Skeletal System - Function 1. Support & shape to body 2. Protection of internal organs 3. Movement in union with muscles 4.

Storage of minerals (calcium/phosphorus) & lipids 5. Blood Cell Production. Types of bone - Long Bones: Longer than they are wide; shaft and 2 ends (upper leg, upper arm), cylindrical shape with expanded ends,
which distributes force evenly along the bone's length and allows the spongy bone tissue within the ends to absorb impact, effectively spreading out stress and preventing fracture at a single point; this design, with its internal trabecular network, aligns with the lines of stress to provide maximum strength while minimizing weight. Short Bones:
roughly cube-shaped (ankle/wrist). Sesamoid Bones: short bones within tendons (patella). Flat Bones: thin, flat & often curved (sternum, scapulae, rib, most skull). Irregular Bones: odd shapes, don’t fit with others (hip, vertebrae). Types of synovial joints (6 types) - Ball and Socket : allows for a complete range of motion (shoulder, hip, etc).
Pivot (rotating): one bone pivots in the arch of another (neck, wrist). Saddle: 2 directional movement (thumb, thorax, heel). Hinge: door, bending and extending (elbow, knee). Ellipsoid (Condyloid): side to side & back & forth (radiocarpal (wrist) joint, etc). Plane/Gliding: least moveable, side to side only (intercarpal/tarsal, inter-vertebrae). Cartilage
- Characteristics: mostly water; no blood vessels or nerves, resilient, new cartilage forms from chondroblasts, heals poorly. Names: Diarthroses, fully moveable synovial joints, Amphiarthroses, limited mobility (pubic symphysis, vertebral joints), Synarthroses, fixed or fibrous joint (sutures of the skull), Growth: Appositional=Cells in the
perichondrium (CT around cartilage) secrete matrix against the external face of existing cartilage. Interstitial=Lacunae (image) bound chondrocytes inside the cartilage divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within. Types of cartilage: Hyaline Cartilage: fine collagen fiber matrix, abundant, articular /costal /respiratory /nasal
cartilages. Elastic Cartilage: Similar to hyaline, more elastic fibers, external ear/epiglottis. Fibrocartilage: rows of chondrocytes with thick collagen fibers, compressible with high tensile strength (knee meniscus, pubic symphysis, etc). Types of cells - Osteoblasts: (+) synthesize and secrete unmineralized ground substance, areas of high
metabolic function in bone. Osteoclasts: (-) absorbs/breaks down bone, crucial for growth, resorption, healing & remodeling. Osteocytes: (=) maintenance of bone, mature osteoblasts that cover themselves in bone tissue, secrete enzymes to control bone mineral content, control calcium release from bone tissue to blood. Osteogenic: (=) produce
osteoblasts & osteoclasts, respond to trauma. Bone Lining: (=) osteoblasts along the surface of bones (in adults), regulate movement of calcium/phosphate throughout the bone. Fibroblasts: secrete collagen proteins that help maintain the structural framework of tissues. Osteons: the cylindrical units of bone that build up on top of each other to
form real bones. Bone Marrow - Red Marrow: formation of red blood cells (hematopoiesis), white blood cells, and blood platelets. For infants: found in bone cavities, normally found in epiphyses of long bone, with age begins to be replaced by Yellow Marrow for fat storage. In adults, red marrow is limited to the spongy bone in the skull, ribs,
sternum, clavicles, vertebrae, and pelvis. Cellular Structure of Long Bone - Compact (cortical) Bone: outside layer, minimal gaps/spaces, 80% of all and makes bone look white/smooth. Spongy Bone: rod-plate like, lighter, allows room for blood vessels and marrow. Diaphysis: tube shape shaft forms access of long bone; shaft/ central parts
composed of compact bone that surrounds medullary cavity; yellow marrow contained in medullary cavity. Epiphysis: expanded end of long bones; exterior = compact bone, interior equals = bone; joint surface covered with hyaline cartilage; epiphyseal line separates diathesis from epiphysis. Epiphyseal line: ossified epiphyseal plate (place where
growth takes place). Medullary cavity: hollow part of bone, contains bone marrow. Nutrient foramen: most bones have only one, probably source of blood supply,predominant on the anterior of upper limb long bones, posterior of lower limb long bones. Shaft: most of a bone’s length with mostly compact bone. Endosteum: membrane lining inner
surface of bony wall, lining of bone marrow cavity. Periosteum: CT fiber that covers outside of bones, contains blood vessels and nerves that give nourishment and sensation to the bone, thicker in younger people and thins as bones mature. Tubercle: small rounded projection. Tuberosity: rounded projection. Crest: narrow, prominent bone ridge.
Trochanter: large, blunt, irregular surface. Line-narrow ridge of bone. Epicondyle-raised area above condyle (structural support for hyaline). Spine-sharp, slender projection Process: any bone prominence. Meatus: canal like passage. Sinus: cavity in bone. Fossa: (shallow) basin like depression. Groove: furrow. Fissure: narrow, slit like opening.
Foremen- round/oval opening through bone. Structure of other bones - The true ribs are the ribs that directly articulate with the sternum with their costal cartilages; they are the first seven ribs. The false ribs are the ribs that indirectly articulate with the sternum, as their costal cartilages connect with the seventh costal cartilage; by the
costochondral joint; They are the eighth, ninth, and tenth ribs. However, the floating ribs are the ribs that do not articulate with the sternum at all; they are the distal two ribs. Thin plates of periosteum-covered compact with endosteum-covered spongy bone within. No diaphysis/epiphysis, contain bone marrow between trabeculae. The epiphyseal
growth plate is the main site of longitudinal growth of the long bones, cartilage is formed by the proliferation and hypertrophy of cells and synthesis of typical extracellular matrix. Types of vertebrae: 33 in humans, 7 cervical (back of neck), 12 thoracic (trunk, between neck and abdomen), 5 lumbar (back), 5 sacral (fused, pelvisD4), 4 coccygeal
(fused, lower part of spinal column). Bone Repair - injury causes broken blood vessels=hematoma, invasion of blood vessels & generalized cells (2-3 days), fibroblasts/chondroblasts develop (1 week), fibrocartilage callus forms, bony callus forms (4 weeks), remodeling and addition of compact bone(8 weeks). Injuries - Sprains: Ligaments on a
joint are stretched/torn, partial tears can self-repair, complete tears require surgery. Cartilage Injuries: The snap of overstressed cartilage, common, needs arthroscopic surgery. Dislocations: bones forced into unalignment, inflammation, immobilization, possible sprains, subluxation=partial dislocation of joints. Skeletal Disorders - Spinal Stenosis:
narrowing of the spinal column. Achondroplasia: defect in the formation of cartilage at the epiphysis of long bones (dwarfing). Juvy Rheumatoid Arthritis: chronic inflammatory disease of the joints or organ in under 16. Ankylosing Spondylitis: immobility of a joint in spine. Osteosarcoma: malignant sarcoma of bone. Rickets: causes osteomalacia
(soft & weak bones) in children caused by vitamin D (helps your body absorb and use calcium, which gives your bones their strength) deficiency. Osteoporosis: loss of bone mass throughout, vulnerability to fractures, commonly compression of the vertebrae, can be caused by vitamin D deficiency, caucasian or women, old age, lack of exercise,
decrease in respective sex hormone, spongy bone is most affected. Disc Herniation: Rupture of the soft tissue that separates vertebrae in the spinal canal. Scoliosis: a lateral curvature of the spine, treated by back brace, surgery, exercise, & therapy depending on severity. Degenerative & Inflammatory Conditions - Bursitis: inflammation of a
bursa (fluid cavity to reduce joint friction), pain/swelling, treated by anti-inflammatory drugs; excessive fluid may be aspirated. Tendonitis: Inflammation of tendon sheaths by overuse, symptoms and treatment are related to bursitis. Arthritis: collection of more than 100 inflam/degen diseases that damage joints, common, pain, stiffness & swelling of
joint, acute forms caused by bacteria and treated by antibiotics, chronic forms=osteo/rheumatoid/gouty. Osteoarthritis: common type, women common, 85% of Americans, aging process. Course=abrasion and compression over time that causes increased production of metalloproteinase enzymes that break cartilage. More age=more cartilage
destruction. Bone ends thicken, enlarge, from bone spurs, restrict movement (Cervical/Lumbar, fingers, knuckles, knees, hips, common), Irreversible/slow. Treatments=Magnetic therapy, mild pain relievers w/ moderate activity, glucosamine sulfate decreases pain & inflammation, SAM-e (s-adenosylmethionine) builds up cartilage matrix &
regenerative tissue. Rheumatoid: chronic, inflammatory, autoimmune disease of the synovial membrane, unknown cause, insidious onset (comes slowly without symptoms), common between 40-50, joint tenderness, anemia, osteoporosis, muscle atrophy (thinning), cardiovascular issues, treatment filled with exacerbations (worse) and remissions
(better). Course=begins with synovitis (inflammation of synovial membrane) of given joint, inflammatory blood cells go to the joint cause swelling, inflamed synovial membrane thickens into pannus (abnormal extra layer of tissue), pannus erode cartilage, scar tissue forms, articulating bone ends connect. Result=ankylosis (immobility of joint), bent
& deformed joint. Treatment=conservative therapy is aspirin, long term antibiotics & physical therapy. Progressive therapy is anti-inflam drugs or immunosuppressant. The drug Embrel (biological response modifier) removes cells that promote inflammation. Gouty: deposition of uric acid crystals in joint and soft tissues, inflammation, typically
affects the joint of big toe, untreated=bone ends fuse. Treatment=colchicine, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs & glucocorticoids (steroid hormones produced from the cortex of adrenal glands). Septic arthritis is an infection in the synovial fluid and joint tissues, from infection spreading through the bloodstream. Treatment=antimicrobial therapy
and joint fluid drainage, arthrotomy (surgery of joint), arthroscopy (fiber-optic camera to diagnose and treat joint problems), or daily needle aspiration (removal of fluid). kyphosis: excessive rounding in upper back, hunchback, weak spinal bones that make them crack, mostly older people, can happen in children or infants too, malformation of
spinal bones, symptoms: hump-back appearance, back stiffness after long periods of sitting, pain in area of kyphosis when doing activities that require twisting or excessive activity, diagnosis: after visibly seeing the hunch, the main course of action is to get an x-ray, treatment: PT for postural kyphosis, brace, weight loss, spinal fusion. Lordosis
(swayback): extra arch in lower back, unevenness in posture can cause it, symptoms: large C shape in lower back, big gap with lower back and floor, muscle discomfort/ pain in the lower back, muscle spasms, not having a full range of motion, bladder temporarily being uncontrolled, diagnosis: physical examination and X-ray imaging, Treatment:
usually fixes itself for children, adults do PT (strengthen the muscles that support the spine like the abdominals, glutes and hamstrings), using back brace. Tennis elbow: swelling of tendons the bend wrist backward from palm, Usually exterior carpi radialis brevis, repetitive movements cause it, symptoms: pain on outside of elbow, swelling,
tenderness, diagnosis: detailed physical exam, maybe imaging tests, x-ray just to rule out other sources of pain, treatment: Rest, anti-inflammatories, physical therapy, RICE. Golfer's elbow: like tennis elbow, but affects the innermost part of the joint. Cruciate ligament tears of the knee: ACL tear, most commonly /injured, usually tears during
sports, surgery is needed to fix it, no large long term effects if treated. Meniscus tears of the knee: forcefully twisting knee can lead to tear, meniscus is cartilage between bone, making it extra painful, can be treated with ice and rest, but if extreme, surgery is needed. Scans: X-rays: Visuals: X-ray images are typically black and white. Bones
appear white due to their density, while soft tissues appear in shades of gray. X-rays are often used to view fractures, infections, or abnormalities in bones. Use: Commonly used for dental assessments, chest imaging, and detecting bone fractures. CT Scans: Visuals: CT scans provide cross-sectional images of the body, offering more detail than
standard X-rays. They appear as a series of slices, with different shades of gray representing various tissue densities. Organs, blood vessels, and bones can be viewed in more detail. Use: Useful for diagnosing conditions in the brain, abdomen, and chest, as well as for assessing injuries. MRIs: Visuals: MRI images are typically more detailed
and can be produced in various planes (slices). They can show soft tissues in great detail, with different colors and shades representing different types of tissues. For example, fluids appear bright, while fat appears darker. Use: Commonly used for imaging the brain, spinal cord, muscles, and joints, particularly for soft tissue evaluation.
Salter-Harris Fractures: Type 1, Straight across growth plate, 5%. Type 2 is Above growth plate, 75%. Type 3 is Lower growth plate, 10% (1-3 is twisting, 4 is compression, 5 is compression or infection). Type 4 is Through growth plate,10%. Type 5 is the ERasure (cRush) of growth plate, extremely rare. Ossification: differences: In
endochondral bones, ossification occurs within the cartilaginous template and also within the surrounding fibroblastic perichondral sheath to form the bone collar. Intramembranous bones develop via direct osteoblast differentiation within the mesenchyme conversion of other types of CT into bone. Endochondral ossification: replacement of hyaline
cartilage with bony tissue. Steps: Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes and form the cartilage model for bone, Chondrocytes near the center of the cartilage model undergo hypertrophy and alter the contents of the matrix they secrete, enabling mineralization, Chondrocytes undergo apoptosis due to decreased nutrient availability;
blood vessels invade and bring osteogenic cells, Primary ossification center forms in the diaphyseal region of the periosteum called the periosteal collar, Secondary ossification centers develop in the epiphyseal region after birth. Intramembranous ossification: Mesenchymal (cells that develop into CT, blood vessels & lymphatic tissue) cells
differentiate into osteoblasts and group into ossification centers, Osteoblasts become entrapped by the osteoid they secrete transforming them to osteocytes, Trabecular bone and periosteum form, Cortical bone forms superficially to the trabecular bone, Blood vessels form the red marrow. Additional: PTH inhibits osteoblast activity and
stimulates osteoclast activity leading to bone breakdown and calcium release. Calcitonin helps to regulate blood calcium levels, inhibits osteoclasts (to break bone and release calcium), decreases renal reabsorption (reduces calcium reabsorption of kidneys), slows calcium absorption (from food). RANKL is a protein that regulates bone
remodeling, promotes osteoclasts which resorb bone, essential for bone loss. Bone metabolism: Wolff’s law: bone will adapt to degree of mechanical loading; more loading= stronger spongy bone, change architecture of body for needs, helps repair micro damage in matrix, stops buildup of old bone, maintains plasma calcium homeostasis
(calcium transport in gut, kidneys, bone), remove mineralized bone with osteoclasts formation of bone matrix through o-blasts, repeats. Muscular System - Function 1. Stabilizing joints 2. Maintaining posture 3. Producing movement 4. Moving substances within the body 5. Stabilizing body position and regulating organ volume 6. Producing heat
- muscle contraction generates 85% of the body’s heat. Types of muscles - Smooth Muscle: On hollow organs, glands and blood vessels, compressions of tubes and ducts, single central nucleus, involuntary control, no striations, spindle cell shape, helps maintain blood pressure & squeezes/propels substances (food, feces) through organs.
Cardiac Muscle: heart contraction to propel blood, single central nucleus, involuntary control, striations, branched cell shape, responsible for moving blood in the body, has intercalated discs (connect adjacent cardiac muscle cells, allowing the heart to contract as a unit). Skeletal Muscle: Attached to bone, Move the body, Multiple peripheral nuclei,
voluntary control, striations, cylindrical cell shape, responsible for all locomotion. Characteristics - Excitability: receive and respond to stimuli. Contractility: ability to shorten and thicken. Extensibility: ability to stretch. Elasticity: ability to return to original condition post contraction/extension. Skeletal Muscles - Additional: muscles are anchored to
bone by tendons made of dense fibrous CT shaped like heavy cords. Proximal to the head is the origin (doesn’t move) & more moveable body by tendon at distal end is insertion, during movement the origin stays still and the insertion moves, each muscle reverses actions, muscle contractions can be different lengths. Attachments: Direct
attachment=epimysium of muscle is fused to the periosteum of the bone. Indirect attachment=CT wrappings extend beyond the muscles as a tendon or aponeurosis (thin sheet of CT that serves as a tendon). Anatomy - Additional: Each muscle is served by one nerve/artery & one or more veins. Nerve ending controls contraction, fibers need
constant delivery of oxygen & nutrients via arteries. Has many nuclei, endoplasmic/sarcoplasmic reticulum, many mitochondria & myofibrils. Epimysium: an overcoat of dense regular CT that surrounds the muscle. Perimysium: fibrous CT that surrounds fascicles (groups of muscle fibers). Endomysium: fine sheath of CT made of reticular fibers
surrounding each muscle fiber. Sarcomere= Myosin, actin, troponin, tropomyosin (filaments between Z discs). Sliding Filament Theory: myosin molecules contain a globular subunit, the head, which binds to actin & ATP along the actin; pulling it a short distance past the myosin. These linkages break and reform (using ATP) further along the
myosin. Thus, actin slides along the myosin like its pulling rope. No changes are made to the original filaments (thickening/shortening). Contraction=I band & H zone decrease, Z disks come together, A band doesn’t change (myosin doesn’t move). Relax=I band separates, actin comes back, myosin remains still. The input of ACH (acetylcholine)
from the neuromuscular junction which triggers depolarization enabling calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcomeres. The calcium binds to troponin, and ATP is hydrolyzed it becomes ADP+P+energy, changing its shape and allowing for the myosin head to bind to the active zone of actin. Motor unit size varies based
on muscle. “Cocking” of the myosin head—energy from hydrolysis of ATP cocks the myosin head into the high energy state. In order to contact, stimulation from nerve ending, action potential in sarcolemma, rise in Ca^2 levels, or excitation-contraction coupling. Motor neurons of the somatic nervous system, axons branch into muscle cells, form a
neuromuscular junction with muscle fibers.T tubule: invagination of the sarcolemma, allowing action potentials to be conducted deep into the cell, promoting synchronous Ca2+ transients and efficient contraction, close association with the sarcoplasmic reticulum is important in excitation-contraction coupling. In mammals, these triads can be found
at each end of each sarcomere.Muscle Fatigue: state of physiological inability to contract, ATP productions doesn’t keep up with use, deficit of ATP causing contractures (tissues tighten or shorten causing a deformity), Lactic acid (rather than pyruvic, part of process of glycolysis) accumulates in the muscle, Ionic imbalances are present. Oxygen
Debt: constant exercise causes changes to muscle chemistry. For a muscle to relax, oxygen reserves must be replenished, lactic acid stores must be converted into pyruvic acid, glycogen stores must be replaced, ATP & CP (creatine phosphate, high energy molecule used for rapid ATP production) reserves must be resynthesized. ATP: causes
the power stroke, detachment of myosin head, and pumps calcium ions back into the SR for muscle relaxation/recovery. Oxygen Debt is the extra amount of O2 needed for the above restorative processes. Heat Production: only 40% of energy released in muscle activity is useful as work, remaining 60% is given off as heat, heat levels are
lowered by radiation of heat from the skin & sweating. Muscle/Tendon Injuries: Strains: injuries from overexertion or trauma that stretch/tear the muscle fibers, pain & inflammation of muscle/tendon, if the injury is near a joint and affects a ligament it is a sprain. Cramps: painful muscle spasms or involuntary twitches, caused by dehydration, low
or high levels of (electrolyte) calcium magnesium potassium, muscle strain + fatigue, nerve compression, hyperthyroidism, stress, extreme heat. Stress-induced muscle tension: may cause back pain and headaches. When a contusion (a bruising injury) ruptures a blood vessel in a muscle compartment, the muscle tissue itself causes
compartment syndrome (ischemia (lack of blood) in compartment, resulting in nervous/muscular necrosis) by inelastic fascia prevent compartment from expanding to relieve pressure. Muscular Disorders: Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome: Autoimmune attack voltage gated calcium channels, reducing acetylcholine release- symptoms-
proximal muscle weakness, automatic symptoms include dry mouth, constipation. Poliomyelitis: viral infection of nerves that control skeletal muscle movement. Muscular Dystrophies: commonly caused by the mutation of the gene for the protein dystrophin (helps in attaching/organizing the filaments in the sarcomere). Duchenne & Becker are the
most common types. Gene for dystrophin is sex-linked & on the X chromosome recessive, muscle function is impaired. Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy: a genetic disorder characterized by the progressive loss of muscle. Symptoms include frequent falls, trouble getting up or running, waddling gait, big calves, and learning disabilities. Botulism:
illness caused by a toxin that attacks the body's nerves. Botulism causes difficulty breathing. Muscle paralysis, and even death. The toxin is made by Clostridium botulinum and sometimes clostridium butyricum and clostridium baratii bacteria. Myasthenia Gravis: autoimmune disease affecting neuromuscular junction (attacks ACh receptors),
smaller end plates due to antibiotics being directed against the receptors, affects the ability of the impulse to cause muscle contraction, administering an inhibitor of ACH can temporarily restore contractility, muscle fatigue and weakness. Tetanus: bacterial disease that affects your nervous system, binds to the presynaptic membrane of the
neuromuscular junction, is internalized and transported retro axonally to the spinal cord, the spastic paralysis induced by the toxin is due to the blockade of neurotransmitter release from spinal inhibitory interneurons, leads to painful muscle contractions (often jaw & neck muscles), can interfere with your ability to breath (threatening life), known as
lockjaw. Infectious Disorders: Carpal tunnel: a narrow passageway surrounded by bones and ligaments on the palm side of the hand. When the median nerve is compressed, symptoms can include numbness, tingling and weakness in the thumb and fingers. Swelling and inflammation can occur if there are hormonal changes, repetitive
movements with the hands, rheumatoid arthritis, flexing wrist for long periods of time. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is a serious and often long-lasting illness that keeps people from doing their usual activities. It makes physical and mental exertion difficult. Symptoms include trouble
thinking, severe tiredness and other symptoms. There is no known cause or cure. Care usually means treating the symptoms that most affect a person's life. Fibromyalgia: characterized by widespread musculoskeletal pain accompanied by fatigue, sleep, memory and mood issues. Symptoms often begin after an event, such as physical trauma,
surgery, infection or significant psychological stress. In other cases, symptoms gradually accumulate over time with no single triggering event. Homeostatic Imbalance of Age: with age, CT increases & muscle fibers decrease, muscles become stringier & more sinewy, by 80 - 50% of muscle mass is lost (sarcopenia), regular exercise reverses
sarcopenia, aging of the cardiovascular system affects every organ in the body, Atherosclerosis (buildup of plaque on artery walls) may block distal arteries, leading to intermittent claudication (muscle pain due to lack of oxygen that's triggered by activity and relieved by rest). Effects of Exercise: exercise helps muscles become thick and efficient,
tendons become thicker & are able to withstand more force, high intensity for short duration produces strength, low intensity for long durations will give endurance benefits, trained muscles have better a state of readiness to respond, exercise promotes good posture enabling muscle to work effectively & prevents injury, increases mitochondria and
capillary density in endurance training, increases muscle fiber size in strength training, during exercise muscles cells use more oxygen and produce more carbon dioxide, lungs & heart have to work harder to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide, heart rate increases in order to transport oxygenated blood to muscles, muscle cells respiration
increases. Hypertrophy: increase in size of muscle (or number of myofibrils), caused by: (resistance exercise) mechanical tension, amount of weight being lifted and duration of lift. Hyperplasia: muscle fibers increase in number (rare in humans). Movements: Adduction, lateral motion towards midline of body. Abduction, lateral motion away from
the midline of body. Rotation, twisting movement around a central axis. Flexion (bending), movement that decreases the angle of a joint. Extension (straightening), movement that increases the angle of a joint (hyperextension). Protraction/Retraction, anterior or posterior motion of the scapula or mandible. Depression/Elevation, downward or
upward movement of the scapula or mandible. Agonist, muscles that perform a joint action. Prime mover, main producer of force in joint action. Synergist, muscles that help in producing a movement. Antagonist, muscles that oppose the agonist. Stabilizer, muscles that act to dampen damage done to joints. Fixator, fixes the bone to a certain
position. Supination, palm up. Pronation, palm down. Major muscle movements: Quadriceps, extends knee. Hamstrings, flexes knee. Bicep Brachii, flexes elbow. Triceps brachii, extends elbow. Deltoid, shoulder movement. Gastrocnemius, plantar flexion. Additional: Longest, Sartorius, Shortest/Smallest, stapedius, Biggest, Gluteus Maximus,
Myoglobin protein (cardiac & skeletal) stores oxygen, A muscle twitch has a latent period, a contraction phase, and a relaxation phase, The meniscus functions as a cushion to keep the bones of the knee joint from grinding against one other and causing damage, eyelid movement:levator palpebrae superioris muscle. Slow-twitch (type 1):
endurance activities, fatigue-resistant. Fast-twitch (type 2): power movements, fatigue quickly. Isometric=same length, isotonic=same tension. Concentric actions involve the dynamic shortening of sarcomeres, eccentric actions involve the active lengthening of sarcomeres. Muscular Atrophy (thinning): decrease in muscle mass and strength,
muscles look smaller than normal, malnutrition, age, genetics, a lack of physical activity or certain medical conditions. Excitability: receive and respond to stimuli. Contractility: ability to shorten and thicken. Extensibility: ability to stretch. Elasticity: ability to return to its original shape after contraction or extension. Isometric: Action in which the
proximal and distal muscle attachments do not move relative to one another.(Holding a plank.). Eccentric: Action in which the proximal and distal muscle attachments move away from each other. (lowering phase of a bicep curl.). Concentric: Action in which the proximal and distal muscle attachments move towards each other. Epimysium: An
overcoat of dense regular connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle. Perimysium: fibrous connective tissue that surrounds groups of muscle fibers called fascicles. Endomysium: A fine sheath of connective tissue composed of rectangular fibers surrounding each muscle. Sarcomere: basic contractile unit of muscle fiber. M line:contains
the protein called myomesin and it marks the centre of the sarcomere. H zone: is the area between the M line and Z disc and contains only the myosin. Z line :A protein band that defines the boundary between one sarcomere and the next in a muscle fiber. Muscle twitch: involuntary brief contraction of a muscle. latent/lag period 1-2 msec delay,
action potential reaches muscle until tension can be observed in muscle (0-5ms), contraction phases (5-25 msec), relaxation phase (25-100 msec). Muscle tone: Muscle tone is the amount of tension (or resistance to movement) in muscles, our muscle tone helps us to hold our bodies upright when we are sitting and standing, changes in muscle
tone are what enable us to move, muscle tone also contributes to the control, speed and amount of movement we can achieve. Integumentary System - Function 1. Protection against injury and infection 2. Regulates body temperature 3. Sensory perception 4. Regulates water loss 5. Chemical synthesis. Physical Barriers: keratin helps
waterproof the skin, protect from abrasions and bacteria. Glycolipids prevent diffusion of water and water-soluble substances between cells, soluble: O, C02, steroids, fat-soluble vitamins, oleoresins of certain plants (poison ivy/oak), organic solvents, salts of heavy metals, topical medications. Chemical barriers: sebum, antimicrobial peptides,
melanin protects skin from UV damage, low pH and sebum slow bacterial growth on skin, cathelicidins (proteins that prevent strep A infection in wounded skin). Temperature regulation: produces sweat to dissipate heat, body temp up=dermal blood vessels dilate & sweat glands are stimulated, evaporation of sweat cools body, constriction of
vessels retains heat & warms organs. Cutaneous sensations: meissner's corpuscles: light tough, merkel discs: light touch, pacinian receptors: detect deep pressure contact, in deep dermis or hypodermis, hair root plexus: sensation of movement from hairs, hair follicle receptors: movement across surfaces of skin, base nerve endings= painful
stimuli (chemicals, heat, cold). Excretion/absorption: elimination of nitrogen-containing wastes (ammonia, urea, uric acid), sodium chloride, and water (regulates water loss). Metabolic functions: synthesis of vitamin D=increases calcium absorption in the body. Vitamin D is fat-soluble, procured by the skin when the skin is exposed to ultraviolet
(sunlight) light, completed in the liver and kidneys, it acts as a hormone to regulate calcium absorption from the intestines & levels of calcium/phosphate in bone. Membranes: Serous: line body cavities that have to openings, secrete a watery fluid called serous fluid that lubricates outside. Mucous: line cavities and tubes that open to the outside.
Synovial: form the inner lining of joints cavities, secrete a thick fluid called synovial fluid to lubricate joints & reduce friction between articular cartilage. Characteristics: covers the entire body and is the largest organ, approx 2 meters and heaviest organ, 16% of body mass. Thickness: 1.5 to 6 mm. Types of skin: Thin (1-2 mm on body & .5 mm in
eyelids): hairy, covers all parts of body except hands and feet soles, thin epidermis and lacks stratum lucidum, lacks dermal papillae, has more sebaceous glands, fewer sweat glands & sensory receptors than thick skin. Thick (up to 6mm on soles of hand & feet): hairless, thick epidermis + distinct stratum lucidum, epidermal ridges are present
due to dermal papillae, lacks sebaceous glands, more sweat glands, sense receptors are more densely packed. Epidermis: primarily made of stratified squamous epithelium (protection). keratinocytes: 90% of epidermal cells are keratinized, protecting & waterproofs the skin. Melanocytes: 8% of epidermal cells, melanin, skin color & absorption of
UV light. Langerhans cells: from red bone marrow, go to epidermis (small portion of cells), guard of the outer immune system and are likely to induce the first reactions against pathogens encountered via the skin, vulnerable to UV light. Merkel cells: smallest number of epidermal cells, found in basale, sensation of touch with tactile discs
(encapsulated nerve ending). Layers: Corneum: 25-30 layers of dead flat keratinocytes, shed constantly also are replaced by cells from the deeper strata. Lucidum: only in thick skin, 3-5 layers of clear + flat + dead keratinocytes, densely packed intermediate filaments, thick plasma membrane. Granulosum: 3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes
undergoing apoptosis (programmed cell death to maintain skin homeostasis), organelles begin to disintegrate (become non-living), contains lamellar granules (organelles that store and release lipids), secretes lipid-rich secretion that acts as a water sealant. Spinosum: 8-10 layers of keratinocytes, some cells retain their ability for cell division, cells
have spine-like projections (bundles of filaments of the cytoskeleton) tightly joining cells to each other, providing both strength & flexibility. Basale (germinativum): new cells are formed, deepest layer, single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes. Growth of Epidermis: newly formed cells (basal cells are formed through the process of mitosis,
where existing basal cells divide to produce new daughter cells, constantly replenishing the skin's outermost layer by pushing older cells upwards as new ones are generated) in the basale undergo keratinization as they are pushed to the surface, they accumulate more keratin during the process, they then undergo apoptosis, eventually they
slough off and are replaced (4 weeks), rate of basale cell division increases during injury. Dermis: second skin layer, blood vessels, nerves, glands, and hair follicles, composed mainly of CT (collagen & elastic fibers), collagen fibers make 70% of dermis (give structural toughness and strength), elastin fibers are loosely arranged in all directions
(gives elasticity to skin). Papillary dermis: superficial, has areolar CT (holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to other underlying tissues. It also serves as a reservoir of water and salts for surrounding tissues) containing elastic fiber, surface area is increased due to projections called dermal papillae which contain capillaries or tactile
receptors, epidermal ridges conform to the dermal papillae. Reticular dermis: deeper, dense irregular CT containing collagen/elastic fibers (strength & elasticity), hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous and sudoriferous glands. Hypodermis: attaches skin to underlying organs and tissues, not part of skin, CT and adipose tissue (subcutaneous fat) for
insulation, infants and elderly have less adipose tissue and are therefore more sensitive to cold. Skin appearances: epidermis appears translucent when there is little melanin or carotene (anti-inflam/skin health, orange/red pigment). White skin appears pink to red depending on the amount and oxygen content of blood moving in the capillaries of
the dermis. Albinism: an inherited trait where a person cannot produce melanin, they have melanocytes but are unable to make tyrosinase (enzyme which initiates melanin production) so melanin is missing in their hair, eyes and skin, leads to pale skin + light hair + UV sensitivity. Skin Color Diagnosis: Cyanotic (blue): someone who has topped
breathing and the skin appears bluish because the hemoglobin is depleted of oxygen. Jaundice (yellow): buildup of bilirubin (yellow pigment) in the blood gives a yellowish appearance of eyes and skin indicating liver disease. Bilirubin is produced when red blood cells get old and are broken down by the body (spleen & liver). Normally it is
processed in the liver and then deposited in the intestine so it can come out as stool. Erythema (red): engorgement of capillaries in the dermis indicating skin injury, infection, heat exposure, inflammation, allergies, emotional state, hypertension. Pallor (pale): emotional state, anemia, low blood pressure. Bronzing (bronze): Addison disease,
adrenal cortex. Bruising (hematoma): escaped blood has clotted, deficiency in Vitamin C or hemophilia (lack of blood clotting proteins). Leathery skin: overexposure (UV), clumping of elastin fibers, depressed immune system, can alter DNA to cause skin cancer. Photosensitivity: to antibiotics (fight bacterial infections) & antihistamines
(anti-allergy). Skin Color: genetic factors, environmental factors, & volume of blood. Skin pigments: three are melanin, carotene, hemoglobin. Melanin: located mostly in epidermis, number is same in all races, difference in skin color is due to the amount of pigment that melanocytes produce and disperse to keratinocytes, freckles are caused by
the accumulation of melanin in patches, liver spots are also caused by accumulation of melanin, melanocytes synthesize melanin from an amino acid called tyrosine along with an enzyme called tyrosinase, all occurs in the melanosome (organelle within melanocyte). Two types of melanin: eumelanin which is brownish black and pheomelanin
which is reddish yellow, fair-skinned people have more pheomelanin and dark skinned people have more eumelanin. Environmental factors: UV light increases enzymatic activity in the melanosomes and leads to increased melanin production, a tan is achieved because the amount of melanin has increased as well as the darkness of melanin
(eumelanin provides protection from UV exposure while pheomelanin tends to break down with too much UV pressure), prolonged exposure to UV light may cause skin cancer. Carotene: yellow-orange pigment, precursor for Vitamin A which is used to make pigments needed for vision, in corneum & fatty areas of dermis/hypodermis. Hemoglobin:
oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells, reddish hue. Skin markings: skin is marked by lines, creases, and ridges. Friction ridges: markings on fingertips characteristics of primates, allow us to manipulate objects more easily, fingerprints: friction ridge skin impressions. Flexion lines: on flexor surfaces of digits, Pam’s, wrists, elbows, etc skin is
tightly bound to deep fascia (thin CT that holds things in place) at these points. Freckles: flat melanized patches vary with heredity or exposure to sun. Moles: elevated patch of melanized skin, of the hair mostly harmless, beauty marks, possibly cancerous. Aging: visible signs begin in 20s, stem cell activity declines: less skin thin, reduced
immune response, Vitamin D3 production declines: calcium absorption declines and brittle bones, glandular activity declines: skin dries, body can overheat, blood supply to dermis declines: tend to feel cold, hair follicles die or procure thinner hair, dermis thins and becomes less elastic: wrinkles, sex characteristics fade: fat deposits spread out,
hair patterns change, genetically programmed chronologic aging causes biochemical changes in collagen CT at different rates and different times in one individual as compared with another, as skin becomes less elastic, it also becomes drier, underlying fat padding begins to disappear, with loss of underlying support by fat padding and CT, skin
begins to sag, less supple and wrinkles form, skin may become itchy with increased dryness, cut may heal more slowly. Derivatives of skin: during embryonic development thousands of small groups of epidermal cells from basale push down into dermis to form hair follicles and glands. Skin receptors: millions of sensory receptors. Light touch:
meissner's corpuscles are enclosed in a capsule of CT, they react to light touch and are located in the skin of your palms, soles, lips, eyelids, external genitalia, and nipples, these are sensitive parts. Merkel cells: proper neural encoding of light touch stimuli. Heavy pressure: pacinian corpuscles sense pressure and vibration changes deep in your
skin, every cm^2 contains approx 14 pressure receptors. Ruffini endings/corpuscles: bulbous corpuscles, are sensory receptors that detect skin stretch, joint deformation, and warmth. They are located in the skin, ligaments, and tendons, epidermis, fingernails, hairy skin. Pain: skin receptors register pain, are the most numerous, cm^2 contains
about 200 pain receptors. Temperature: skin receptors register warmth and cold, each cm^2 of skin contains 6 cold and 1 warm receptor. Cold receptors: perceive cold sensations when the surface of the skin drops below 95ºF, that’s are most stimulated when the surface of skin drops is at 77ºF and are no longer stimulated when the surface
drops below 41ºF, this is why your hands and feet start to go number when they are submerged in icy water for a long period of time. Heat receptors: perceives hot sensation when surface is above 86ºF, they are most stimulated at 113ºF, beyond 113ºF pain receptors take over to avoid damage being done to the skin and underlying tissue.
Thermoreceptors: all over the body, the highest concentration of thermoreceptors are found in the face and ears so your nose and ears always get colder first. Hair: Anatomy: shaft: portion of hair that projects from surface, straight hair has a round shaft, curly hair is oval. Root: portion of hair deep to the shaft penetrating the dermis, has 3 layers:
Medulla, contains pigment granules and air spaces, Cortex, middle layer in dark hair contains pigment in gray or white hair, contains air bubbles, Cuticle, outer layer heavily keratinized cells that lie like shingles. Base of follicle: Bulb, hoses the papilla which contains the blood vessels that nourishes the growing hair follicle, Matrix, responsible for
hair growth and produces new hair. Arrector Pili (smooth): extends from dermis to the side of hair follicle, hair grows at an angle to the surface of the skin, arrector pili muscles contract and pull hair straight causing goosebumps. Hair root plexus: dendrites of neurons which are sensitive to touch. Important features and textures: roughly 5 million
hairs on body, 100,000 on the scalp, every part of the body has he air except palms of hands, soles of feet, sides of fingers and toes, lips and parts of genitalia, hair shafts different in size, shape, and color, in the eyebrows they are short and stiff while on the scalp they are longer and more flexible, over the rest of the body they are fine and nearly
invisible, oval shaped hair shafts produce wavy hair, flat or ribbon like shafts produce curly or kinky hair, round hair shafts produce straight hair. Hair Growth Cycle: Anagen Phase: Growth Phase, Approximately 85% of all hairs are in the growing phase at any one time. The Anagen phase or growth phase can vary from two to six years. Hair grows
approximately 10 cm per year and any individual hair is unlikely to grow more than one meter long. Each hair on your body grows from its own individual hair follicle. Inside the follicle, new hair cells form at the root of the hair shaft. As the cells form, they push older cells out of the follicle. As they are pushed out, the cells die and become the hair
we see. A follicle will produce new cells for a certain period of time depending on where it is located on your body. This period is called the growth phase. Catagen Phase: Transitional Phase, At the end of the Anagen Phase the hair enters into a Catagen Phase which lasts about one or two weeks, during the Catagen Phase the hair follicle shrinks
to about 1/6 of the normal length. The lower part is destroyed and the dermal papilla breaks away to rest below. Telogen Phase: Resting Phase, The Resting Phase follows the Catagen Phase and normally lasts about 5-6 weeks. During this time the hair does not grow but stays attached to the follicle while the dermal papilla stays in a resting
phase below. Approximately 10-15 percent of all hairs are in this phase at any one time. When the hair follicle enters the Resting Phase, the hair shaft breaks, so the existing hair falls out and a new hair takes its place. Therefore, the length of time that the hair is able to spend growing during the growth phase controls the maximum length of the
hair. The cells that make the hairs on your arms are programmed to stop growing every couple of months, so the hair on your arms stays short. The hair follicles on your head, on the other hand, are programmed to let hair grow for years at a time, so the hair can grow very long. Animals that shed have hair follicles that synchronize their rest
phase so that all of the follicles enter the rest phase at once. Some factors that affect the rate of growth and replacement of hair are illness, diet, stress, gender, radiation therapy, and medication. At the end of the Telogen phase the hair follicle re-enters the Anagen Phase. The dermal papilla and the base of the follicle join together again and a
new hair begins to form. If the old hair has not already been shed the new hair pushes the old one out and the growth cycle starts all over again. Function: hair on the head protects the scalp from injury and sunlight, eyelashes and eyebrows protect eyes, nostril and ear hairs protect from foreign particles, help in sensing light touch due to the
touch receptors associated with the hair root plexus. Hair color: hair color is due to the amount and type of melanin in the keratinized cells, melanocytes in the matrix of the bulb synthesize melanin, melanin passes into the cortex and medulla of the hair, dark hair contains true melanin, blond and red hair have variants of melanin in which there is
iron/sulfur, gray hair results from a decline in tyrosinase (enzyme which initiates melanin production), white hair results from the accumulation of air bubbles in the medullary shaft. Skin Glands: Sudoriferous (sweat) glands: 3-4 million glands in your body empty onto the skin through pores or into hair follicles. Eccrine: secrete cooling sweat,
secrete directly onto skin, begin to function soon after birth, sweat is composed of 98% water and 2% dissolved salts and nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid, etc), helps to regulate body temperatures/aids in waste removal. Apocrine: stimulated during emotional stress/excitement, secretes into hair follicle, begins to function at puberty, slightly
more viscous than eccrine secretions, composed of the same components as eccrine sweat plus: lipids & proteins, referred to as “cold sweat.” Sebaceous (oil) glands: they are mostly connected to hair follicles, are embedded in the dermis over most of the body, absent in the palms and soles, vary in size & shape & numbers in other areas of the
body, secrete an oily substance called sebum (lubricates the hair & skin), mixture of fat, cholesterol, proteins, inorganic salts, pheromones, coats surface of hair, prevents excessive evaporation of water from skin, keeps skin soft and pliable, inhibits growth of some (good) bacteria, sebaceous glands activity increases with puberty, due to the male
and female hormone activity, accumulation of sebum in the ducts = white pimples, if sebum darkens = black heads form, acne is inflammation of sebaceous gland ducts. Ceruminous: modified sweat glands of the external ear that produce ear wax, open directly onto the surface of the external auditory canal (ear canal) or into the ducts of
sebaceous glands, earwax is the combination of secretion of ceruminous glands and sebaceous glands, earwax and the hair combine to provide a sticky barrier against foreign items. Nails: keratin, a scleroprotein (fibrous protein) which contains large amounts of sulfur (strengthens bonds), made of tightly packed, hard, keratinized epidermal cells,
consist of: Nail Body: portion of nail that is visible, free edge, part that extends past the distal end of the digit, nail root, portion buried in a fold of skin. Lunula: crescent shaped area of nail, visible portion of the distal nail matrix that extends beyond the proximal nailfold. Hyponychium: secures the nail to the fingertip, skin under nail, thickened
corneum. Eponychium or cuticle (PNF): narrow band of epidermis, growth of nails in the nail matrix, skin of proximal nail fold, above nail matrix/lunula. Additional: nail cells (keratinocytes) multiply under the skin. Each cell keeps dividing and creating more cells, the new cells push the old cells above the skin surface, once the cells come out they
are dead and unable to perform cell division. Function: Grasping objects, manipulating objects, protecting ends of digits from trauma, scratching. Homeostasis imbalances: skin can develop >1000 different ailments, most common are from allergies or infections less common are burns and skin cancers. Skin lesions: any measurable variation
from the numeral structure of the skin. Elevated: cast a shadow outside of the edges as warts, plaque, blisters. Flat: do not cast a shadow as a scab, elevated lesions with pus, hives. Depressed: cast a shadow within their edges as lacerations, ulcers, fissures. Infections: Viral: eg. cold sores, herpes simplex especially around lips and oral
mucosa, warts ( benign neoplasms caused by HPV. Fungal: eg. athlete's foot, tinea. Bacterial: eg. boils and carbuncles, inflammation of hair follicle and sebaceous glands especially on face or dorsal side of neck, impetigo streptococcus infection. Contact Dermatitis: a condition in which the skin becomes red, sore, or inflamed after direct contact
with a substance. Irritant: common, caused by contact with acids, alkaline materials (soaps, detergents, fabric softeners, solvents, etc), reaction looks like a burn. Other irritants: cement, hair dyes, long-term exposure to wet diapers, pesticides or weed killers, rubber gloves, shampoos. Allergic Contact Dermatitis: caused by exposure to a
substance or material to which you have become extra sensitive or allergic. Common: adhesives (fake eyelashes, toupees, etc), antibiotics such as neomycin rubbed on the skin surface, balsam of Peru (tree trunk, used in many foods, drinks, products/cosmetics), fabric/clothing, fragrances, nail polish, hair dyes, permanent wave solutions (hair),
nickel or other metals (cobalt/chromium/zinc), poison ivy/oak, poison sumac, etc plants, rubber or latex items (gloves). Treatment: washing with lost of water to remove any traces of the irritant that may remain on skin, avoid further exposure to known irritants or allergens, ant m mm
m m m m m mm m m m m
m m m m m m m
m mm m m m m m m m m % %
G % G mm m m m M m m m m
m m m m m m m m m m
m m m m m m m
m m m m m m m m mm
m m m m m
m m m m m m m m m
m m m m m m m m m m
m m mm m m m m
m m M m m m m
m m m m m m m M m m mm
m m m m m
m m m m m m m
m m mm m m m m m m
m m m m m m m
m m m m m m m m m
m m mm % m m m % m m % m m m m m
m m M m m m % m mm m
m m m m M m m % % m