Signal Integrity Trouble-

Shooting and Measurement

Techniques
DAY 2 – Signal Measurements and
Setups
Fabian Kung (Multimedia University)
The information in this work has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable.
The author does not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information
presented herein, and shall not be responsible for any errors, omissions or damages
as a result of the use of this information.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 1

Agenda for Today

• Electrical signals and signal representation.
• Morning Break
• Measurement domains and instrumentation.
• Live measurement exercise 1.
• Lunch Break
• Electrical probes and probing.
• Measurement examples.
• Afternoon Break
• Live measurement exercise 2.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 2

1
 1. Review of Electrical
Signals and Signal
Representation

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 3

Periodic, Non-Periodic and Random

Signals
• Signal – A useful quantity or parameter that changes with time.
• Our focus will be electrical signals.
• Type of electrical signals: Voltage  Electric Field (E)
– Voltage signal. Current  Magnetic Field (B)
– Current signal. Our focus, P(t) = v(t)i(t)
– Power signal.
– Field or vector type signals such as time-varying electromagnetic
(EM) fields.

• Each of the signal type above in turn can be classified into Periodic and
Non-periodic signals.
• Non-periodic signals (their period is infinite) include a class of signals
called random signals which are of interest to telecommunication.

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2
 Electrical Signals
Electric Signals

Voltage Current Power EM Fields

Inter-related  
E    B
t
Periodic Non-Periodic   
H  J   D
t

  D  v
t 
B  0
Deterministic Random (Non-Deterministic)
No
information!!!
t t

No information!!! Contains information!!!

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 5

Signal Representations – Periodic

Sinusoids
• Let us consider the most fundamental signal, the periodic sinusoid, we
use voltage as example: These 2 are important to
Frequency (radian/sec) describe the sine waveform
v1(t) 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡
v1t   Vo cost    Vo
Phase or
0 t
Magnitude (volts) delay
 1 
  2f f 
2 T T Graphical form
Expression form (function of time t) Time-Domain
Volts or dBµV

1/T
𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋 Vo
f
Negative  /(rad or o)
Frequency-Domain
Positive 
t f
0
Another graphical form
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3
 Signal Representations – General Periodic
Signals
• From Fourier Series principle every periodic signals can be considered as
being constructed from sinusoids with frequencies in harmonic relationship.
• An example of digital pulses with T = 0.02s (f = 50 Hz), up to 9th harmonics.
• The magnitude vs frequency plot is also called the Spectra of the signal.
Fundamental DC Fundamental Magnitude vs Frequency
DC
(Spectra)
2nd Harmonic

3rd Harmonic
3rd Harmonic
2nd Harmonic 4th Harmonic

v1(t)
Phase vs Frequency
T=0.02s

v1t   VDC  Vo1 cost  1   Vo2 cos2t  2   Vo3 cos3t  3   

DC Fundamental 2nd Harmonic 3rd Harmonic
Frequency-Domain
Time-Domain
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 7

Signal Representations – Non-Periodic

Signals
• The concept of Fourier Series can be extended to non-periodic signals,
where it becomes the Fourier Transform. Essentially non-periodic
signals can be viewed as periodic signal with period  infinity, thus the
spectra becomes continuous.
 Discrete Spectra

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑒
Periodic

𝑐 = ∫ T
Fourier Series of Periodic
Signal
Time-Domain Frequency-Domain
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉 𝜔 𝑒 𝑑𝜔 Continuous Spectra

Non-Periodic
𝑉 𝜔 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 T is very big!

Fourier Transform A digital version of this operation

Using sample values of v(t) is known
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 8
as fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
4
 Summary for Section 1
• Depending on the pattern of the signal in time, we can classify a signal as
periodic, non-periodic and random.
• Signals can be presented in time, frequency or mixed (both time and
frequency) domains.
• Signal representation in time-domain is called the waveforms, in
frequency-domain it is the spectra.
• For periodic signals the spectra is discrete.
• If the periodic signals is not sinusoid then it can be broken up into infinite
number of sinusoids with perfectly align frequency, magnitude and phase
(Fourier Series).
• For non-periodic signals the spectra is continuous (Fourier Transform).
• Integrity in the magnitude and phase of a spectra in frequency-domain is
related to the distortion of the waveform in time-domain.
Periodic: Fourier Series
Time-Domain Non-periodic: Fourier Transform Frequency-Domain
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 9

2. Measurement Domains
and Instrumentation

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 Measurement Domains and Instruments (1)

Signal Representation

Narrow-band
Time Domain Frequency Domain
Wide-band

By adding FFT Real-Time

Digital Magnitude Spectrum Magnitude & Phase
Analyzer
Sampling (Passive)
Oscilloscope Spectrum
(Passive) Analyzer
(Passive)
Vector Signal Vector Network
Time Domain Analyzer (Passive) Analyzer (Active)
Magnitude: Wide band Magnitude: Wide band
Reflectometer Phase: Narrow band Phase: Wide band
(Active)
By adding
Tracking Generator

Network
Analyzer
June 2023
(Active)
©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 11

Measurement Domains and Instruments (2)

• The various domains of a signal and typical instruments used to observe

the parameters. Signal Analyzer (Passive)
Magnitude: WB
Digital Sampling Vector Network Phase: NB
Oscilloscope Analyzer (Active)
(Passive + Active) Spectrum Analyzer (Passive)
Magnitude: WB
(WB) Magnitude - WB
Phase: WB

Sweep

Frequency
FFT

Time
Sweep
Time-Domain
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee Frequency-Domain 12

6
 Passive and Active Measurements (1)
• Measurement without stimulus (Passive measurement).

Electrical
Device under test Energy Measurement
(DUT) Instrument

Power

• Example, digital sampling oscilloscope (DSO), spectrum analyzer, vector

signal analyzer.
• Checking signal quality (integrity), system functions, general debugging
etc.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 13

Passive and Active Measurements (2)

• Measurement with stimulus (Active measurement).
Electrical
Energy Device under test Measurement Transmission
Stimulus
(DUT) Instrument Measurement

Power
Stimulus
Device under test
(DUT) Reflection
Measurement Measurement
Typical stimulus signals for Instrument
Active measurement:
Continuous
The
1
Sine Wave Resultant 1 Steady-state FD response.
t
Modulated
Output Related by:
2 2 Modulated FD response.
t
Sine Wave Fourier
Transform (FFT)
3 Impulse Input 3 Impulse TD response.
t

4 Step Input 4 Step TD response.

t
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 Passive and Active Measurements (3)
• Transmission Measurement – Network analyser, vector network
analyser.
• Used for checking the quality of the signal path (loss/attenuation,
distortion), components or systems with inputs/outputs (e.g. filters,
amplifiers, splitters, combiners).
• Reflection Measurement – Time-domain reflectometer, vector network
analyser.
• Used for checking the ‘matching’ between components and signal path,
antenna etc. A good matching between the component and signal
source will have very small reflected signal power.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 15

General Block Diagram of Modern

Measurement Instrument
• Whether time, frequency or hybrid domains, most modern measurement
instruments share the following architecture:

The measurement
instrument
Control
Main control unit

Signal Stimulus Signal Signal Display

source In DUT Detector/ processing unit
Out
Sampler unit
Probes, Cables,
Connectors, Memory
Terminations.
Trigger Signal
Optional External Generator
Trigger Source

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 TD Measurement Instruments (1)
• Digital Sampling Oscilloscope (DSO) – Uses an ADC to digitize the
electrical signal on its inputs (usually called the channels), store the
digitized signal in memory and subsequently show on a display.
Be careful, this could be
Main DSO criteria: the cumulative rate for
• Input bandwidth. all input channels.

• ADC sampling rate.

• ADC resolution (8, 10 or 12 bits).
• Sampling mode – equivalent or
real time.
• Memory depth.
• Probe type (passive, active,
matched)
• Input impedance
• Pure analog input or mixed signal
type.
• Instrument background noise
(affects SNR of captured signal).
Optional digital input
port
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 17

TD Measurement Instruments (2)

• ADC sampling rate determines the instrument bandwidth, e.g. the highest
sinusoidal signal component the instrument can distinguish without
aliasing (remember Nyquist Sampling Theorem).
• Most entry to mid-range DSOs use 8-bits ADC resolution, higher-end
models typically have 10 to 14 bits ADC resolution. ADC resolution
affects the instrument accuracy and background noise.
• Basic DSO functions can be enhanced by including a signal source to
perform measurements with stimulus, for example time-domain
reflectometry (TDR) and transmission (TDT) measurements.
• DSO with enhanced memory storage can also be used to perform tests
such as Eye-Diagram and Bit-Error Rate (BER) measurements of digital
signals.
Typically required at least 10 bits ADC
resolution

Note: Also show example of equivalent-time ultra

wideband DSO
PC based DSO
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 18

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 FD Measurement Instruments (1)
• Spectrum Analyser (SA) – For observing the spectra of signals. Two
basic approaches, sweep-frequency and real-time. Classical sweep-
frequency type SA architecture is shown below.
Down-converter1 Down-converter2
Input
Attenuator Upper BPF1 Lower BPF2 Amp1 In modern SA this part is
LPF1 injection injection
Sets the bandwidth taken over by ADC and
of the instrument digital signal processor
Microprocessor
LO1 LO2
Module
Envelope Video
LO1 produces low LO1 produces high Down-converter3 Detector Filter
frequency here frequency here

Reference Lower BPF3 Amp2 LPF2

Oscillator injection

t
Display
LO3
Sweep Generator f

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 19

FD Measurement Instruments (2)

• Recall that a signals can be broken down into sinusoidal components.
• The SA only measures the magnitude of the sinusoid components of
signals where as a Vector Signal Analyzer (VSA) can measure both
magnitude and phase. Magnitude (V)

Fundamental
3rd Harmonic Spectrum
5th Harmonic Analyzer (SA)
f
0 fo 3fo 5fo
Phase (Radian)
Vector Signal
Analyzer (VSA)

f
TD 0 fo 3fo 5fo
FD
Note: when used in VSA mode, today (e.g. 2016-2023) commercial
instruments can measure up to 750 MHz bandwidth
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 FD Measurement Instruments (3)
• Spectrum Analyzer (SA) – For observing the spectra of signals.
• Vector Signal Analyzer (VSA) – Possesses basic functions of the SA. In
addition it can measure the phase of sinusoidal components (usually for
the fundamental component only). This is useful for analysing modulated
signals (it can demodulate the signals).
• Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) – Similar to the sweep frequency SA, the
VNA has built-in sinusoidal signal source and can measure the relative
magnitude and phase of signals between its ports. Useful for
characterizing the frequency response of system or components.
Note, hybrid instruments:
• Modern FD instruments can
combine SA and VSA into one
machine or
• SA and VNA functions into one
Machine or
• SA, VNA and VSA into one
machine.
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 21

FD Measurement Instruments (4)

Keysight FieldFox Handheld
Two ports Microwave Analyzer combines SA and
Note: This slide is to illustrate the
myriad form of FD instruments,
VNA into one instrument, 5 kHz to 44 GHz It is not an endorsement
of the product or comparison
Between manufacturers
Anritsu
MS2038C
Handheld Tektronix RSA360B
VNA (5 kHz to PC based VSA
20 GHz) and SA (9 kHz to 6.2 GHz)
(9 kHz to 20 GHz)

Rigol RSA5065-TG
R&S FSVA Spectrum & Signal (100 kHz to 6.5
Analyzer (2 Hz to 44 GHz) GHz) Pico VNA108
PC based VNA
(300 kHz to 8.5 GHz)
Tracking Generator
output

Keysight N9000B CXA basic Signal Analyzer,

9 kHz to 26.5 GHz
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 FD Measurement Instruments (5)
• FD instrument basic criteria:
– Input bandwidth.
– Analysis bandwidth.
– Input power dynamic range.
– Detector ADC resolution (can go as high as 24-bits).
– Display average noise level (DANL).
– Phase noise.
– Amplitude accuracy.
– Phase accuracy.
– Sweeping speed.

N = number of bits
2N

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 23

Example 2.1 - Measured Periodic

Signals
1 MHz square and sine voltage signals: Fundamental
component Harmonics
Square Waves

Tperiod
f/MHz
1 MHz

Sinusoidal Waves Tperiod f = 1/Tperiod Fundamental

component
Harmonics
Time/usec

Time-Domain

Frequency-Domain (power)
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 Example 2.2 - Measured Non-Periodic and
Random Signals

10MHz BASK modulated sine wave (1 Mbps)

10 MHz

1MHz NRZ

Time-Domain

The sine wave

carrier

Frequency-Domain (power)
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 25

Example 2.2 Cont…

• The spectra of the 10 MHz BASK signal on extended span, 100 kHz to
100 MHz.

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 Example 2.3 – Measured Non-Periodic,
Random and Multi-Carriers Signals
• Example of 8-carriers OFDM signal. Each peak represents one
carrier

Frequency-Domain (power)
(using SA)
Time-Domain (using DSO)

This signal consists of 8 modulated sine waves combined together

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 27

Summary of Section 2
• Presently measurement instrument can be grouped into time-domain,
frequency-domain and mixed (hybrid) domain.
• Modern instruments uses digital sampling, with FFT and digital filtering
to perform signal analysis.
• In each of this group, the instrument is capable of standard passive type
measurement. With addition of a signal source some instruments can
also perform active type measurement.

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 3. Electrical Probes and
Probing

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 29

Oscilloscope Probe Types

• The probe is the device that siphons a small amount of the electrical
charge from the device under test to the input impedance of the
oscilloscope, this charge will cause a voltage across the input impedance
and sampled by the scope’s ADC.
Current Probe
Probe
Voltage Probe
Active
Single-Ended Differential
Probe Probe

Active Passive Active

Passive

1:1 (1MΩ)

10:1 10MΩ

Wideband 10:1 and 20:1 RF matched

June 2023
Probes (50Ω) ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 30

15
 Single-Ended Passive Oscilloscope Probe
Construction
• A best guess of the equivalent electrical model of a 10:1 passive
oscilloscope probe.* Image source: ‘Silicon Chips”, Oct 2009.
D. Ford, “Secret world of oscilloscope probes”
The centre conductor
in the cable is usually
made of Nichrome alloy.

Take note this

resistance can
limit the resolution
of the scope due
to thermal noise
injection

*Oscilloscope probes
construction are trade secret
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 31

Single-Ended Passive Oscilloscope Probe

Bandwidth
• Circuit simulation to estimate the bandwidth of the 10:1 passive probe.
Voltage at input Tune C1 and
to the oscilloscope Ccomp to remove
sampler is 0.1x of
voltage at scope tip. the peaking here
Ideally, C1 should be equal
to Cin(Rin/Rprobe) for distortion-free
Phase
response

Magnitude

Bandwidth

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 Single-Ended Active Oscilloscope Probe

• The active probe contains a wide bandwidth impedance-matched (to 50)

low-noise amplifier at the probe tip, usually FET based amplifier (FET has
lowest noise figure among active devices).
• The amplifier provides amplification of the voltage signal with good SNR,
and isolation between the DUT and the probe cable/oscilloscope input
impedance.

An example of Keysights N2795A

active probe:
• 1 MΩ // 1pF equivalent
probe tip impedance.
• 1:1
• Probe bandwidth
is rated at 1 GHz.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 33

Differential Active Oscilloscope Probe

• Most differential probes are active probe, the tip usually contains a
differential amplifier which converts the differential voltage into signal
ended signal before sending them to the oscilloscope input sampler.
An example of Keysights N2750A
active differential probe:
• 2:1 and 10:1
Transmission • Probe bandwidth
Line is rated at 1.5 GHz.
• Probe impedance = 200 k
(differential) and 100 k (common).
Probe tips 0.7pF
100kΩ
+
200kΩ
-
100kΩ Transmission
0.7pF Line

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 Oscilloscope Probe - Effect of Ground Clip
Wire Length on Probe Bandwidth (1)
• The ground clip inductance depends on the loop area formed by the probe
and ground clip wire. This area can be reduced (hence the inductance) by
using a short ground wire.

Current Flow

Current Flow

The large loop

area can also
act as loop
antenna and
pick up
electromagnetic
field from the
environment
20nH
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 35

Oscilloscope Probe - Effect of Ground Clip

Wire Length on Probe Bandwidth (2)
• The ground clip inductance has a huge impact on the oscilloscope probe
actual bandwidth and response.

f3dB  500 MHz

 3 dB f3dB  200 MHz

Bandwidth

Using crocodile
Using Custom short Ground clip
Wire ground clip

With Lprobe = 10 nH With Lprobe = 100 nH

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 36

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 Oscilloscope Probe - Reducing Ground
Clip Stray Inductance
• Most high bandwidth oscilloscope probes provide a few options of ground
clip wire, and you can also DIY if necessary.
Commercial ‘Coil-Type’
short ground
clip wire

Standard ground Clip Wire

Another commercial foil
Type ground

DIY Ground Clip

Commercial spring type

ground clip wire
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 37

Wideband Passive Oscilloscope Probe

• An example of 50 passive probe from Tektronix. Typically low noise
and very high bandwidth.
10:1 ADC A DIY 1:1 50 passive probe
input 50Ω with > 6 GHz bandwidth

Pogo pin

Rigid co-axial cable

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 On-Board Wideband Passive 20:1
Oscilloscope Probe
• Built-in co-axial end launcher.
• Effective up to microwave and millimetre wave frequencies.
Zo = 50Ω microstrip
line
Zo = 50Ω 953Ω

To instrument
with 50Ω Zin  1000Ω
termination
953Ω thin film
0402 size resistor 20:1 passive probe

Diameter Max Freq.

Short narrow 3.50 mm 18 GHz
trace 2.95 mm 26 GHz
PCB trace being 2.40 mm 40 GHz
probed 1.85 mm 65 GHz
Millimetre wave co-axial end
launcher
(from SV microwave,
www.svmicrove.com)

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 39

Summary of Section 3
Probe Type Characteristics When to Use
Passive 10:1 Probe • DC input impedance is 10M. • For low-to-mid range
• Voltage signal is attenuated frequency probing, DC to
by 10X, low SNR. 500 MHz.
• Small loading effect (if used • Set scope Zin to 1M.
within stipulated bandwidth)
Active 1:1 Probe • DC input impedance is 1M. • For low-to-high range
• Voltage signal is not frequency probing, DC to
attenuated, high SNR. 3000 MHz.
• Small loading effect. • Set scope Zin to 50.
Wideband Passive 10:1 • DC input impedance is 450. • For low-to-very high range
(20:1) Probe • Voltage signal is attenuated frequency probing, DC to 9
by 10X, low SNR. GHz.
• Medium loading effect. • Set scope Zin to 50.

On-board wideband passive • DC input impedance is 450. • For low to milimeter-wave

10:1 (20:1) probe • Voltage signal is attenuated frequency, DC to >20 GHz.
by 10X, low SNR. • Set scope Zin to 50.
• Medium loading effect.
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 Example 3.1 – Measured Distortion Caused
by Ground Clip Wire Inductance (1)
• Here we have a simple circuit consisting of a ‘microstrip’ transmission
line, termination and clock source.
10 MHz Clock Source

Copper Trace, Zo = 50Ω,

60 mils To DSO Length = 140 mm
(1.524 mm)
FR4 1.0 mm
Clock Source is powered
From USB port

140 mm

+
Zo=50Ω vp = 1.632108 50Ω 0.8 mm thick FR4 PCB
(GND plane on the bottom
- side)

50Ω Co-axial Termination

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 41

Example 3.1 – Measured Distortion Caused

by Ground Clip Wire Inductance (2)

With standard GND clip

Coil GND clip

Using Coil type GND clip

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 Probe for Spectrum Analyser (SA) - Near-
Field Probes (Non-Contact Probes)
Magnetic field probe
Magnetic field
• The near-field probes are designed to probe (0.1 to
(10 MHz to 3 GHz)
‘pick’ up static or quasi-static electric and 150 MHz)
magnetic fields near the surface of the
PCB (with circuits powered up of course!).
• Usually used together with SA and pre-
amplifier.
• E field probe is useful for capturing Magnetic field probe
emissions from conductors with high (0.4 to 600 MHz)
voltage fluctuation (high impedance
traces). Whereas H field probe is for
capturing emission from large current
fluctuation (low impedance traces).

Electric field probe

(100 MHz to 6 GHz)
SA
Wideband To Spectrum Analyzer (SA) or
Pre-Amp Vector Signal Analyzer (VSA)

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 43

Example 3.2 – Measured Magnetic Field

Emitted by PCB
A good tutorial - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctynv2klT6Q
1. Always hold the probe more
than 5 mm above the PCB
surface to avoid the probe
loading the PCB circuits.
2. Need to adjust the probe
orientation to find the largest
reading.

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 4. Measurements Examples

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 45

TFD Observing the Spectra of Digital Clock

Time and Frequency
Domain Signal (1)
• Setup for digital pulse spectra measurement.
Co-axial Attenuator

To DSO (TD)
6 dB
1.2 ns

1.8 ns

3.5 ns Microstrip without GND Keysights

Fieldfox RF Analyzer
Microstrip
(FD)
Coupled Microstrip

ME1400 EMC/
EMI Demo Board

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TFD Observing the Spectra of Digital Clock
Signal (2)
• Comparison of pulse with different rise time in time and frequency domain
using DSO and Spectrum Analyzer.

2ns rise/fall time pulse

Lower harmonics

4ns rise/fall time pulse

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 47

TD Time-Domain Transmission Measurement

of PCB Trace
• Illustrating the propagation delay of electrical signal along the PCB trace.
Observe the difference of
1 ns, which is the propagation
delay as worked out with
theory.
You can also see the
rise time at Channel 2 is
longer, due to
attenuation in the trace.

60 mils
(1.524 mm)

FR4 1.0 mm

140 mm

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TD Effect of Rise/Fall Time and Termination on
Digital Signal (1)
• Long PCB trace (10 cm) driven with 1.2 ns rise/fall time 10MHz pulses.

Zc = 50
133
50
Terminated trace Partially terminated

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 49

TD Effect of Rise/Fall Time and Termination on

Digital Signal (2)
• Long PCB trace (10 cm) driven with For comparison with 6 ns
1.2 ns rise/fall time 10MHz pulses. rise/fall time

Ringing

Zc = 50 Zc = 50

Un-terminated trace Un-terminated trace

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25
TD Effect of Ringing on Near-Field Magnetic
Spectra
• We can also use spectra measurement to detect
anomaly.

Magnetic field spectra captured

Using 3 GHz bandwidth near-field
probe

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 51

TD Direct Measurement on Oscilloscope

without Probe
• Sometimes we do not need to use a probe with oscilloscope. This
approach is used for probing the output of systems with connectors.

Need to use
high quality
co-axial cable
Take note and connectors

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FD Measuring Copper Trace Transmission
Loss and Dispersion

Bandwidth of
copper Trace Increased attenuation
S21 (about 3 GHz) at high frequencies

Handheld
Vector Network
Analyzer
Propagation Delay

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 53

TD
Measuring Random NRZ Bit-Stream (1)
• Single-ended synchronous digital bit-stream.

Data Clock (10 MHz) to Channel 1

(Trigger input)

100 nsec

Data change
on positive
clock edge

Data (10 Mbps)

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TD
Measuring Random NRZ Bit-Stream (2)
• Differential synchronous digital bit-stream.

Non-inverting (V+)

Inverting (V-)

Data change
on positive Maths Output
clock edge V+ - V-

Data (10 Mbps)

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 55

TD
Crosstalk Measurement (1)
• The setup.

50Ω broadband
termination
Pulse generator
board

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 TD
Crosstalk Measurement (2)
• Time-domain measurement sample results.
Can see significant drop in crosstalk
10 Mbps ‘high-speed’ signal on active
trace
level as trace separation increases
Near-end crosstalk

Crosstalk level captured with DSO Crosstalk level captured with DSO
0.5 mm trace spacing 1.0 mm trace spacing

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 57

TD
Generating an Eye Diagram
A pseudorandom Tx A Tx/Rx System Rx
bit stream (PRBS)
generator

‘1’ A group of
‘0’ ‘0’
Bits = 010 3 bits
1 unit interval
Bits = 101 A Binary Eye Pattern

Bits = 011 Attenuation

Dispersion
Crosstalk
Bits = 100 Reflection 1 unit interval (UI) t
Jitter
Bits = 111

Bits = 000

NRZ binary signal Image Source: C. Filip, “Overview of channel equalization techniques for
serial interfaces”, Siemens 2021.
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 58

29
 TD
Eye-Mask and Jitter
• The opening of the eye-mask indicates 1) The max. bit-rate achievable
2) The optimum level of sampling and 3) The threshold levels.
• Eye diagram can also be generated for multi-level digital signal.
1 unit interval (UI)

Amplitude Noise, Crosstalk, Interference

Closing of the ‘eye’ due to

VIH threshold Eye-Mask loss and reflection

Threshold crossing jitter due to

dispersion, loss, phase noise of
TX oscillator.
VIL threshold

t/ps

Min Setup Min Hold

Time Time
Example of multi-level
Eye-diagram (PAM-4) Min Time Window
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 59

TD Eye-Diagram Measurement Using Note: To show R&S

high-speed design
Triggered Method poster

• Example for Measurement of 10 Mbps NRZ pulse signal.

Enable ‘persistence’ in instrument display

Clock / 3
Trigger signal to Channel 1 for DSO to
Produce Eye-Diagram (3.333 MHz)

Clock (10 MHz)

Data change
on positive Data (10 Mbps)
clock edge

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 60

30
 TFD
Modulated Signals Measurement with VSA

• An example of QPSK (Quadri-Phase Shift Keying) modulated sine wave

measurement.

TD measurement
using Oscilloscope

FD measurement
using VSA

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 61

TD Ground Bounce/Power Bounce

Measurement (1)
• Here we demonstrate a simultaneous switching noise (SSN) or ground
bounce on an 8-bits micro-controller, based on the method suggested by
Maliniak and Bogatin. 1. D. Maliniak, E. Bogatin,
“How to measure shared on-
die power rails”, Signal Atmega 328P
Integrity Journal, May 2018. +5V Analog Voltage
2. D. Maliniak, E. Bogatin,
Digital “Why on-die power rails Probe
Probes measurements are +5V
+
important”, Signal Integrity
Journal, 5 June 2018. Vchip
10:1 Analog 0V
Voltage
D0 22.7 mA
Probe 220
Resistors
D1
Atmega 328P
Micro-controller 220
D2
220
GND
220

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 62

31
TD Ground Bounce/Power Bounce
Measurement (2)

VCC level on the die of

Channel 1 is AC coupled Atmega328P drops as
pins D0, D1 and D2
Vchip output 5V

VCC voltage fluctuation Ground Bounce

on the die of the Atmega
328P MCU

Next
Slide

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 63

TD Ground Bounce/Power Bounce

Measurement (3)

Ground Bounce

Vchip

Notice the large

spike here

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 64

32
TD Ground Bounce/Power Bounce
Measurement (4)

Ground Bounce

Vchip

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 65

Crosstalk and ‘Ringing’ Demo – The

Schematic
A B C D E F G H I J

VCC5
0 0
JPWR U1 R1
2 1
Vin Vout
1 5
3 4k7
ON/OFF
K

C2
A

CONN-SIL2 2
1 D2 C1 GND Bypass
4 1
2.2uF D1
1SR154-400
22uF LP2985 JATT2
C3 LED_SOD110 RP2
A

2
K

Red
0.1uF 1
953
3
JATT1 SMA LAUNCHER
RP1
2 3 2
1 VCC5 VCC5
953
2
SMA LAUNCHER
U3 RS1 J4
JIN1 U2 SINGLE TRANSMISSION LINE 1 4
OE Y
3 1 4 50 uStripline 2 5 2
OE Y A VCC 51
3 2 2 5 3 1 3
A VCC GND
1 3
GND
RT1 3
SMA LAUNCHER
NL17SZ125DTT1G C4
CONN-SIL3 NL17SZ125DTT1G C5 51
0.1uF
0.1uF
R2
4 4
10k
JATT4
RP6 2
1
953
JATT3 3
5 SMA LAUNCHER5
VCC5
3
RP3 RT4 VCC5
1
953 51
2
SMA LAUNCHER

6 U5 J7 6
U4 RS2 2
JIN2 50 uStripline COUPLED TRANSMISSION LINE 1
OE Y
4
1 4 2 5 1
OE Y A VCC 51
3 2 5 3 3
A VCC GND
2 3 SMA LAUNCHER
GND
1 50 uStripline NL17SZ125DTT1G
NL17SZ125DTT1G
7 7
CONN-SIL3 C6 C7
0.1uF 0.1uF
R3
10k

8 8

J8 J9
3
2
1
1
9 2 9
SMA LAUNCHER 3
SMA LAUNCHER

A B C D E F G H I J

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 66

33
 Crosstalk and ‘Ringing’ Demo – The
PCB
• Our demo PCB.
High-speed CMOS NOT gate Wide band on-board High-speed CMOS NOT gate
(NC7SZ04) 20:1 passive probe system

Single micro-strip line Parallel

Termination
Resistor

Decoupling
Capacitor
145 mm

5V Voltage PCB Signal Integrity Demo 1

Regulator V1.00 Aug 2021 F. Kung

High-speed
CMOS NOT gate
Coupled micro-strip line
High-speed
CMOS NOT gate

Parallel
Termination
Resistor

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 67

Crosstalk and ‘Ringing’ Demo – Block

Diagram
• Simplified diagram.
Zin  1000Ω Zin  1000Ω
CH1 20:1 Probe 20:1 Probe CH2
145 mm
10Ω
External 2:1 Probe
Pulse +
Source Zo=50Ω vp = 1.632108 Termination
Zin  100Ω CH3
Resistor
- 51Ω

Termination
Zin  1000Ω Resistor Zin  1000Ω
CH1 20:1 Probe 20:1 Probe CH2
51Ω
145 mm
10Ω
External 2:1 Probe
Pulse +
Zin  100Ω
Source Zo=50Ω vp = 1.632108
16 mils

-
Zo=50Ω vp = 1.632108 Zin  50Ω

CH4 1:1 Probe 1:1 Probe CH3

Zin  50Ω
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 68

34
 Crosstalk and ‘Ringing’ Demo –
Captured Waveforms
• Driven with 50 MHz square wave generator.

Received
Signal

Transmitted
Signal

Near-end Near-end
Crosstalk Crosstalk

With 500 MHz bandwidth oscilloscope

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 69

Crosstalk and ‘Ringing’ Demo –

Captured Spectrum for Single Tline
• Driven with 50 MHz square wave clock generator.
• Using near-field magnetic probe to pick up spectra of the of magnetic field.

Without termination resistor With termination resistor soldered

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 70

35
 To Show…
• Time-domain waveforms and spectra.
• Probing method in time-domain.
• Time delay due to signal propagation.
• Impedance matching.
• Using near-field probe with spectrum analyser.
• Comparing measurement with circuit simulation.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 71

5. Conclusion

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 72

36
 Important Considerations
• Interference sources and signal integrity mechanisms can be divided into
narrow-band and wideband.
• Mitigation and defensive design approaches can also be divided into
narrow-band and wideband methods.
• Matching the correct method to the source or mechanisms is thus
crucial.
• Examples of narrow-band method – Band-pass filtering, notch filter,
tuning, or usage frequency dependent network. Some bypass and
decoupling capacitors only work within a range of frequencies. Also
interaction between components and system physical structures can
result in narrow-band response.
• Examples of wideband method – Shielding with metallic enclosure,
isolation using physical separation, termination with resistor, physical
design of signal transmission path.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 73

Before a System is Build

1. Use computer simulation software to model and simulate the behaviour
of the interconnection and physical system, for example modern full-
wave electromagnetic field solver can create an electrical model of the
PCB with assembled component.

Slides from Day 1 by CC Chai

2. Built test PCB with test structures and traces, with built-in high
bandwidth probe, then check the performance of the test structures.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 74

37
 Trouble-Shooting Sequences After a
System is Build (1)
1. Check stability and integrity of on-board power supply, probe using
oscilloscope.
2. Write a test program for the controller to generate a known periodic
signal at TX, then:
– Probe the transmitter and receiver side with oscilloscope and
suitable probes to check the integrity and shape of the signal.
– If oscilloscope bandwidth is not sufficient, we can measure the
spectra of the signal using SA and observe for anomaly spectra.
– Validate functionality of system.
3. Write a test program for TX to generate pseudo-random bit sequence,
with very high bandwidth oscilloscope we can perform BER test and
capture eye diagram at the receiver at the same time. Use eye
diagram to detect for interconnection loss, crosstalk and reflection.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 75

Trouble-Shooting Sequences After a

System is Build (2)
• For complex interfacing systems, such as USB3, PCI Express etc., a
protocol analyzer, interposer board with build-in probe system, in
conjunction with high-bandwidth digital oscilloscope is necessary to
trouble-shoot the system.
• At bandwidth above 1 GHz, probing with oscilloscope probe is virtually
impossible due to signal attenuation, thus we need to use an interposer
board, which is a special PCB with build-in probes, that connects
between the processor/motherboard and the device-under-test.
• A protocol analyzer is needed to determine the correct timing to trigger
acquisition of the analog signals from the interposer board.

Note: To show the setup diagram for PCI-Express debugging from LeCroy’s Webinar
“How to debug PCI Express Link Training and other dynamic link behaviors” March 2023

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 76

38
 APPENDIX

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 77

Good Basic Tutorials

• How to solve signal integrity problems: The basics by Keysight
Technologies (Sep 2018)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpyMWuVrKKc&feature=youtu.be

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 78

39
 The Importance of Magnitude and Phase
Integrity in Frequency Domain (1)
• By combining sinusoidal signals of frequencies fo, 3fo, 5fo and so forth with
the correct magnitude and phase we can create a periodic square wave.
1

Magnitude (V) Phase (Radian)

0.5
Vin( i t  1) Vo1
Fundamental
Vin( i t  3) 0
Vin( i t  5)
3rd Harmonic f
0.5 Vo1 0 fo 3fo 5fo
5th Harmonic
1
t f
0 10 20 30 40 0 fo 3fo 5fo
i

1.5
1 Typically the
fo  magnitudes for the
1
Tperiod FD quantities are
Vint( i t ) 0.5
expressed in
Frequency-Domain (FD)
log scale, in dB.
0
Tperiod
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 t
i
Time-Domain (TD)
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 79

The Importance of Magnitude and Phase

Integrity in Frequency Domain (2)
• Both magnitude and phase of each frequency must be perfectly ‘aligned;
to produce the square wave.
• For instance when magnitude is aligned but phase is misaligned:

Magnitude (V) Phase (Radian)

Fundamental

2nd Harmonic f
0 fo 3fo 5fo
3rd Harmonic

5fo f
0 fo 3fo

FD

TD

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 80

40
 Co-Axial Probes
• Co-axial probes from Pasternack.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 81

Equivalent and Real-Time Sampling

Reconstructed signal
Real-time

Actual signal

Sampling interval,  = 1/(Sampling Rate)

If sampling rate = 1 Gs/s,  = 1nsec

Equivalent-time Actual sampling interval = 150 psec

Equivalent sampling interval = 50 psec 1st pass
2nd pass
Actual signal 3rd pass

t
If sampling rate = 20 Gs/s,  = 50 nsec

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 82

41
 Microstrip Trace Design
• Calculations for microstrip line.
 
r 1  1 
 eff  1  1  
2  10d 
 1 
w
1
377  w
0.172 
 w
Zc    1.98  
 eff  d d  

1
vp 
 eff  o

S. Ramo, J.R. Whinnery, T.D. Van Duzer, “Field and waves in

communication electronics” 3rd edition, 1993 John-Wiley &
Sons.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 83

Coupled Microstrip Trace Design

• Calculations for coupled microstrip.
Garg R., Bahl I. J.,”Characteristics of coupled microstriplines”,
IEEE Transaction on Microwave Theory and Techniques, MTT-
27, No.7, pp. 700-705,July 1979.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 84

42
 Pre-Emphasis, De-Emphasis And
Equalization (1)
• Pre-emphasis is applied at the transmitter (TX).
• De-emphasis in principle can be applied at transmitter and receiver
(RX), but for modern digital system it is also applied at the TX (more
effective if applied at TX).
• Pre-emphasis amplifies the high-frequency component of the digital
signal, and can be viewed as a active high-pass filter.
• High-frequency component of a signal is associated with transition, so
pre-emphasis magnifies the signal transition.
• De-emphasis attenuates the low-frequency component of the digital
signal, and can be viewed as a low-pass filter.
• Low-frequency component of a signal is associated with the steady-state
voltage level, so de-emphasis attenuate the steady-state voltage level.
• Both pre and de-emphasis operations are usually implemented in
discrete time, with interval similar to unit interval (or fractional internal)
using FIR (finite impulse response) blocks.
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 85

Pre-Emphasis, De-Emphasis And

Equalization (2)
• Equalization is to compensate for the frequency dependent
characteristics of the channel frequency response.
• Equalization network can be applied anywhere in the TX-RX path, but is
usually applied at the RX and implemented as continuous time analog
network*, for instance using RC networks with optional linear amplifier
integrated in the RX integrated circuit.
• It some instance equalization can also be built into the cable or
interconnection.
• Because a physical channel is always low-pass, equalization always has
high-pass characteristics.

*Note: in signal integrity this continuous time analog network is usually called
Continuous Time Linear Equalization (CTLE).

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 86

43
 Pre-Emphasis, De-Emphasis And
Equalization (3)
• A sample equalization network frequency response employing one
zeros and two poles.

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 87

Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis of Digital

Signal
Pre-emphasis
(emphasize the positive and negative edges, boost Boosting the high-frequency
High-frequency components)
content of the signal
Should be 2-taps

C0 > 1

t B
Bias C0 < 1

De-emphasis Decreasing the low-frequency

(de-emphasize the steady state value,
content of the signal
smaller than the no emphasis value)
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 88

44
 Typical Usage of Emphasis, Equalization and Other
Compensation in Digital Transmission
Slicer means the decoder
For bit-rate DFE: Decision
< 2.5 Gbps
Feedback Equalization
FFE: Feed Forward
For bit-rate
Equalization
between
2.5-5 Gbps

For bit-rate
between
5-50 Gbps

Latest for
bit-rate above
50 Gbps

Source: C. Filip, “Overview of Channel Equalization Techniques for Serial Interfaces”,

White paper by Siemens, 2021.
June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 89

Demo Setup

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45
 Using FFT Function of Keysight MSOX
Oscilloscope
The default sampling rate
is determined by the
horizontal time-base
selected by user

The maximum span is

associated with
the sampling rate

Press [Math] -> [FFT]

We can adjust the Span and Center frequencies
to zoom into the spectra

June 2023 ©2016-2023 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 91

46