stress - Strain

Strain

Figure 1.13 : Comparison of Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram with True Stress-Strain Diagram

It is well known fact that volume of material remains constant during plastic deformation,
which means
A0 L
A0 L0 = AL or = . . . (1.14)
A L0
With this fact it can be shown that
L A
ε′ = ln = ln 0 . . . (1.15)
L0 A
Properties in Terms of True Stress and Strain
Under some circumstance, particularly when the material is in plastic range of
deformation, certain material properties are defined in terms of true stress and
strain. True stress plotted against true stain is best represented as in Figure 1.14(a)
with properly choosing strain scale because it is in plastic range. In most cases the
relationship is non-linear and the slope of the curve at any given strain is called
modulus of strain hardening at that strain.
Several experimental observations suggest that σ′ and ε′ satisfy following relation

σ′ = k ε ′ n . . . (1.16)
or ln σ′ = ln k + n ln ε′ . . . (1.17)
where, k and n for a given material can be regarded as its properties, k is called
strength coefficient while n is strain hardening exponent. As is obvious from
Eq. (1.17) the plot between ln σ′ and ln ε′ is a straight line whose slope is equal to
n and intercept on ln σ′ axis is ln k.
18
 The constants k and n can be determined experimentally if diameter of specimen Mechanical Properties
corresponding to load P is recoded. A special gauge will have to be used for and Their Determination
measuring least diameter along gauge length with increasing load.

Slope of Tangent at 1 Slope of the Line is Strain

is Modulus of Strain Hardening Exponent, n
True Stress, σ′

Hardening
at ε1′

In σ′
1

ε′1 Strength Coefficient, k

True Strain , ε′ In ε′

(a) (b)
Figure 1.14 : True Stress Plotted as Function of True Strain (a) Linear Scale; and (b) In Scale
One may refer to Figure 1.2 and once more may note that at point d the stress is
maximum and even when strain keeps increasing stress σ keeps reducing after
point d. in an experiment wherein a ductile material is being tested perceptible
reduction in diameter is observed after ultimate point, d. The condition of
beginning of reduction of diameter in the localised region is termed necking and it
is the neck where diameter is always minimum. This phenomenon is also called
instability and cannot be reversed. However, if load is removed very fast further
necking may be stopped. If the load is maintained then necking will continue until
fracture.
It is possible to establish the condition of beginning of necking in terms of strain
hardening exponent. Starting from the fact that tangent to load elongation curve at
highest point will be horizontal, it can be written that
dP = 0
or, d (σ′ A) = 0
where, σ′ is true stress and A is the area of cross-section of tension specimen at
maximum load.
∴ σ′ dA + A d σ′ = 0
d σ′ dA
or =− . . . (1.18)
σ ′ A
Also since volume of specimen of length L and cross-section area A remains
constant, i.e. AL = constant.
d (AL) = 0
or, L dA + A dL = 0
dA dL
i.e. − = = d ε′ . . . (1.19)
A L
From Eqs. (1.18) and (1.19)
d σ′
= d ε′
σ′
d σ′
or, = σ′ . . . (1.20)
d ε′
Substitute σ′ from Eq. (1.16) in Eq. (1.20) to obtain
d
( k ε′n ) = k ε′n
d ε′ 19
Materials Applications
i.e. n k ε ′n − 1 = k ε ′n
or, ε′ = n . . . (1.21)

Thus it is seen that when true strain ε′ becomes equal to strain hardening exponent
n, necking will begin and fracture will ultimately occur. Metal working process
like drawing, rolling, extrusion etc. may be thus performed safely it at no stage the
true strain is allowed to reach the value of strain hardening exponent. The strain
hardening exponent can be determined from tension test. Such determination will
be exemplified in solved example.
Example 1.3
A copper specimen of 64 mm gauge length and 12.80 mm dia. was tested in
tension. Following two diameters were recorded in the plastic range of
deformation.
Load = 25.75 kN, d1 = 12.176 mm
Load = 24.25 kN, d2 = 8.581 mm
Calculate strength coefficient and strain hardening exponent.
Solution
π 2 π
Original area of cross-section, A0 = d0 = (12.8)2
4 4
A0 = 128.6144 mm 2

π 2 π
Area of cross-section at 25.75 kN = d1 = (12.176)2
4 4
A1 = 116.3802 mm 2

π 2 π
Area of cross-section at 24.25 kN = d 2 = (8.581)2
4 4
A2 = 57.8023 mm 2

25.75 × 103
∴ True stress at 25.75 kN, σ1′ = = 221.25 N/mm 2
116.3802
24.25 × 103
True stress at 24.25 kN, σ′2 = = 419.53 N/mm 2
57.8023
A0
Note from Eq. (1.15) true strain ε′ = ln
A
128.6144
∴ ε1′ = ln = ln 1.105
116.3802
ε1′ = 0.0999

128.6144
and ε′2 = ln = ln 2.225
57.8023
ε′2 = 0.7998

Thus two pairs of values are obtained. Use these values of σ′ and ε′ in Eq. (1.15),
i.e. ln σ′ = ln k + n ln ε′

∴ ln 221.25 = ln k + n ln 0.0999
and ln 419.53 = ln k + n ln 0.7998
20
 Subtract first equation from second Mechanical Properties
and Their Determination
6.039 − 5.399 = n (− 0.2234) − n (− 2.3036)
i.e. 0.64 = 2.0802 n
0.64
or, n= = 0.3077 ...
2.0802
(i)
Using this value in one of above equations
5.399 = ln k + 0.3077 (− 2.3036)

∴ ln k = 5.399 + 0.7088 = 6.1078

k = 449.35 N/mm2 ...
(ii)
∴ True stress-true strain relationship for copper is

σ′ = 449.35 ε′0.3077 ...

(iii)
Example 1.4
At what load the specimen of copper of last example will begin to neck in a
tension test? What will be its ultimate tensile strength?
Solution
The condition for necking is ε′u = n = 0.3077
Hence using this value of ε′u , the true stress at necking

σ′u = 449.35 (0.3077)0.3077

= 449.35 × 0.696

σ′u = 312.67 N/mm 2

Hence maximum load, Pu = σ′u Au where, Au is the area of cross-section at Pu.

A0
Note ε′u = ln
Au

128.6144
∴ 0.3077 = ln
Au

128.6144
∴ = 1.36
Au
or Au = 94.55 mm2
∴ Pu = σ′u Au = 312.67 × 94.55 N
= 29.6 kN
Pu 29.6 × 103
The ultimate tensile strength = =
A0 128.6144
= 230 N/mm2.
SAQ 4
(a) Distinguish between true stress and engineering stress. Distinguish between
true strain and engineering strain. 21
Materials Applications (b) Define strength coefficient and strain hardening exponent. How can these
properties be determined?
(c) What should be limiting strain in process of wire drawing?
(d) A steel specimen with gauge length of 62.5 mm and diameter of 12.5 mm
was tested under tension. Thee gauge length at maximum load of 72.5 kN
was 71.55 mm and gauge length at fracture load of 66.6 kN was 80.5 mm.
Find specimen diameter at maximum load and fracture load.
[Use A0 L0 = AL, dia. at maximum load = 11.68 mm, dia. at
fracture = 11.01 mm].
(e) Find true stress and true strain at maximum load and fracture in (d).
[ε′u = 0.1345, ε′f = 0.25]

1.4 COMPRESSION TEST

There are several materials used in engineering practice that are primarily meant to carry
compressive loads, concrete, bricks and wood are normally used in compression.
Therefore, the mechanical properties of these materials are often evaluated in
compression test. Generally, behaviours in tension and compressive are similar but there
are differences in stress-strain diagram and mode of failure particularly in ductile
materials which need understanding.
In a simple compression test cylindrical specimens of standard length to diameter ratios
are compressed between two platens under axial load. The mechanical properties such as
yield strength, ultimate compressive strength, modulus of toughness and also elastic
constant, modulus of elasticity can be determined for brittle materials in compression
test. For a ductile material, however, the ultimate compressive strength cannot be defined
because a ductile material keeps on expanding in lateral directions as compressive load
increases. This lateral expansion continues to take place whereby area increases and
ultimately the specimen might be turned into disc (Figure 1.15). This lateral bulging of a
ductile material enables it to resist almost indefinitely large focus without fracture. The
specimen in contact with platen expands less because of friction between surfaces of
platens and specimen. Sometimes the stress for an arbitrarily chosen deformation is
indicates as compressive strength of a ductile material. Often, the ability to undergo large
plastic deformation under compression is called malleability of ductile materials but this
property cannot be defined quantitatively. Modulus of elasticity and modulus of
resilience for ductile material can be evaluated in compression as in tension but modulus
of toughness cannot be defined.

Bulging Compression
Specimen
Specimen
Compressed
into Disc

Figure 1.15 : A Ductile Material Specimen in Compression

At atomic level, unlike tensile stress case, no definite maximum exists in stress vs atomic
bond curve and thus there is not limit to repulsive force that can be build up between
22 atoms. Thus, the compression will not become the cause of failure and will always result
in elastic strain. It is the shearing stress component which causes the slip of atomic planes Mechanical Properties
and results in bulging of the specimen, and plastic deformation. With this consideration and Their Determination
the stress-strain diagram within elastic limit will be the extension of that in tension with
the difference that the elastic behaviour in compression ends a higher values of stress and
strain as shown in Figure 1.16(a).

+σ

Compression

-ε +ε

Stress
Tension

-σ Strain

(a) (b)
Figure 1.16 : (a) Elastic Stress-Strain Relationship in Tension and Compression and
(b) Behaviour of Rubber in Tension and Compression

Long chain ploymeric materials like rubber, cork or wood show distinctly different
behaviour in tension and compression. In tension the coiled molecules are first uncoiled
and then strained whereby such materials show low stiffness followed by higher stiffness
in tension. On the other hand compression may tend to cause further coiling in the initial
stage followed by elastic compression of molecules showing slight stiffening effect in
immediate decrease of stiffness. As the cells are compacted with increasing compressive
load, the stiffness will further increase.
1.4.1 Compression of Brittle Materials
For most brittle materials the elastic properties like elastic limit, modulus of resilience,
yield strength and modulus of elasticity are same in tension and compression. The
ultimate compressive strength of most brittle materials is different than the ultimate
tensile strength. For example, in concrete, the ultimate compressive strength is about ten
times its ultimate tensile strength.
The compression test specimen fractures due to shearing along a plane inclined to the
axis (Figure 1.17). The orientation of the plane of shear is affected by the presence of
normal compressive stresses and the final fracture does not often occur along plane of
maximum shearing stress which is inclined at an angle of 45o with the axis. The
orientation of plane of shear varies between 35o and 45o with the axis.

Shear
Plane

Figure 1.17 : A Brittle Material Specimen under Compression

Even in brittle materials some lateral bulging will tend to occur. This lateral deformation
is greatly restricted at flat specimen ends due to friction between the platens and the
specimen ends. This friction reduces for longer specimen. If the compression specimen is
too long, it may have a tendency to buckle. To minimise the influences of friction and
buckling the length to diameter ratio of compression specimen has to be chosen very
carefully. For determination of compression strength this ratio is between two and three. 23
Materials Applications However, for determination of elastic properties the ratio of length to diameter may be
chosen between eight and ten. If this ratio is less than 1.5 the fracture plane might
intersect the end which is undesirable.
It may be noted that the brittle material in which the atomic bonds are not re-established
will ultimately fracture due to slip which may occur along one or several planes. The
later failure is fragmentation. While the cracks, pores and holes play very important role
in reducing tensile strength the same do not become active under compressive stress.
They rather close and net compressive strength is higher than tensile strength particularly
in case of brittle materials. Figure 1.18 shows this fact for cast iron, and Table 1.2
describes the same for several materials.

140
Tension
0
140

Stress (MPa)
280
420
560
Compression
700
840
0.06 0.04 0.02 0.0 0.01
Strain (mm / mm)

Figure 1.18 : Stress-Strain Diagram for Cast Iron in Tension and Compression

Table 1.2 : Tensile and Compressive Strength of Brittle Materials

Material Tensile Strength Compressive Strength Ratio
(MPa) (MPa)
Grey cast iron 165 825 5
Concrete 2.7 34 12.6
Plexigless 72 115 1.6
Alumina Ceramic 205 2040 9.95

[Note : Concrete 1.3 mix by volume, water cement ratio 0.64 (by volume) cured for 28 days.]

Compression test is terminated if excessive deformation occurs and specimen does not
fracture.
The hydrostatic compression is the loading in which every element is subjected to equal
compression stresses in all three directions. This state of stress which is obtainable when
a body is submerged in water does not cause any distortion but produces only volume
reduction. In such a test the specimen my not fail at all because at atomic level such state
of stress will tend to push atoms into each other and no slip would occur, hence no plastic
deformation.
1.4.2 Experimental Methods for Compression Test
Most important factor that has to be controlled in compression test is the application of
load. The axiality of load has to be ensured. The platen, normally the one in contact with
the moving cross-head is made self aligning with a spherical head on the top of the plate
which is directly in contact with the specimen. The centre of the spherical head coincides
with the centre of the specimen top surface through which must pass the axis of the
machine. Great care needs to be exercised for aligning the specimen axially with machine
(Figure 1.19(a)).
Because of friction between the loading plate and top of specimen the material
immediately below the top surface is subjected to near hydrostatic stress and avoids
failure. Though the compressive stress in direction perpendicular to load axis decreases
away from loading surface it does not vanish before distance is at least diameter of the
specimen. For this reason the specimen length of 3d is normally recommended. The top
surface is also recommended to be smooth and friction free. In some specimens close cut
24
circular concentric grooves and created to hold lubricant, particularly in specimens of Mechanical Properties
ductile materials. The problem of bulging is minimal in concrete and hence l/d = 2 is and Their Determination
often used for this material. In yet another method the ends are made conical hollow to
receive similar loading plate as shown in Figure 1.19(b). The angle of cone is equal to
angle of friction between the materials of platen and specimen, and it is not readily
known. It is important that compression force must be applied such that rate of straining
is constant. Most materials required to be tested in compression are viscoelastic in nature
and do not reach equilibrium readily. Prescribed strain rates are, therefore, maintained.

R
α=φ

(a) (b)
Figure 1.19 : (a) Self Aligning Platen; and (b) Conical Hollow End of Compression Specimen

SAQ 5
(a) Sketch how a mild steel specimen will change shape under increasing
compressive load.
(b) Why does cast iron show higher compressive strength than tensile strength?
(c) The stiffness of rubber first increases in tension and then decreases whereas
it increases in compression. Give reason.
(d) Why should a compression test specimen, which is compressed between two
rigid platens, bulge around mild section?
(e) Why should axis of machine coincide with the axis of compression test
specimen? What methods are adopted in place of flat pattern to ensure
coaxiality?
(f) The ratio of length to diameter in cast iron compression specimen is
3 whereas it is 2 in concrete specimen. Give reason.
(g) A concrete specimen with l/d ratio less than 1.5 tested in compression.
Sketch the failure plane. Why this specimen is not recommended? Sketch
the same plane if l/d = 3.
(h) In which case l/d between 8 and 10 is preferable in compression specimen.

1.5 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Universal testing machine is to be distinguished from a special purpose machine in the
sense that such a machine is used for performing several tests. Tests that are performed in
a universal testing machine are tension, compression, bending, transverse shear and
hardness. On the other hand, a special machine like torsion testing machine or
compression machine can be used only for particular test as indicated by name.
Two types of universal testing machines are in common use. One is mechanical type
operated by screw and gear as shown in Figure 1.20 and the other is hydraulic universal 25
testing machine as shown in Figure 1.21. Both these machines are basic in nature. The
Materials Applications screw type varies in size and capacity over wide range of a few newtons to a few tones.
Hydraulic machines are generally of high capacity. These machines have limited speeds
of movement of cross-heads so that loads applied are within the definition of static. The
strains rates greater than 10– 6 mm/mm.s are usually not available on universal testing
machines. Modern computer operated machines now-a-days make wide range of strain
rates available and they can be even used for cycling stresses. Instron and MTS machines
are examples.
Whatever by the type of machine general features remain same, a universal machine
applies axial load which can act as tension, compression, shear or bending load upon the
specimen depending upon positioning of the specimen. The application of load is
effected by relative movement between two cross-heads. Generally machines have two
cross-heads rigidly connected with each other and a third cross-head is positioned
between them. Each machine has proper specimen holding and supporting devices to
apply desired type of load upon the specimen. The load applied upon the specimen has to
be balanced and measured and as such each machine should have this device.
Figure 1.20 shows essential features of a mechanical type of universal testing machine.
The upper and lower cross-heads are rigidly connected with middle cross-head can be
moved down by a screw and gear arrangement driven by an electric motor. While
moving down the middle or movable cross-head can apply a tension load on a specimen
gripped between the moving cross-head and upper cross-head. Alternatively, the middle
cross-head can apply a compressive load on a specimen placed on lower cross-head. The
fixed cross-heads are supported over a compound lever system at whose end a poise or
balance weight can be shifted to achieve balance of the lever and thus measure the
applied force. The balance weight is often replaced by a swinging pendulum whose
rotation is transmitted to an indicator through gear train for direct indication of load.
In a hydraulic universal testing machine (Figure 1.21) the rigid frame containing upper
and lower cross-head is attached to an accurately finished piston which exactly matches
with the hydraulic cylinder. The middle cross-head, whose position is adjustable remains
stationary when the load is applied upon the specimen. An electric motor rotates a
hydraulic pump that forces the oil into the cylinder whereby the rigid assembly of lower
and upper cross-head is lifted up. During this movement a tensile load will act upon the
specimen held between upper and middle cross-head and a compressive force will act
upon a specimen placed on the lower cross-head. The hydraulic pressure on the bottom of
the hydraulic cylinder is transmitted to a hydraulic capsule which is connected to a
Bourdon tube gauge which can be calibrated to read the force directly. The middle
cross-head can be moved up or down by separate positioning screws and during its
positioning movement the hydraulic pump is not operated.
Both types of machine often incorporate the mechanical graphical devices to plot the load
displacement curves. Modern machines incorporate load cell and displacement gauges
whose electrical signals respectively proportional to load and displacement can be plotted
automatically on X-Y plotter when the test is proceeding.

Fixed Cross
Head

Tension Specimen

Balance Weight
Movable Cross
Head

Screw Levers

Fixed Cross
Head

Motor
Gears
26
 Mechanical Properties
and Their Determination
Figure 1.20 : Screw-Gear Type Universal Testing Machine

Scale
Upper Cross
Head

Columns
Space for tension
Specimen

Middle Cross Head Bourdon Tube

Gauge
Space for Compression
Specimen

Lower Cross Head Motor

Piston Pump

Positioning Screw

Hydraulic Capsule

Figure 1.21 : Schematic of Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine

SAQ 6
(a) What is the difference between a universal and special purpose machine?
Name a few special purpose machines. [Special purpose testing machines :
Torsion testing machines, Compression testing machine, Harness tester,
Impact testing machine.]
(b) Show a compression test specimen placed in a universal testing machine.
(c) What are the difference between a conventional universal testing machine
and modern computer controlled testing machine?
(d) What devices are used for recording load and elongation in universal testing
machines?
(e) A tension test specimen records 40,000 N force over a period of ½ min.
During this time the initial gauge length of 100 mm changes to 120 mm. If
the mechanical efficiency of the machine is 80%, calculate the power
consumed by driving motor. (16.6 W).

Effect of Strain Rate on Tensile Properties

Static tensile tests are often performed at very low strain rate [10 – 6 mm/mm
(sec)] and variations permissible in conventional testing machines are generally so
limited that they do not influence the static properties. But machines capable of
varying strain rate by as much as 100,000 time have been developed and tensile
tests in such machines have revealed that tensile properties are quite susceptible to
changes under increasing strain rates.
In general it is observed that yield strength and ultimate tensile strength increase
with increasing strain rates, percentage elongation seems to first increase with
strain rate but then decreases of remains constant. One important influence of high
strain rate is that for such material as low-carbon steels which do not show yield
point in normal tensile tests, yield point appears. Further, yield strength out of all
static properties is not affected by strain rate. Figures 1.22 and 1.23 show how
these properties are influenced by strain rate.
The effect of strain rate on mechanical properties become more pronounced at 27
elevated temperatures.
Materials Applications The load applied at strain rate higher than 10 mm/mm (sec) is classified as impact
load, and under impact loads ductility of a material has tendency to reduce.

Strain Rate
630 300 / Sec
100 / Sec
560
0.5 / Sec
490

Stress (MPa)
420
9.5×10-7/Sec
350 6.5×10-4/Sec

280

210
140
70
0 10 20 30 40 50
Strain (%)

Figure 1.22 : Stress-Strain Diagram for Mild Steel at different Strain Rates

600 80

500 σY / σu
Stress (MPa)

60
400
σu
300 40
200 % Elongation
σY
100 20

0
-6 -4 -2 3
10 10 10 1 10 100 10
Strain Rate (%)

Figure 1.23 : Effect of Strain Rate on σY, σu and % Elongation

The Problem of Brittle Failure
A number of accidental failures of ships during Second World War drew attention
of engineers and metallurgist on the problem of brittle fracture. The said ships had
all failed showing brittle fracture wherein the crack propagated suddenly without
any plastic deformation and producing loud report due to sudden release of strain
energy. As a result fracture tendency in material like steel develops due to
(a) a triaxial state of stress,
(b) low temperature, and
(c) high strain rate or rapid rate of loading.
It has been recognised that most brittle failures in service conditions take place due
to combined effects of triaxial state of stress, such as existing at a notch and low
temperature. These effects are, however, accentuated, by high strain rate, hence the
laboratory tests combining all these three conditions are performed to determine
tendency of a material to fail in brittle manner. Such tests known as impact tests
are performed in impact testing machine – one such machine is shown in Figure
1.24.
Scale

Swinging
h1 Pendulum

h2
Specimen

28
 Figure 1.24 : Charpy Impact Testing Machine Mechanical Properties
and Their Determination

1.6 NOTCHED-BAR IMPACT TESTS

Several tests, in recent past, have been developed to determine the tendency of material
to fracture in brittle manner. Most tests are performed on bar specimens which carry
notches in most critically stressed zone under impact [strain rate ≥ 103 mm/mm (sec)].
Carrying out the impact tests on notched bar samples at low temperatures renders most
severe conditions which might exist in service.
One important factor which separates impact test from static tests is the great difficulty or
even impossibility of stress calculation at the tip of the notch under impact load. The
triaxial state of stress that exists around notch tip under static load is modified
considerably under impact load. Due to this difficulty the result of impact tests are not
presented in form of stress as is customary in static test. Since the relative magnitudes of
the stress components at notch tip depend upon the dimension of notch and specimen, the
impact test specimens are standarised so that results from different sources may be
compared.
The property that is measured in impact test is the energy absorbed in fracturing the
specimen of standard dimensions and standard notch. The property, measured in kgf-m,
or joules is also often referred to as impact toughness.
Since impact toughness is not a stress and it cannot be generalised for a material but
remains property of specimen of a material, it is not possible to incorporate this property
in design directly. on the other hand, this property is a good qualitative index of
behaviour of material in presence of notch and at low temperature, and such an index is
not possible to obtain from any static test, therefore, this property of material is used in
selection of material (particularly steel) and for development of material for specific
purposes of inhibiting the tendency of brittle fracture.
Although the impact test can be used for any material, yet it is steel (particularly the
structural steel) for which this is universally used. This is because of the fact that steel is
the predominant material used for structures as well as due to the fact that steel behaviour
is sharply influenced by variation in temperature and strain rate.
Charpy Impact Test
The Charpy impact test is performed on a square cross-section specimen, having a
notch on one side in the central cross-section. The specimen is placed in charpy
impact testing machine shown in Figure 1.24 such that swinging pendulum strikes
the specimen at the central cross-section but on the opposite side of the notch. The
specimen is simply supported on the platform of the machine as illustrated in
Figure 1.25(a). The commonly used impact specimen is 10 mm square cross-
section beam of 55 mm length, supported over 40 mm span and having a V-notch
in the central plane whose included angle is 45o, depth is 2 mm and root radius is
0.25 mm.
Impact
Load
2 mm
22 mm
Impact
Load 0
45
55 mm
10 mm

40 mm

(a) (b)
Figure 1.25 : Impact Test Specimens

The charpy test machine shown in Figure 1.24 is rigid and strong structure of two
columns on a heavy base. The columns carry a heavy swinging pendulum at their 29
top which swings on a frictionless pin, and support platform at the bottom for the
Materials Applications specimen. When the pendulum is in its vertical position its striking edge is level
with the central cross-section of the specimen. The mass of the striker (or hammer)
is concentrated in vertical plane. A circular disc scale mounted centric with the pin
of the pendulum reads its position but is often calibrated in terms of the potential
energy of the pendulum.
To perform the experiment the specimen is first placed in position by the help of a
centring device, the pendulum is raised to and held at its extreme position and then
allowed to fall. At its extreme position, h1 from the specimen, the pendulum has
potential energy Wh1 where W is the weight of the pendulum. In this position the
arm of the disc scale is in its extreme position, reading total amount of energy
stored in the hammer. The speed of approximately released from its raised position
and strikes the specimen at a speed of approximately 4.8 m/sec. Under this
condition the specimen is forced to bend with a rate of 103 mm/mm (sec) resulting
into instantaneous fracture or plastic deformation. The pendulum continues its
swing after fracturing or deforming the specimen and rises to height of h2.
Thereafter, the pendulum swings back to oscillate pointer which does not swing
back with the pendulum. As already pointed out the disc scale is calibrated to read
energy and the position of the dead pointer reads the difference of potential
energies of the pendulum in two extreme positions corresponding to h1 and h2.
Naturally this difference of the energy is that which was absorbed in fracturing the
specimen. Thus if Uf denotes the impact roughness,
Uf = W (h1 – h2) . . . (1.17)
It may, however, be recognised that some energy loss may occur in the bearing of
the pendulum and also due to resistance of air offered to swinging pendulum.
These two losses may be determined by simple experiment in which the pendulum
is allowed to fall from is extreme position without placing the specimen in its path.
The other extreme position to which pendulum rises will be slightly lower than its
initial position. The difference of the potential energies in two positions, indicated
by the position of the dead pointer, is the loss of energy to bearing friction and air
resistance. This energy loss (UL) has to be subtracted from Uf to obtain corrected
value of impact toughness, i.e.
Uf = Wh1 – Wh2 – UL . . . (1.18)
Izod Impact Test
Izod impact test specimen, shown in Figure 1.25(b), is either circular or square in
cross-section and contains a V-notch at one end. The specimen is clamped at
notched end in vertical plane as cantilever beam. The swinging hammer strikes the
free end at a distance of 22 mm from the notch. The general construction of Izod
impact testing machine is same as that of Charpy machine except the hammer. The
mass of hammer in Charpy machine is distributed in a vertical plane whereas in
Izod machine it is distributed in horizontal plane. Now-a-days same hammer is
being used in machine with attachable strikers for charpy and izod specimens.
SAQ 7
(a) How does strain rate influence yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and
percent elongation?
(b) Distinguish between shapes of hammers used in Izod and Charpy impact
tests.
(c) Distinguish between types of loading and specimens for Charpy and Izod
impact tests.
(d) What are the factors that make material behave in brittle manner?
(e) A hammer weighing 50 N at the end of a swinging arm of length 800 mm is
lifted to a height of 1500 mm from the level of Charpy test specimen. With
what speed the hammer will strike the specimen.
30
 1 Mechanical Properties
[Equate potential energy, mgh with K. E, = mv 2 and calculate and Their Determination
2
1500
v = 2 g h = 2 × 9.81 × = 5.42 m/s .
1000
If the height of specimen from ground level is known, then the PE of
hammer in lower most position may be subtracted from KE.]
(f) The hammer of (e) is released and no specimen is placed in its path. The
hammer rises to a height of 1450 mm. How much energy is lost in friction
and air resistance? [2.5 N-m]

1.7 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

Normally an impact test at room temperature reveals but little about brittle fracture
tendencies of steel. It will become useful if the tests are performed at several
temperatures below room temperature. Figure 1.26 depicts how the impact toughness of
two steels vary with temperature. While it can be seen that energy absorbed in fracture
reduces sharply as the temperature decreases, it also becomes clear that two steels may
behave quite differently with temperatures.
Considering steel A, it is observed that over a narrow zone of temperature (between zero
and – 20oC) the material changes its behaviour completely from ductile to brittle. (High
energy absorption is due to ductile fracture). This temperature range is known as
transition range and is centred around a temperature which is termed as transition
temperature (Tr). However, temperature Tr (Figure 1.26) is often called ductility
transition temperature. A lower transition temperature is more desirable in practice as it
will guarantee that brittle fracture will not occur within service temperature range.
An important conclusion that can be drawn from Figure 1.26 is the room temperature
impact tests alone are of little consequence. In this figure steel B shows low impact
toughness at room temperature but a lower transition temperature, indicating its
usefulness in the range of – 20 to 0oC whereas steel A might fail in brittle manner. Thus
to understand the material tendency to behave in a brittle manner it is essential to
determine the ductile to brittle transition range in terms of temperature.
Impact Toughness (kg - m)

60

Tr
45
Brittle A
Fracture B
30 Ductile
Fracture
15
Transition

-40 -20 0 20 40
O
Temperature ( C)

Figure 1.26 : Transition in Fracture Mode under Impact Loading

Presence of notch provided one condition for brittle fracture. The qualitative behaviour of
material can be understood by accepting the fact that the material has distinct properties
as yield strength and fracture strength. Both of these properties decrease with increasing
temperature, reducing strain rate and triaxility. However, the reduction rate of fracture
strength is much less than that of yield strength, and hence at certain point these curves 31
Materials Applications intersect as shown in Figure 1.27. Thus the yield strength which is initially higher than
fracture strength becomes lower after the point of intersection. The specimen loaded on
right hand side of the ordinate CA will first reach yield stress and will plastically deform.
Contrarily the specimen loaded on left hand side of CA will first reach fracture stress and
will thus fail in a brittle manner without showing any plastic deformation. The line CA
can be called the line of transition from brittle to ductile. In practice CA becomes a band
in which change from brittle to ductile behaviour takes place very fast and its width
depends upon the nature of material.

Yield

Fracture

Strength
C

A
Temperature
Triaxiality
Strain Rate

Figure 1.27 : Various of Yield and Fracture Strengths with Temperature, Triaxiality and Strain Rate
After each impact test, the fracture parts must be explained for details. A brittle fracture,
as below temperature Tr exhibits a granular surface which is characteristics of cleavage
fracture and absence of any shear deformation. As the temperature rises the part of the
notched section, the region near the surface, tends to fracture in shear mode whereby
energy absorption in fracture increases. This shear deformation results in transverse
contraction of notch section and the percent contraction is sometime reported to indicate
the ductility of the material. The fracture surface on which failure occurs due to shear is
marked by fibrous appearance and considerably transverse contraction in the notched
section. Figure 1.28 illustrates the fracture surface.
(a) Granular surface,
(b) Mixed granular and fibrous appearance with some side contraction, and
(c) Mixed fracture with considerably fibrous appearance and side contraction,
2d is the total transverse contraction at the notch.
d d
Fibrous
Appearance

Granular Notch
Surface Contraction of
the Notch

(a) (b)
Figure 1.28 : Impact Fracture Surface Appearance
Other Factors Affecting Properties
In addition to temperature, there are several other factor that affect the impact
toughness. One important factor is the machine itself. Each machine will absorb
some energy when the specimen is struck by pendulum and this amount though
very small will vary from machine to machine and thus the impact toughness will
be affected. The notch root radius is starndarised and any deviation from it will
influence the result. A sharper radius will tend to reduce the impact toughness
while a coarser radius will increase the amount of energy absorbed during fracture.
Metallurgical Factors
32
 Two alloying elements, namely carbon and manganese are highly effective in Mechanical Properties
altering the impact toughness of steel. Each 0.1% increase in carbon percentage and Their Determination
raises the ductility transition temperature by about 14oC. Each 0.1% addition of
manganese in steel reduces the transition temperature by about 5oC. For a
satisfactory notch impact toughness a 3 : 1 ratio for manganese percentage to that
of carbon is often suggested. Phorphorous also raises the transition temperature,
and steel with high phosphorous content is not preferred at low temperature.
Nickel generally has beneficial effect on notch impact property while chromium
has little effect. Silicon tends to increase the transition temperature if in excess of
0.25%. Nitrogen has detrimental effect on notch toughness, though it is hard to
determine its effect because of interaction with other elements. Molybdenum
increases the ductility transition temperature almost as rapidly as carbon. The
presence of oxygen in steel is highly dangerous as it raises the transition
temperature in the higher temperature range. Deoxidation practice as followed in
production of killed and semi-killed steels is highly beneficial in improving impact
properties.
Grain size has pronounced effect on transition temperature. In general the
transition temperature reduces with decreasing grain size. This effect is observed
both in mild steel and higher alloyed steel. Since in thick hot rolled plates it is not
possible to obtain uniform fine grain size throughout the thickness, the transition
temperature will be appreciably higher. The loss of fracture energy in specimen of
thicker section is also due to geometrical factors, such as finding a weaker point is
easier in the large section than in smaller section of the same material.
SAQ 8
(a) Impact test is normally performed on steel. Give reasons.
(b) Define transition temperature and explain its usefulness in selecting material
for ships.
(c) Explain how yield strength and fracture strength are affected by decreasing
temperature and increasing strain rate and triaxiality of stress.
(d) A steel has transition temperature at 0oC. The transition range is over 10oC.
Show the appearance of impact fracture surface of charpy specimens tested
respectively at 5oC and – 5oC.
(e) The alloying elements in steel affect impact strength. What are the effects of
C, Mn, P and Si?
(f) What is killed steel? Why this treatment is given on steel?
(g) Which of the following will decrease the transition temperature? Is
decreasing of transition temperature advantageous? Explain.
(i) Carbon addition
(ii) Mn addition
(iii) Mo addition
(iv) Deoxidation
(v) Decreasing grain size.

1.8 HARDNESS
The technological use of material has made the term hardness very common but it still
remains a poorly defined material property. Even a layman can differentiate between a
harder and softer material, but it may be difficult to designate a material by its 33
Materials Applications quantitative hardness because it is difficult to correlate the property with stress or strain.
In general hardness may be understood as a property which provides resistance to
permanent plastic deformation. Such a deformation may leave a permanent impression on
the material surface. For engineering purpose the property of hardness is defined as
resistance to indention or scratching. Based upon this two methods of hardness
measurement, viz.
(a) scratch hardness, and
(b) indentation hardness
are used.
Ability of material to resist abrasion, cutting or penetration is also attributed to hardness.
1.8.1 Scratch Hardness
The scratch hardness is commonly measured by Mohs test. The method is based upon the
scale of hardness, known as Mohs scale, in which ten standard minerals are arranged in
the order of their ability to be scratched. The softest mineral with scratch hardness of 1 is
talc whereas the hardest mineral, diamond, has a hardness of 10 on Mohs scale. The other
minerals between them in increasing order of hardness are gypsum, calcite, fluorite,
appetite, feldspar, quartz, topaz, sapphier and corundum. The method of determining
Mohs hardness is to compare a scratch on the material surface, produced under
standardised conditions with the scratch on one of the minerals occupying position from
1 to 10 on Mohs scale. Although the test had been chiefly designed for minerals, any
metal can be tested by this method. Most metals fall in mohs hardness range of 4 to 18
and it is difficult to differentiate between two metals whose hardness are close. Because
of this reason this method is not well suited for metals.
1.8.2 Indentation Hardness
Indentation hardness measurement is one of several but this is the most widely used and
acceptable method of hardness measurement. Several parts of machines and structures,
such as gears, axles and rails, are subjected to service requirements where high resistance
to indentation or abrasion is required. Indentation hardness measurement method uses an
indenter of a specified material, shape and size which is pushed against the material
surface under specified condition of loading to create an indentation. Then the
dimensions of indentation are used to designate the hardness of the material.
1.8.3 Brinell Hardness
This is a method of indentation hardness, which since its introduction in 1990 by
J. A. Brinell has been widely accepted for technological purposes. This method uses a
steel ball of 10 mm diameter as indenter. The indenter is first placed upon the surface
whose hardness is to be measured and then a gradually increasing load of 3000 kgf is
applied upon the indenter. When the load is removed an indentation is left upon the
surface. For softer metals a lower load of 500 kgf is applied to avoid very deep
indentation and for harder metals the steel ball is replaced by a tungsten carbide indenter
so that indenter is not deformed. In each case the load is applied for a standard time,
usually 30 sec. Figure 1.29 shows the indenter and indented plate.
The diameter of indentation is measured by a low power microscope. From the
knowledge of the indentation diameter and diameter of the spherical surface of the
indentation (which will be equal to the diameter of the ball) the area of the spherical
surface of the indentation can be calculated. Then the ratio of the load which caused the
indentation to the area of indented surface is defined as the Brinell hardness number
(BHN).
Load P

D
Indenter

d
34
Specimen
 Mechanical Properties
and Their Determination

Figure 1.29 : The Specimen and Ball Indenter for Brinell Hardness

If, P = Applied load, kgf,

D = diameter of the ball, mm, and
d = diameter of the indentation, mm.
P
then, BHN = . . . (1.19)
πD
(D − D −d )
2 2
2
Although, from the definition and Eq. (1.19) it is obvious BHN has units of kgf/mm2, this
does not convey and physical meaning because the load P is not uniformly distributed
over the indented surface.
The BHN value obtained for a material is fairly reproducible provided the load P and
diameter D are same for each test. To obtain the same BHN at any other load the ratio
d/D must be constant which requires that P/D must be constant. Thus for P = 3000 kgf, D
= 10 mm, P/D = 30. Hence if a load of 2000 kgf is to be used the ball dia must be
8.15 mm, and for a 1 mm diameter indenter a load of 30 kgf must be used.
The calculated value of BHN may be slightly in error because of the assumption that the
diameter of indented surface is same as that of indenter which is not exactly true. After
the removal of the load, some elastic recovery takes place whereby the final diameter of
the surface becomes different than ball diameter. For harder materials elastic recovery is
greater than for softer materials.
An anomaly may arise in measurement of diameter of indentation diameter, d, due to
localized deformation of metal in the region of indentation. Figure 1.30(a) shows the
cross-section through indentation in a cold-worked metal. Because such a metal has little
capacity to strain harden the metal has a tendency to pile up along the edge of
impression. This behaviour is known as “pilling up” or “ridging”. Although the measured
d is larger than actual diameter of indentation, yet the hardness is calculated on the basis
of measured d as shown in Figure 1.30(a) because the ridge also carries part of the load.
Figure 1.30(b) shows the “sinking in” of an annealed metal. The depression around the
edge of metal will apparently increase the diameter of the impression. To arrive at the
true value of d, the indenter is often coated by a dye before making the indentation. The
diameter then can be measured on the coloured ring.
d

(a) (b)
Figure 1.30 : Cross-section through Brinell Indentation on Two different Materials Showing
(a) Ridging; and (b) Sinking In

While making indentation on a plate specimen care must be exercised to avoid any
interference between the indentation and the edge of specimen and the interference
between two indentations. For this reason it is advisable that the centre of the indentation
should be at least 1.5 D away from any edge. Same distance should be maintained
between two neighbouring indentations. Similarly the thickness of the plate must be at
least equal to the diameter of indenter so that the plastically deformed zone below the
indentation does not interfere with the back surface.

35
Materials Applications 1.8.4 Rockwell Hardness
Rockwell hardness is another method of hardness measurement, which like Brinell
hardness, is very popular in engineering practice. In this method two types of indenter,
viz., a Brale indenter in form of 120o diamond cone or steel balls of 1/16 in and 1/8 in
diameter are used. These indenters are shown in Figure 1.31. Rockwell method differs
from Brinell method because Rockwell hardness is not measured as ratio of load to
indentation surface area. Instead, Rockwell hardness is measured on an arbitrary scale on
which hardness number is inversely proportional to depth of indentation.
The method consists in seating the specimen on platform of the machine and then
applying a minor load of 10 kgf on the specimen through the indenter. This minor load
helps to seat the specimen and reduces the tendency of riding or sinking in. A major load
which could be either 150, 100 or 60 kgf is then applied and the depth of indentation is
automatically recorded as hardness number on a dial gauge. The dial of the gauge is
divided into 100 division with each division representing a penetration of 0.002 mm. The
dial scale is reversed so that a small indentation depth is read as high hardness.

Rockwell Scale Load Hardness

A 60 kgf RA = 100 – 500 d
o
120
C 150 kgf RC = 100 – 500 d
D 100 kgf RD = 100 – 500 d
d

(a)
Rockwell Indenter Load Hardness
Scale Diamete
r
B 1/16 in 60 kgf RB = 100 – 500 d
d
F 1/16 in 60 kgf RF = 100 – 500 d
G 1/16 in 150 kgf RG = 100 – 500 d
E 1/8 in 100 kgf RE = 100 – 500 d
(b)
Figure 1.31 : (a) Brale Indenter (Diamond Cone); and
(b) The Spherical Ball Indenter of Steel, d is the Depth of Penetration

One combination of load and indenter will not be able to produce a wide range of
hardness. Therefore, loads with three indenters are used in different combinations to
provide wide range of measure hardness of several materials. Figure 1.31 shows the
different scales of Rockwell hardness which is often expressed as R with a suffix A, B or
C to indicate the scale. The scale (RC) is very commonly used for steel.
The Rockwell hardness is many times preferred over Brinell hardness because this test
can be performed on very small parts in finished or unfinished condition. Since the
indentation is very small, the finished surface is not spoilt and unfinished surface does
not affect the indentation. Also since no measurement of indentation and consequent
calculation are needed, the method is direct, fast and free from personal error.
However, several precautions regarding specimen and indentation have to the observed.
The thickness of the plate specimen must be at least ten times the depth of indentation.
This will avoid any effect of indentation to pass through the thickness. The distance
between two adjacent impressions should at least be three times the size of indentation.
The hardness read from indenting the curved surface should be corrected for curvature.
The surface on which indentation is made must be clean and smooth and it should be well
seated upon a clean platform. The rate of load application is controlled in Rockwell
hardness testing machine and it is achieved by a dashpot adjustment corresponding to a
standard rate of loading.
SAQ 9
(a) What do you understand by hardness? Arrange following substances from
hardest to softest.
36
 Diamond, steel, copper, gypsum, corundum, calcite. Mechanical Properties
and Their Determination
(b) What is Mho’s hardness scale? Why is it difficult to measure hardness of
steel on Moh’s scale?
(c) How is hardness measured?
(d) What is Brinell hardness? If for a ball of 10 mm diameter a load of 3000 kgf
is applied on the ball for measuring BHN, what force will have to be applied
upon a 5 mm ball?
(e) Is Rockwell hardness measured by indenting the surface? A diamond cone
indenter under a load of 100 kgf penetrates through 0.15 mm in steel A but
0.1 in steel B. Is A harder than B? Explain.
(f) Describe the procedure for finding Rockwell hardness.
(g) What limitations are placed on making ball indentation in a 12 mm thick
steel plate in Brinell hardness measurement?
(h) Explain “ridging” and “sinking in”.
(i) Compare Rockwell hardness with Brinell hardness measurement in respect
of a steel plate 5 mm thick.

1.8.5 Vickers Hardness

Basically Vickers hardness is same as Brinell hardness in that an indentation is made
under a load P and the Vickers hardness number is defined as the ratio of load P to the
surface area of the indentation. The difference between two test methods lies in use of
indenter. The Vickers indenter is a diamond pyramid with square base and included angle
between opposite faces as 136o (Figure 1.32). The impression of this indenter has square
boundary with depression inside. The lengths of two diagonals are measured under
microscope and average is used to calculate the surface area of indentation.
2 P sin θ / 2 1.854 P
Thus, Vickers hardness number, VHN = 2
+ . . . (1.20)
d d2
where, P is the indenting load in kgf. d is the average of two diagonal and θ is the angle
between opposite faces of diamond come which is 136o.

o
135 Diamond Indenter

Indentation
d d

Figure 1.32 : Diamond Indenter and its Square Indentation in Vickers Hardness Test

The impression of the diamond cone is square under any load, hence the impressions are
geometrically similar irrespective of load. This provides a great convenience of a
continuous scale from very soft material to very hard material without changing the load
or indenter. Generally for a given load hardness from 5 to 1500 VHN can be measured
with Vickers indenter, and it makes VHN independent of load except at very high loads.
However, loads between 1 kgf to 120 kgf are commonly used for VHN measurement for
very soft to very hard metals. For the reason of independence of VHN of load, this
method has widely been accepted as a research tool. 37
Materials Applications However, Vickers hardness measurement cannot be made on poorly finished surfaces and
an element of personal error is introduced because of accurate measurement of the
diagonal of indentation. In addition, the “anomalies of ridging” in case of cold worked
metals and of “sinking in” in case of annealed metals are also observed in Vicker’s
impression as in case of Brinell indentation. The barrel shape of indentation causes an
apparent increase in hardness due to “ridging”. Pin-cushin shape of indentation causes an
apparent decrease in VHN due to sinking in as shown in Figure 1.33 along with perfect
Vickers indentation.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.33 : (a) Perfect Indentation of a Diamond Pyramid; (b) Barrrel Shaped Impression due to
Ridging; and (c) Pin Cushion Shaped Impression due to Sinking In

1.8.6 Knoop Hardness

Many times it is required to determine the hardness over a very small region or a very
small part. The indenters of methods described previously may be larger than the area of
part over which hardness is to be determined. The individual constituents of a
microstructure, delicate gear of a watch or the area where sharp hardness gradient exists
may be such examples. The solution to such a problem may be using a very small
indenter under a small load.

Knoop Indenter

b Indenter

Figure 1.34 : Knoop Indenter and Indentation

Knoop hardness measurement is such a method in which a diamond indenter having

pyramidal faces with very large included angle is used (Figure 1.34). This indenter is
pressed against a metallographically finished surface to produce an indentation of the
diamond shape (Figure 1.34). The longer diagonal of the impression is approximately
seven times the shorter diagonal. The depth of indentation is about one thirteenth of the
longer diagonal. The Knoop Hardness Number (KHN) is the measure of the ratio of load
to projected area of impression.
P
Thus, KHN = 2
. . . (1.21)
d C

where d is the length of longer diagonal and C is a factor of diagonal pyramid, supplied
by the manufacturer. The indentation load is very small, often as low as 30 gms. The
small impression is measured under microscope and also since the area over which the
hardness measurement is made is very small, KHN is sometimes called microhardness.
It is highly essential that the surface of sample must have metallographic finish as well as
the indenting load controlled carefully. Any error in measurement of d can cause error in
hardness. The error in locating ends of the impression becomes larger at lower load and
hence the hardness has a tendency to increase with reduction in load and corrections for
such error are available.
1.8.7 Other Methods of Hardness Measurement
Dynamic hardness of a material is measured by dropping a small weight from a fixed
height on the surface of the sample and measuring its height of rebound. The instrument
38 in which this measurement is made is known as shore sceleroscope.
Yet another method of dynamic hardness measurement was developed by Martel. He Mechanical Properties
used a pyramidal indenter upon which a ram falls to produce an indentation of sample and Their Determination
surface under dynamic loading condition. The Martel Hardness Number (MHN) is
defined as :
Wh
MHN = . . . (1.22)
V
where, W = weight of falling arm,
h = height of fall, and
V = volume of indentation.
For paving materials the hardness measurement method has been developed in which
wear and abrasion of samples is measured. A number of preweighed pieces of
concentrate aggregate of bricks are placed in drum which is subsequently rotated for a
fixed number of cycles. Due to tumbling in the drum the sample pieces wear and lose
weight. The percentage loss of weight is used as a measure of wear or abrasion hardness.
This is known as Rattler method.
1.8.8 Relationship between Hardness and Other Properties
The property of hardness is related to the binding forces between atoms and molecules.
The hardness like other strength, increase with the binding forces. The molecular solids,
like plastics are soft and have low strength while metallic and ionic solids are harder and
stronger. The covalent solids are hardest. Diamond, the well known hardest solid has
covalent bonding.
Brinell (3000 kgf) & Vickers Hardness no.

160 800 80
80 Sceieroscope
Rockwell - B hardness

140
Rockwell - C hardness

70 700 70
Sceleroscope no.

60 120 600 60
Rockwell - B
50 100 500 50
40 80 400 40
Brinell
30 60 300 30
20 40 200 20
10 20 100 10
0 Vickers
0 0 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
2
Ultimate Tension Strength (kgf/cm )

Figure 1.35 : Approximate Relationship between Tensile Strength and different Hardness Numbers

The dependence of both strength and hardness on the binding forces between atoms will
certainly correlate the strength and hardness, a fact which was pointed out in
Section 1.21. However, because the mechanism of indentation is quite complex and
involves such factors as triaxial stress state, friction, strand hardening and creep, it is not
theoretically possible to correlate hardness with properties of strength, friction and creep
etc. However, attempts have been made to produce closely approximated relations and
one such between hardness and ultimate tensile strength is that ultimate tensile strength
equals 3.4 BHN in N/mm2. Figure 1.35 describes the relationship between hardness on
different scales and ultimate tensile strength of structural steels. Similar relationship exist
for different materials but they will be different than the ones shown in Figure 1.35.
The techniques used for improving the material strength, such as heat treatment,
mechanical treatments or alloying also result in the increase in hardness. Therefore,
hardness check of specimens is the quick and easy method of ascertaining the success of
such treatment. The hardness test is most widely used for all manufacturing operations as
a measure of uniformity and quality.
SAQ 10
(a) Explain how Brinell hardness and Vickers hardness are similar. What is the
difference between two methods? 39
Materials Applications (b) What are the difficulties in using Vickers hardness measurement on cold
worked and annealed specimens? Why should a barrel shape of indentation
in case of cold worked metal result in apparent increase in hardness?
(c) Which method of hardness measurement is recommended for a region
having hardness gradient?
(d) Which method of hardness measurement requires surface to be finished
metallographic?
(e) In a given material which is perfectly homogeneous at microscopic level
Knoop hardness is measured at several points in a narrow zone with force
decreasing from 100 gf to 30 gf. Will the results be closely equal on there is
possibility of variation in hardness?
(f) Which method uses loss of weight as measure of hardness? For which
materials this method is used.
(g) Arrange materials A, B and C in order increasing hardness.
Material A B C
Hardness 80 RB 300 BHN 50 RC

(h) What should be the hardness of material in RC which is required to have a

tensile strength of 1054 MPa?

1.9 FATIGUE
In most service conditions the parts of structures and elements of machines are subjected
to loads that change with respect to time. The aerodynamic loads on aircrafts, the earth
resistance to earth moving machines, the wind load on buildings and direct load on rail
road rolling stock etc. all change with time and so do the stresses, caused by these loads.
The important point to be noted is that material behaves differently under these variable
loads than under static load. The behaviour of material under variable loads is referred to
as “fatigue”. In recent past several failures of structures and machinery have been
attributed to fatigue and this recognition of fatigue problem has given a great impetus to
researches in the area because of huge loss of life and capital resulting from such failures.
However, the present day understanding of fatigue phenomenon has reached a stage
where exploitation of material without endangering human life and compromising
economical gains has become already possible.
The main reason for fatigue behaviour to have assumed such significance is the weakness
of material under variable load. A stress level at which failure under static condition will
not take place is not safe if the stress repeats with respect to time. Theoretically there is
no stress level for most materials which will be indefinitely safe. However, practically
some safe stress level can be defined and determined for some specified number of
cycles. Yet another characteristics of fatigue which makes it an important design
consideration, is that fatigue takes place in brittle manner. So there is not plastic
deformation giving a warning for impending failure.
1.9.1 Fatigue Curve
The fatigue experiments began about 170 years ago, mainly as a result of fatigue failures
in rail road equipment. Fatigue loads that are imposed upon machine parts and structures
in service may be random in nature as illustrated in Figure 1.36(a) but laboratory tests are
performed under sinusoidal stresses for convenience. Techniques have been developed to
use these results for application under actual service condition. The sinusoidal stress
40 variation is shown in Figure 1.36(b) and various terms defined therein. This stress cycle
is also termed fluctuating. About 90% of data are collected under fully reversed stress Mechanical Properties
cycle in which the mean stress = 0 and stress ratio and Their Determination

σ min
R= = −1
σmax

where, σmax = maximum stress,

σmin = minimum stress,
σmax + σ min
σm = mean stress = , and
2
σmax − σ min
σv = variable stress component = .
2
σν σmax
Stress
σm
Time σmin
Time

(a) (b)
Figure 1.36 : (a) Random Stress Variation; and (b) Sinusoidal Stress Variation
(Fluctuating Stress Cycle)

The stresses that are applied upon the fatigue test specimens can be axial, bending torsion
or their combination. In each case a particular type of machine is required. The simplest
type of machine, which is largely used, is rotating bending type. In this machine, as
shown in Figure 1.37, a dead weight is applied upon the specimen through bearing while
the specimen rotates. Generally the specimen is loaded as a cantilever (Figure 1.37) or
under four points bending. A fatigue testing machine must have a counter to record
number of cycles and microswitch to stop motor when specimen fails.

Micro
Switch

Specimen Revolution
Loading Counter
Bearing Motor

Holder

Load

Figure 1.37 : A Cantilever Type Rotating Bending Fatigue Machine

The fatigue test consists in choosing a stress level and running the specimen at that level
until its fails. The number of cycles after which the specimen fails is known as the life of
specimen at that stress level and recorded against it. Thus, a number of observations for
stress levels and corresponding number of cycles to failure are obtained. Generally
several specimens at each stress level are tested.
For obtaining fatigue curves the stress levels are plotted as ordinates and logarithms of
number of cycles are plotted as abscissa. For plotting these observations semi-log papers
are used. A typical plot of fatigue curve is shown in Figure 1.38(a). It can be seen that
fatigue curve tends to flatten for large number of cycles. The highest stress level is so
chosen that number of cycles of failure is around 104. The fatigue curve is seldom
investigated for cycles less than this. Further, the fatigue tests are rarely continued
41
Materials Applications beyond 108 cycles because such long endurances are not common in service and time
required for them will be very long.
An important property of great principal importance is deduced from fatigue curve. The
fatigue strength of material (Figure 1.38(a)) is defined as the maximum alternating stress
which a material will withstand for given number of cycles. This number of cycles is
mostly taken at 107 cycles except in some special case. Nevertheless, whenever fatigue
strength is described the number of cycles of which it has been determined must also be
mentioned.

500 MPa
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)
σe σe

7
Log N Log 10 Log N

(a) (b)
Figure 1.38

There are some materials for which failure does not occur once the specimen has endured
nearly 106 cycles. The σ - log N curve is then composed of two straight lines, one in the
finite region – an inclined line, and other a horizontal line representing
non-failures. The stress at which the curve becomes horizontal is known as fatigue limit
or endurance limit. Figure 1.38(b) illustrates such a curve and is obtained for such
materials as mild steel. It may be noted here that mild steel is the material which exhibits
yield point in tension test.
1.9.2 Fatigue Mechanism
The scope of this text does not permit to discuss the exact mechanism of fatigue failure
which lies in understanding the microscopic structure of material and defects at that level.
Yet, it may be understood that final failure in fatigue is due to extension of a crack to
critical value at which the uncracked portion is so small that specimen cannot sustain
stress and hence fractures. This crack initiates from a microscopic area where stresses are
high due to some metallurgical defect. Due to high stress at any point in a crystalline
material, localised yielding will take place resulting into slip in the direction of maximum
shearing stress. As the stress cycling continues, this slip-causes very minute cracks to
generate and they keep on growing slowly and progressively with increasing number of
cycles.
The progressive nature of crack propagation of fatigue is exhibited by the surface of
fracture which has a very characteristics appearance. By just looking the fracture surface
one can distinguish that the surface is divided into two regions – one smooth and other
rough and jagged. The rough area is the one over which final fracture took place in stride
manner. The smooth region is the one over which fatigue crack propagated slowly and
progressively after its initiation. Because the two crack faces remain in contact and
constantly rub against each other they become very smooth. If one examines the smooth
zone very carefully under microscope, the point at which the crack initiated can be
located and it is seen that marks like beach markings in form of conchoidal rings spread
out from the point. These beach markings represent the sties where crack stopped
momentarily. In many cases this nature of fatigue fracture surface can seen by just visual
examination.
Under high power microscopes the region between two conchoidal rings has been
examined to have similar rings and these are the sites where crack stopped after each

42
cycle. The total number of cycles to failure as recorded has been found to coincide with Mechanical Properties
the number of conchoidal marks. and Their Determination

Figure 1.39 shows the characteristics fatigue fracture surface. The proportionate area of
any one zone is indicative of level of stress. That is if smooth zone is much larger than
rough zone it indicates that the stress level was low and vice-versa. If there are several
points of crack initiation, it indicates that some geometrical stress concentration on the
surface was present. In rotating bending the conchoidal rings tend to turn and centre on a
different diameter. Figure 1.39(b) shows this tendency of crack to propagate in a
direction opposite to that of rotation.

Smooth Zone

Smooth Zone
With Conchoidal
Marks

(a) (b)
Figure 1.39 : Smooth Zone with Conchoidal Marks

1.9.3 Statistical Nature of Fatigue

The basic nature of fatigue mechanism suggests that one can expect a large variation in
data. Since the initiation of a crack at a point in the material will depend upon suitable
combination of highest stress concentration due to local defect and level of stress
alongwith larger number of cycles (how large is never certain), it is never certain after
how many cycles a crack will initiate and then become unstable to cause fracture. These
events will eventually depend upon the distribution of defects which is highly statistical
in nature. As a consequence if several specimens are tested at a particular stress level (say
at 500 MPa in Figure 1.38(a)) all of them will fail after different number of cycles. This
will be true of any other stress level. This creates difficulty in analyzing fatigue, for
example, in plotting stress-log N curve. Normally the distribution of N or log N is
considered for calculation of standard deviation and confidence level on arithmetic mean
of each data set for a particular stress level. The line which is shown in Figure 1.38
passes through the arithmetic means and thus represents a 50% probability of failure or
survival at any stress level for specified life. A number of specimens are tested at each
stress level to establish stress-log N curve.
Determination of fatigue strength or limit of a material becomes still more complicated if
one recognises the fatigue limit or strength as a stress level above which the material will
fail and below which it will not fail. Several methods have been introduced for
calculation of fatigue strength based upon statistical methods and one is illustrated in
next section.
SAQ 11
(a) Draw fatigue curve and define fatigue strength.

⎛ σ ⎞
(b) Sketch fluctuating, pulsating ⎜ σm = max , σmin = 0 ⎟ and reversible stress
⎝ 2 ⎠
cycles.
(c) What do you understand by statistical nature of fatigue. Explain using
σ − log N curve.
(d) Show characteristics of fatigue fracture on a sketch and explain existence of
smooth zone.
43
Materials Applications (e) How does the fatigue fracture surface verify the concept of progressive
fatigue crack growth?

1.9.4 Determination of Fatigue Strength

Staircase testing of material for determination of fatigue strength or limit is very popular
and is illustrated in Figure 1.40. A stress level σ0 is approximately determined to be in
the vicinity of fatigue strength, σe (for performing an experiment σ0 may be taken as half
of ultimate tensile strength). Then a fixed stress step d0 is chosen so that,
σ1 = σ0 + d 0 , σ 2 = σ0 + 2d 0 , σ3 = σ 0 − d 0 etc. A number of identical specimens are
first chosen (between 15 and 20 specimens) and one is loaded in the machine at stress
level σ0. If this specimen survives the specified number of cycles (commonly 107 cycles),
the next specimen is tested at σ1, if this survives 107 cycles, the next specimen is tested at
σ2. A failure at this level is followed by testing at σ1 and so on. The failures and
survivals are plotted as × and 0 against each stress level in Figure 1.40. Table 1.3
describes the method of calculation of fatigue strength.

⎛ A 1⎞
σe = σ′0 + d0 ⎜ + ⎟ . . . (1.22)
⎝ N 2⎠
A = ∑ i ni

N = ∑ ni

where i denotes the level of stress as 0, 1, 2 etc. σ′0 is the stress level which is lower and
at which a non-failure is obtained. It can be seen from Table 1.3 that σ3 is the stress level
at which no failure is obtained. Apparently σ3 is the lowest stress, which is equal to σ′0 .

σ1
σ2
σ
Stress

σ3

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Specimen Numbers

Figure 1.40 : Staircase Testing Sequence and Failure Survival Pattern

Table 1.3 : Analysis of Staircase Data

Stress Level of Stress Non-failures i ni
kgf/mm2 i ni
σ3 0 1 0
σ0 1 4 4
σ1 2 4 8
σ2 3 0 0

∑ ni = N = 9 ∑ i ni = A = 12

From Eq. (1.22) and Table 1.3, fatigue strength,

44
 Mechanical Properties
⎛ 12 1 ⎞
σ e = σ3 + d 0 ⎜ + ⎟ and Their Determination
⎝ 9 2⎠

If, for example, σ3 = 280 N/mm 2 and d 0 = 5 N/mm 2

σe = 289 N/mm 2

1.9.5 Factors Affecting Fatigue Behaviour

Fatigue strength is most important property that is governed by fatigue behaviour.
Fatigue life at a given stress level may also be regarded as a fatigue property. Increased
fatigue strength and increased life at a given stress mark improvement in fatigue
behaviour. Stronger materials have higher fatigue strength. Half of ultimate strength in
tension is equal to fatigue strength obtained from smooth, polished specimen in rotating
bending machine for steel. If stress cycle is pulsating the fatigue strength is 40% higher,
and if reversible axial stress is applied the fatigue strength is 15% lower than the fatigue
strength found in rotating bending machine on smooth-polished specimen.
Increasing size above 12 mm diameter reduces the fatigue strength while for very large
size 200 mm diameter the size effect ceases. Surface finish is perhaps the single most
important factor that affects fatigue strength. Fatigue strength improves if surface finish
changes from as forged or drawn to turned and fine turned to ground and polished.
Except in a few cases where inside of material has a defect, the fatigue crack initiates
from the surface. This surface crack initiation is because
(a) surface is inherently weaker,
(b) surface is exposed to corrosion and oxidation,
(c) it is surface at which cutting and forming forces act, and
(d) stress is inherently highest at surface whether axial, bending, torsional or
combination thereof.
Practical applications place some stress concentration on the surface. Corrosion and high
temperature damage surface.
Good surface finish and surface mechanical and heat treatment. (like shot peening,
surface rolling, carburizing, nitriding, cyaniding) help obtain improved fatigue
properties. Vanadium is the only alloying element that improves fatigue strength of steel.
Example 1.5
For determining the fatigue strength of medium carbon steel 15 specimens,
identical in all respect were tested in cantilever rotating beam fatigue testing
machine. The ultimate tensile strength of steel was known to be 550 MPa and test
began at 275 MPa with a fixed step of 5 MPa. Determine the fatigue strength if
results obtained are described below.

Sl. No. Stress (MPa) Survival/Failure

1 275 S
2 280 S
3 285 F
4 280 S
5 285 S
6 290 F
7 285 S
8 290 F
9 285 F
45
Materials Applications 10 280 S
11 285 F
12 280 F
13 275 S
14 280 F
15 275 S

Solution
As a first step plot survival (o) and failure (x) pattern form visual depiction. From
the plot it is seen that the lowest level at which survival is obtained is
σo = 275 MPa. Calculations are made by the help of the table.

290

285

280
Stress

275

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

× Failure Specimen Numbers

Survival
Figure 1.41 : Failures Survival Pattern

Stress MPa Level of Stress (i) Survival ni i ni

275 0 3 0
280 1 3 3
285 2 2 4
290 3 0 0
N = ∑ ni = 8 A = ∑ i ni = 7

Eq. (1.22) is used for calculating fatigue strength, σe.

⎛ A 1⎞
σe = σ′0 + d0 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ N 2⎠
Substituting σ′0 = 275 MPa, d 0 = 5 MPa, A = 7, N = 8

⎛7 1⎞
σe = 275 + 5 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝8 2⎠
= 281.875 MPa.
Say 282 MPa (Ans.)
SAQ 12
(a) For determining fatigue strength of highly homogenized fine grained steel
whose ultimate tensile strength was 950 MPa, fifteen identical specimens
were tested. The results obtained are shown as survival failure pattern in
Figure 1.42. Calculate fatigue strength.

485

480

475

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
46
Specimen Numbers
 Mechanical Properties
and Their Determination
Figure 1.42

(b) Describe staircase method of determining fatigue strength.

(c) Enumerate all factors that affect fatigue behaviour.
(d) Why is surface of a shaft very important to controlling fatigue strength?
(e) Mention the factors that reduce fatigue strength.
(f) Mention the factors that improve fatigue strength.

1.10 MATERIAL PROBLEMS AT ELEVATED

TEMPERATURES
It has been stated earlier that most materials lose their strength at higher temperatures.
This can be conceived being due to greater mobility of atoms at high temperatures. The
elastic constants also reduce at high temperature for the same reason and hence greater
deformation results at elevated temperature. The elevated temperatures further deteriorate
material behaviour by causing oxidation.
Present day technology could boast range of materials that are capable of working at very
high temperatures. This has become possible for constant demand of higher technology
involving applications in nuclear engineering, power generation steam and gas turbines
and high pressure boilers, oil technology and transportation engineering. The modest
temperature of 500oC in steam turbines has increased to 800oC in gas turbines and
requirement of highly powerful engines for jet planes has pushed this limit to 1000oC.
The rocket engines, nose cones of ballistic-missile and re-entry vehicle face still higher
temperatures. All these factors have been greatly responsible to accelerate the researches
on high temperature resistant alloys and ceramic material that are being used presently.
While static properties of materials are not much affected by time-required for testing at
room temperatures, the strain rate affects high temperature properties greatly. It is
characteristics of high temperature properties that time element becomes important for
them. This is of particular interest because a static load much below yield load of
material could result into gradual deformation at elevated temperature.
1.10.1 Creep and Creep Curves
Theoretically speaking at any temperature a material will progressively deform under a
constant load even if the stress is below yield. However, such deformation is negligibly
small.
At high temperature the progressively deformation of a material under a constant stress is
termed as creep and can become quite appreciable depending upon the combination of
temperature and stress. The deformation of material in laboratory is mostly measured as
strain suffered by tension specimen. The temperature at which creep becomes appreciable
is half of the melting point temperature on absolute scale and is known as homologous
temperature.
The creep experiments can be performed in simple machines that use dead weights and
lever for loading the tension specimen. The specimen is surrounded by a furnace whose
temperature can be controlled and recorded accurately alongwith elongation of specimen.
Such an arrangement is shown in Figure 1.43(a) without furnace. Though not exactly true 47

Lever
P
Materials Applications the actual complicated arrangement for measurement of deformation of creep specimen
may be like one shown in Figure 1.43(b).

Figure 1.43 : (a) Schematic of Creep Testing Equipment; and (b) An Arrangement for Measuring
Deformation of Specimen in a Furnace

The creep curves are plotted between strain and time for given stress and temperature.
One typical curve is shown in Figure 1.44 for constant stress σ and temperature T.
To start with the specimen is loaded at point O which corresponds to zero strain and zero
time. Immediately after application of stress the specimen suffers from elastic strain upto
point A. As the time passes the specimen continues to extend with decreasing rate upto
point B and with a constant rate from B to C. From point C the rate of increase of creep
strain increases upto point D where the fracture or rupture takes place.

I II III
D
First Stage

Second Stage Third

Strain (ε)

Stage σ, T
E C
Elastic Recovery
F
B Permanent
A
Plastic Strain
εν
0
Time (t)

Figure 1.44 : Characteristic Creep Curves at Stress and Temperature T

Although the description of creep curve appears to be quite simple, the collection of data
involves complicated control, measurement and recording system. The important point to
note is that the total time required in the creep curve may be very large, ranging from a
few months to as long as 10 years. The instruments are supported to be working
throughout his time. Generally a battery of machines is required to make simultaneous
studies at different temperatures and stress levels.
A creep curve is conveniently divided into three stages. The stage of primary creep
extends from point A to B, this covers a small part of total period. The creep during this
stage is often referred to as transition creep and rate of creep decreases because of strain
hardening of material.
From B to C, it can be seen that rate of creep is constant. This is known as stage II or
creep and is identified by its constant rate. During this stage minimum constant creep rate
is attained. This steady state creep is the result of balance between two effects of strain
hardening and softening due to temperature. In service conditions most machine parts
which are required to have infinite life work in secondary creep zone.
The final or tertiary creep from point C is marked with increasing creep rate ultimately
culminating into rupture or separation of specimen into two pieces. This is termed
stage III of creep. It may be pointed out there that during tertiary creep the necking also
takes place which increases effective stress and thus rate of strain also increases.
48
If creep load is removed at any point like E during stage II then immediate elastic Mechanical Properties
recovery takes place as shown from E to F. This is followed by a gradual strain recovery and Their Determination
to permanent strain which does not recover at all (Figure 1.44).
1.10.2 Effect of Temperature and Stress
The basic nature of creep curve remains same at various stress level for several
temperatures and vice-versa. However, higher the temperature higher will be the creep
strain for same stress level and time lapse. Similarly, for a given temperature and same
lapse of time creep strain will be higher at higher stress level. These effects are illustrated
in Figure 1.45. It may be observed from this figure that steady state creep of stage II tend
to become shorter as the temperature or stress increase at given stress level or
temperature respectively

T4 > T3 > T2 > T1 σ4 > σ3 > σ2 > σ1

T4 σ4
ε T3 ε σ3
T2 σ2

T1 σ1

t t

Figure 1.45 : Effect of Temperature and Stress on Creep

1.10.3 Stress Rupture

In a typical creep test to establish creep curve emphasis is on strain measurement and
stress is so chosen that minimum strain rate is attained. The total strain in such tests
seldom exceeds 0.5% and time required for completion is in the range of 200 to
10,000 hours. The results of such experiments can be directly used in situations where
creep deformation may be tolerated but fracture must be prevented. Moreover, the long
time consumed in performing such tests may impede technological development. To cut
short this time stress-rupture tests in which specimens fail by rupture have been
developed.
The basic information that is obtained from the stress-rupture test is the time to cause
failure at a given nominal stress for a constant temperature. The stress rupture curves are
obtained by plotting rupture stress against time of rupture. The strain at rupture can be as
high as 50% and time required may not be more than 1000 hours. The results of such
tests can be directly used where creep deformation is tolerated but fracture is to be
prevented.
The drawback with such a test is that at higher temperature some metallurgical changes
may take place which change the slope of the straight line (on log-log scale) as shown in
Figure 1.46.

T3 > T2 > T1
T r is Rupture Time
Log σ

Log t r

Figure 1.46 : Stress Rupture Curves

49
Materials Applications 1.10.4 Creep Strength and Rupture Strength
There is no limiting stress at which creep does not take place and for this reason it is not
possible to define anything like creep limit. However, for practical purpose creep
strength is defined as a stress at a given temperature which produces a minimum creep
rate of a certain amount, usually 0.0001 percent/hour or 0.001 percent/hour. Yet another
property of material is defined as rupture strength. Rupture strength refers to the stress at
a given temperature to cause rupture after certain specified period, usually 100, 1000 or
10,000 hours. The creep strength and rupture strength plotted against temperature are
greatly useful to designers in making selection of material.
Creep Parameters
In the range of temperature and for stress levels that are used in practice creep is a
very slow process and for an appreciable deformation to take place it may be a
very long time. For collecting information on creep of a new alloy it may generally
take very long time (about 10,000 hours or 11 years). There is no way by which
these tests can be accelerated and technological development cannot wait for
assimilation of data on a new material which has been developed say before a year
or two. Efforts were concentrated on means to develop methods which could
predict long-term creep behaviour by making use of short-term test. Such methods
depended upon extrapolation of data. One such parameter which is commonly used
is described here.
Larson-Miller Parameter
This parameter, denoted by m, is expressed as
m = T (ln t − C ) . . . (1.23)

⎛m ⎞
or, ln t = ⎜ + C ⎟ . . . (1.24)
⎝T ⎠
and ln σ = k1 m + c1 . . . (1.25)

In above equations, T is temperature in K, t is time for rupture or a specified

deformation in hours, σ is stress in N/mm2 or MPa. C, k1 and c1 are constants
which are determined from experiment. The advantages of the parameter is that by
performing quick rupture test or creep test at high temperature and high stress
Eq. (1.25) can be established. Then this equation can be extrapolated for any
combination of σ, t; σ, T or T, t in which t can be large, σ can be small and T can
be large or small. This parameter can determine T for a given combination of σ and
t or σ for a given combination of T and t or t for a given combination of σ
and T. This parametric method is a good design tool.
Example 1.6
From creep tests on 713 C alloy the constant C in Larson-Miller parameter is
determined as – 85.75. In rupture test a specimen of this material fails after
500 hours at 34 MPa and 1373 K while another specimen at a stress level
136 MPa and at temperature of 1308 K fails after 3 hours. Calculate stress to cause
failure after 30,000 hours at 1173 K.
Solution
From Eq. (6.23) with t1 = 500 hours, T1 = 1373 K at σ1 = 34 MPa
m1 = T1 (ln t1 − C ) = 1373 (ln 500 + 85.75)

= 1373 (6.2 + 85.75) = 12.62 × 104

From same equation with t2 = 3 hours, T2 = 1308 K at σ2 = 136 MPa

50
 m2 = 1308 (ln 3 + 85.75) = 1308 (1.1 + 85.75) Mechanical Properties
and Their Determination

= 11.36 × 104

Using values of σ1, m1 and σ2, m2 in Eq. (1.25)

ln 34 = k1 × 12.62 × 104 + c1 = 3.526

ln 136 = k1 × 11.36 × 104 + c1 = 4.913

3.526 − 4.913 1.387

∴ k1 = = × 10− 4
10 (12.62 − 11.36)
4 1.26

= − 1.1 × 10− 4

∴ c1 = 4.913 + 1.1 × 11.36 = + 17.409

∴ ln σ = − 1.1 × 10− 4 m + 17.409 ...

(i)
m3 = 1173 (ln 30,000 + 85.75)

= 1173 (10.31 + 85.75)

= 11.27 × 10 4

Use the value of m3 in (i)

ln σ3 = − 1.1 × 10 − 4 × 11.27 × 104 + 17.409

= − 12.397 + 17.409 = 5.019

∴ σ3 = 150.2 MPa

which means that a stress of 150.2 MPa will cause specimen to rupture at 1173 K
after 30,000 hours.
Note that performing test for 30,000 hours is highly time consuming and this result
has been obtained by performing two tests which required
500 + 3 = 503 hours.
Example 1.7
Larson-Miller parameters for an alloy at tests levels 10 MPa and 30 MPa are
determined respectively as 18 × 104 and 16 × 104. Find the parameter for 20 MPa.
Solution
Write equation
ln σ = k1 m + c1

where, m is Larson-Miller parameters.

Use given values

ln 10 = k1 × 18 × 104 + c1 = 2.3

ln 30 = k1 × 16 × 104 + c1 = 3.4
By subtraction

2 × k1 × 104 = − 1.1 51
Materials Applications
∴ k1 = − 0.55 × 10− 4

∴ c1 = 2.3 + 18 × 0.55 = 12.21

∴ ln σ = − 0.55 × 10− 4 m + 12.21

For σ = 20 MPa

ln 20 − 12.21
m=− × 104 = 16.75 × 104
0.55
Example 1.8
For material of Example 1.7 calculate life in hours at temperature of 900oC, and at
σ = 20 MPa.
Solution
Larson-Miller parameter is given by
m = T (ln t + 85.75)
Use T = 900 + 273 = 1173 K

But m = 16.75 × 104

From Example 1.7 at σ = 20 MPa

∴ 1173 (ln t + 85.75) = 16.75 × 104

16.75 × 104
∴ ln t = − 85.75
1173
= 142.8 − 85.75 = 57.05

∴ t = 5.95 × 1024 hours

Example 1.9
What is stress relaxation? Give example.
Solution
Stress relaxation is creep related phenomenon. It is loss of stress in a part under
constant strain over a given period of time at elevated temperature.
For examples bolts are tightened to a fixed strain and stress to keep the cover of a
pressure vessel leak proof. If the pressure vessel is used at high temperature the
stress in bolts will reduce whereas the bolts will not lose their extension.
SAQ 13
(a) Describe how one can find Larson-Miller parameter by performing creep
rupture tests.
(b) If Larson-Miller parameters for a material is known at a stress and linear
relationship between this parameters and stress is known, how can you
determine life of the material at a given temperature?

52
 Mechanical Properties
1.11 SUMMARY and Their Determination

Mechanical properties from the basis for calculations of dimensions of machine or

structure of part. Conveniently, these properties are determined by experiments in
laboratory. Tensile tests perform universal testing machine help define such properties as
ultimate tensile strength, yield strength % elongation, modulus of resilience and modulus
of toughness. These properties have been discussed. The idea of static loading, rate of
straining, elastic and plastic deformations and concepts of true stress and strains have
been introduced.
The tendency of material to become brittle and factors that may cause such tendency are
important considerations before engineers. Impact tests on notched specimen for
determination of such tendency are performed.
The material in practice is many times required to resist scratching and wearing.
Hardness of materials, which can be measured on several scales through indentation are
described. Different types of indenters and the impressions they leave on surface and
factors by which they are influenced are discussed. The stresses applied on machine parts
and structures very with time. The materials fail at low stress level under varying stresses
and behaviour is called fatigue. The highest stress level at which material will not fail for
107 cycles is defined as fatigue strength. A host of factors affect fatigue strength.
Determination of fatigue strength from experiments is a tedious exercise. This is
illustrated through exercise.
The material deforms continuously under constant stress/load over a long period of time.
This behaviour, accentuated with high temperature, called creep is discussed. It has been
discussed how this behaviour is considered for calculating life time or temperature out of
three variables. Brief description of materials to be used for high temperature has also
been given.

1.12 KEY WORDS

Brittle Fracture : Brittle fracture that occurs without any appreciable
plastic deformation.
Charpy Test : One of two tests (see also Izon test) that may be
used to measure the impact energy or notch
toughness of a standard notched specimen. An
impact below is imparted to the specimen by
means of weighted pendulum.
Creep : The time-dependent permanent deformation when
an applied load or stress is maintained constant.
for most materials, it is important only at elevated
temperatures.
Ductile Fracture : A mode of fracture that is attended by extensive
plastic deformation.
Ductility : A measure of a material’s ability to undergo
appreciable plastic deformation before fracture; it
may be expressed as percent elongation (% EL) or
percent area reduction (% AR).
Elastic Deformation : Deformation that is non-permanent, that is, totally
recovered upon release of an applied stress.
Elastic Modulus : The ratio of stress to strain when deformation is
totally elastic; also a measure of the stiffness of a
material.
Extrusion : A forming technique whereby material is forced,
53
by compression, through a die office.
Materials Applications Fatigue : Failure, at relatively low stress levels, of structures
that are subjected to fluctuating and cyclic
stresses.
Fatigue Strength : The maximum stress level that a material can
sustain, without failing, for some specified number
of cycles.
Hardness : The measure of a material’s resistance to
deformation by surface indentation.
Izod Test : One of two tests (see also Charpy test) that may be
used to measure the impact energy of a standard
notched specimen. An impact blow is imparted to
the specimen by a weighted pendulum.
Proportional Limit : The point on a stress-strain curve at which the
proportionality between stress and strain ceases,
that is, the point at which plastic deformation
begins.
Residual Stress : A stress that persists in a material that is free of
external forces or temperature gradients.
Rupture : Failure that is accompanied by significant plastic
deformation; often associated with creep failure.
Shear : A force applied so as to cause or tend to cause two
adjacent parts of the same body to slide relative to
each other, in a direction parallel to their common
plane.
Shear Strain : The tangent of the shear angle, that results from an
applied shear load.
Shear Stress : The instantaneous applied shear load divided by
the original cross-sectional area across which it is
applied.
Stress Concentration : The concentration or amplification of an applied
stress at the tip of a notch or small crack.
Tensile Strength : The maximum engineering stress, in tension, that
may be sustained without fracture. Often termed
ultimate (tensile) strength.
Toughness : A measure of the amount of energy absorbed by a
material as it fractures. Toughness is indicated by
the total area under the material’s tensile
stress-strain curve.
True Strain : The natural logarithm of the ratio of the
instantaneous length of a deformed specimen to its
original length.
True Stress : The instantaneous applied load divided by the
instantaneous cross-sectional area of specimen.
Yielding : The onset of plastic deformation.
Yield Strength : The stress required to produce a very slight yet
specified amount of plastic strain; a strain offset of
0.002 is commonly used.

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 Mechanical Properties
1.13 ANSWERS TO SAQs and Their Determination

Please refer preceding text for answers of all the SAQs.

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