Electric Charges and Fields

Table of Contents
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
1. Electric Charge ................................................................................................................. 1
2. Coulomb's Law (Inverse Square Law) ........................................................................... 8
3. Electric Field ................................................................................................................... 13
4. Electric Field Lines and Electric Flux .......................................................................... 28
5. Gauss's Law in Electrostatics or Gauss's Theorem ..................................................... 34
6. Electric Dipole ................................................................................................................. 45
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 52
Some Important Questions ................................................................................................... 54

Introduction
In our daily lives, we often encounter instances of electric discharge. For example, when we
remove synthetic clothes or sweaters, we may observe sparks or hear crackling sounds,
especially in dry weather. Similarly, lightning during thunderstorms is another familiar
example. Additionally, we may experience electric shocks when opening car doors or
gripping bus iron bars after sliding from our seats. These phenomena occur due to the
discharge of accumulated electric charges resulting from the friction of insulating surfaces.
This phenomenon is commonly known as static electricity generation. In this chapter and the
following one, we will delve into the topic of static electricity, which involves studying the
forces, fields, and potentials that arise from static charges.
The branch of physics which deals with electric effect of static charge is called electrostatics.

1. Electric Charge
Charge of a material body or particle is the property (acquired or natural) due to which it
produces and experiences electrical and magnetic effects. Some of naturally occurring
charged particles are electrons, protons, –particles etc.
Charge is a derived physical quantity and is measured in Coulomb in unit. In practice
– – –
we use etc.
C.G.S. unit of charge = electrostatic unit = esu.
of charge
Dimensional formula of charge =

(a) Properties of Charge

  Charge is a scalar quantity: It adds algebraically and represents excess or
deficiency of electrons.
 Charge is of two types: (i) Positive charge and (ii) Negative charge
 Charging a body implies transfer of charge (electrons) from one body to another.
 Positively charged body means loss of electrons i.e., deficiency of electrons.
 Negatively charged body means excess of electrons. This also shows that mass of
a negatively charged body > mass of a positively charged identical body.
 Charge is conserved: In an isolated system, total charge (sum of positive and
negative) remains constant whatever change takes place in that system.
 Charge is quantized: Charge on anybody always exists in integral multiples of a
fundamental unit of electric charge. This unit is equal to the magnitude of charge
on electron (1 = 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb). So charge on anybody is ,
where n is an integer and e is the charge of the electron. Millikan's oil drop
experiment proved the quantization of charge or atomicity of charge.

Note: Recently, the existence of particles of charge and has been

postulated. These particles are called quarks but still this is not considered
as the quantum of charge because these are unstable (They have very short
span of life).

 Like point charges repel each other while unlike point charges attract each other.
 Charge is always associated with mass, i.e., charge cannot exist without mass
though mass can exist without charge. The particles such as photon or neutrino
which have no (rest) mass and zero charge.
 Charge is relativistic ally invariant: This means that charge is independent of
frame of reference i.e., charge on a body does not change whatever be its speed.
This property is worth mentioning as in contrast to charge, the mass of a body
depends on its speed and increases with increase in speed.
 A charge at rest produces only electric field around itself. A charge having
uniform motion produces electric as well as magnetic field around itself while a
charge having accelerated motion emits electromagnetic radiations.

(b) Charging of a Body

A body can be charged by means of (a) friction, (b) conduction, (c) induction, (d)
thermionic ionization or thermionic emission (e) photoelectric effect and (f) field
emission.
(i) Charging by Friction
When a neutral body is rubbed against other neutral body then some electrons
are transferred from one body to other. The body which can hold electrons
tightly draws some electrons and the body which cannot hold electrons tightly,
loses some electrons. The body which draws electrons becomes negatively
charged and the body which loses electrons becomes positively charged.
 For example: Suppose a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth. As the silk can
hold electrons more tightly and a glass rod can hold electrons less tightly (due
to their chemical properties), some electrons will leave the glass rod and get
transferred to the silk. So, in the glass rod there will be deficiency of electrons,
therefore it will become positively charged. And in the silk, there will be some
extra electrons, so it will become negatively charged.

(ii) Charging by Conduction (Flow)

There are three types of materials in nature:
 Conductor: Conductors are the material in which the outer most electrons are
very loosely bound, so they are free to move (flow). So in a conductor, there
are large numbers of free electrons.
Ex. Metals like Cu, Ag, Fe, Al…
 Insulator or Dielectric or Non-conductor: Non–conductors are the materials
in which outer most electrons are very tightly bound, so that they cannot move
(flow). Hence in a non–conductor there are no free electrons. For example:
plastic, rubber, wood etc.
 Semiconductor: Semiconductors form a distinct category characterized by
their intermediate level of resistance to the movement of charges, positioned
between conductors and insulators.

Now let's see how the charging is done by conduction. In this method, we take
a charged conductor 'A' and an uncharged conductor 'B'. When both are
connected, some charge will flow from the charged body to the uncharged
body. If both the conductors are identical and kept at large distance and
connected to each other, then charge will be divided equally in both the
conductors otherwise they will flow till their electric potential becomes same.

(iii) Charging by Induction

To understand this, let's have introduction to induction.
We have studied that there are lot of free electrons in the conductors. When a
charged particle +0 is brought near a neutral conductor, due to attraction of
charge, many electrons (–ve charges) come closer and accumulate on the
closer surface.
On the other hand, a positive charge (deficiency of electrons) appears on the
other surface. The flow of charge continues till the resultant force on free
electrons of the conductor becomes zero. This, phenomena is called induction
and charges produced are called induced charges.
A body can be charged by induction in the following two ways:
 Method I
Step 1: Take an isolated neutral conductor.

Step 2: Bring a charged rod near it. Due to the charged rod, charges will
induce on the conductor.

Step 3: Connect another neutral conductor with it. Due to attraction of the
rod, some free electrons will move from the right conductor to the left
conductor and due to deficiency of electrons positive charges will appear
on right conductor and on the left conductor, there will be excess of
electrons due to transfer from right conductor.

Step 4: Now disconnect the connecting wire and remove the rod.
 The first conductor will be negatively charged and the second conductor
will be positively charged.

 Method II
Step 1: Take an isolated neutral conductor.

Step 2: Bring a charged rod near it. Due to the charged rod, charges will
induce on the conductor.

Step 3: Connect the conductor to the earth (this process is called

grounding or earthing). Due to attraction of the rod, some free electrons
will move from earth to the conductor, so in the conductor there will be
excess of electrons due to transfer from the earth, so net charge on
conductor will be negative.

Step 4: Now disconnect the connecting wire. Conductor becomes

negatively charged.

(iv) Thermionic Emission

When the metal is heated at a high temperature then some electrons of metals
are ejected, and the metal becomes positively charged.
 (v) Photoelectric Effect
When light of sufficiently high frequency is incident on metal surface then
some electrons gain energy from light and come out of the metal surface and
remaining metal becomes positively charged.

(vi) Field Emission

When electric field of large magnitude is applied near the metal surface then
some electrons come out from the metal surface and hence the metal gets
positively charged.

Question: Charge conservation is always valid. Is it also true for mass?

Solution:
No, mass conservation is not always valid. In some nuclear reactions, some mass is lost and it
is converted into energy.

Question: If a charged body is placed near a neutral conductor, will it attract the conductor or
repel it?
Solution:
If a charged body (+ve) is placed left side near a neutral conductor, (–ve) charge will induce
at left surface and (+ve) charge will induce at right surface. Due to positively charged body –
ve induced charge will feel attraction and the +ve induced charge will feel repulsion. But as
the –ve induced charge is nearer, so the attractive force will be greater than the repulsive
force. So the net force on the conductor due to positively charged body will be attractive.
Similarly, we can prove for negatively charged body also.
From the above example we can conclude that. "A charged body can attract a neutral body."
If there is attraction between two bodies then one of them may be neutral. But if there is
repulsion between two bodies, both must be charged (similarly charged). So "repulsion is the
sure test of electrification".

Question: If we comb our hair on a dry day and bring the comb near small pieces of paper,
the comb attracts the pieces, why?
Solution:
This is an example of frictional electricity and induction. When we comb our hair, it gets
positively charged by rubbing. When the comb is brought near the pieces of paper some of
the electrons accumulate at the edge of the paper piece which is closer to the comb. At the
farther end of the piece there is deficiency of electrons and hence, positive charge appears
there. Such a redistribution of charge in a material, due to presence of a nearby charged body
is called induction. The comb exerts larger attraction on the negative charges of the paper
piece as compared to the repulsion on the positive charge. This is because the negative
charges are closer to the comb. Hence, there is a net attraction between the comb and the
paper piece.

Question: A soap bubble is given negative charge. Its radius will

(A) Increase (B) Decrease
(C) Remain unchanged (D) Fluctuate
Solution: (A)
A soap bubble is given negative charge. Its radius will increase due to repulsive force.

Question: Which of the following charge is not possible?

(A) 1.6 × 10–18 (B) 1.6 × 10–19
(C) 1.6 × 10–20 (D) None of these
Solution: (C)
1.6 × 10–20 is not possible because this is of electronic charge and hence not an integral
multiple.

Number of electrons in one coulomb of charge will be

(A) 5.46 × 1029 (B) 6.25 × 1018
19
(C) 1.6 × 10 (D) 9 × 1011
Solution: (B)

Question: Can two similarly charged bodies attract each other?

Solution:
Yes, when the charge on one body is much greater than that on the other and they
are close enough to each other so that force of attraction between
and induced charge on the other exceeds the force of repulsion between
and . However, two similar point charges can never attract each other because no
induction will take place here.

Question: Two identical conducting spheres, having charges of opposite sign (magnitudes
are not necessarily equal), attract each other with a force of when
separated by . The spheres are connected by a conducting wire, which is
then removed; the spheres thereafter repel each other (distance between them
unchanged) with a force of . What were the initial charges on the spheres?
Solution:
Let initial magnitudes be . Then

Then ( )
–= ±2 × 10–6 (substituting data)
Solving, = ±3 × 10–6 ;
= ∓ 1 × 10–6 .

2. Coulomb's Law (Inverse Square Law)

On the basis of experiments Coulomb established the following law known as Coulomb's
law:
The magnitude of electrostatic force between two-point charges is directly proportional to
the product of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
i.e.,
and
(a) Important Points Regarding Coulomb's law:
 It is applicable only for point charges.
 The constant of proportionality in units in vacuum is expressed as
and in any other medium expressed as . If charges are dipped in a medium

then electrostatic force on one charge is where 0 and are called

permittivity of vacuum and absolute permittivity of the medium respectively. The
ratio is called relative permittivity of the medium, which is a
dimensionless quantity.
 The value of relative permittivity is constant for a medium and can have values
between 1 to ∞. For vacuum, by definition it is equal to 1. For air it is nearly equal
to 1 and may be taken to be equal to 1 for calculations. For metals, the value of
is ∞ and for water is 81. The material in which more charge can induce will be
higher.
 The value of = 9 × 109 –
& ε0 = 8.855 × 10–12 .

 Dimensional formula of ε is – –
 The force acting on one point charge due to the other point charge is always along
the line joining these two charges. It is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction on two charges, irrespective of the medium in which they lie.
 The force is conservative in nature i.e., work done by electrostatic force in moving
a point charge along a closed loop of any shape is zero.
 Since the force is a central force, in the absence of any other external force,
angular momentum of one particle w.r.t. the other particle (in two particle system)
is conserved.
In vector form formula can be given as below.
⃗ ⃗ ̂ ; ( & are to be substituted with sign.)
⃗ ⃗
Here, ⃗ is position vector of the test charge (on which force is to be calculated)
with respect to the source charge (due to which force is to be calculated).

Note: The force between two-point charges never depends on the nature of the
medium. It has the same value as if the charges were placed in a vacuum.

(b) Principle of Superposition

 The electrostatic force is a two-body interaction i.e., electrical force between two
point charges is independent of presence or absence of other charges and so the
principle of superposition is valid i.e., force on charged particle due to number of
point charges is the resultant of forces due to individual point charges. Therefore,
force on a point test charge due to many charges is given by.
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

(c) Electrostatic Equilibrium

The point where the resultant force on a charged particle becomes zero is called
equilibrium position.
(i) Stable Equilibrium
A charge is initially in equilibrium position and is displaced by a small
distance. If the charge tries to return back to the same equilibrium position,
then this equilibrium is called position of stable equilibrium.
(ii) Unstable Equilibrium
If charge is displaced by a small distance from its equilibrium position and the
charge has no tendency to return to the same equilibrium position. Instead, it
goes away from the equilibrium position.
(iii) Neutral Equilibrium
If charge is displaced by a small distance and it is still in equilibrium condition
then it is called neutral equilibrium.
Question: Find out the electrostatic force between two-point charges placed in air (each of
) if they are separated by .
Solution:

Note: From the above result, we can say that 1 charge is too large to realize. In nature,
charge is usually of the order of

Question: A particle of mass m carrying charge is revolving around a fixed charge – in

a circular path of radius . Calculate the period of revolution and its speed also.
Solution:
,
( )
or √
and also we can say that

Question: Two point charges and repel each other with a force of . If a
charge of – is added to each of them, then the force between them will
become
(A) – (B)
(C) (D) –
Solution: (A)
Initially and finally, –

So, –

Question: Equal charges are placed at the four corners of a square of length .
The magnitude of the force on the charge at B will be
(A) (B)
√
(C) ( ) (D) ( )
√
Solution: (C)
After following the guidelines mentioned above
√
Since and
√
√ √
(√ ) ( )

Question: Two equal positive point charges 'Q' are fixed at points B(a, 0) and A(–a, 0).
Another test charge q0 is also placed at 0(0, 0). Show that the equilibrium at '0' is
(i) Stable for displacement along X-axis.
(ii) Unstable for displacement along Y-axis.
Solution:

(i)
⃗ ⃗ |⃗ | |⃗ |
When charge is slightly shifted towards + x axis by a small distance Δx, then.

|⃗ | |⃗ |
Therefore, the particle will move towards origin (its original position). Hence, the
equilibrium is stable.
(ii) When charge is shifted along y axis:

After resolving components, net force will be along y-axis. So, the particle will not return to
its original position & it is unstable equilibrium. Finally, the charge will move to infinity.
3. Electric Field
Electric field is the region around charged particle or charged body in which if another
charge is placed, it experiences electrostatic force.

(a) Electric field intensity ⃗⃗⃗:

Electric field intensity at a point is equal to the electrostatic force experienced by a
unit positive point charge both in magnitude and direction.
If a test charge q0 is placed at a point in an electric field and experiences a force ⃗ due
to some charges (called source charges), the electric field intensity at that point due to
⃗
source charges is given by ⃗⃗
If the ⃗⃗ is to be determined practically then the test charge should be small
otherwise it will affect the charge distribution on the source which is producing the
electric field and hence modify the quantity which is measured.

(b) Properties of Electric Field Intensity ⃗⃗:

 It is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same as the force experienced by positive
charge.
 Direction of electric field due to positive charge is always away from it while due
to negative charge, always towards it.
 Its S.I. unit is Newton/Coulomb.
 Its dimensional formula is
 Electric force on a charge q placed in a region of electric field at a point where the
electric field intensity is ⃗⃗ is given by ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ . Electric force on point charge is in
the same direction of electric field on positive charge and in opposite direction on
a negative charge.
 It obeys the superposition principle, that is, the field intensity at a point due to a
system of charges is vector sum of the field intensities due to individual point
charges. i.e., ⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗ 1 + ⃗⃗ 2 + ⃗⃗ 3 + …
 It is produced by source charges. The electric field will be a fixed value at a point
unless we change the distribution of source charges.

(c) Electric Field due to Point Charge

As discussed earlier, if we find electric field due to a point charge at a distance x from
it. Its magnitude can be given as

(i) Vector Form of Electric Field due to a Point Charge

As shown in figure, the direction of electric field strength at point P is along
the direction of ⃗. Thus, the value of ⃗⃗ can be written as
 ⃗⃗ ̂
or ⃗⃗ ⃗
Note: It should be noted that the expressions stated above are only valid for
point charges. We cannot find electric field strength due to charged
extended bodies by concentrating their whole charge at the geometric
centre and using the result of a point charge.

(d) Electric Field on the Axis of a Uniformly Charged Ring

Consider an element of charge . Due to this element, the electric field at the point
on axis, which is at a distance from the centre of the ring is .
There are two components of this electric field

The y-component of electric field due to all the elements will be cancelled out to each
other. So, net electric field intensity at the point will be only due to -component of
each element.

∫ ∫ ∫ √
∫

E will be max when , that is at and

√
(i) Case (i)
If x >> R, Hence the ring will act like a point charge.
(ii) Case (ii)
If x << R,

(e) Electric Field on the Axis of a Uniformly Charged Disc

The disc can be considered to be a collection of large number of concentric rings.
Consider an element of the shape of rings of radius r and of width . Electric field
due to this ring at is

Put, r2 + x2 = y2

Electric field at P due to all rings is along the axis:

√ √
∫ ∫ * +

* √
+ * √
+
* √
+ along the axis
(i) Case (i)
If x >> R

[ ] [ ( ) ]
√

* +
i.e., behaviour of the disc is like a point charge.
(ii) Case (ii)
If x << R

i.e., behaviour of the disc is like infinite sheet.

Note: Electric field due to an infinite uniformly charged sheet is constant. It does not
matter what the shape of the sheet is. As long as the sheet is infinite in size and
is uniformly charged, its electric field will be
(f) Electric Field due to an Annular Disc
Consider a ring of radius and width concentric with disc and in
the plane of the disc. Due to this ring, the electric field at the point :

∫
x 2 R 2
2πσkx dt
E net 
2  t 3/2
,
x 2 r 2

*√ √
+ away from centre

Alternate method:
We can also use superposition principle to solve this problem.
(i) Assume a disc without hole of radius R having surface charge density +σ.
(ii) Also assume a concentric disc of radius r in the same plane of first disc having
charge density –σ.
Now using derived formula in last example the net electric field at the centre is:
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ * + away from centre.
√ √

(g) Electric Field due to Uniformly Charged Wire

(i) Line charge of finite length
Derivation of expression for intensity of electric field at a point due to line
charge of finite size of uniform linear charge density . The perpendicular
distance of the point from the line charge is r and lines joining ends of line
charge distribution make angle and with the perpendicular line.
 Consider a small element dx on line charge distribution at distance x from
point A (see fig.). The charge of this element will be dq = kdx. Due to this
charge (dq), the intensity of electric field at the point P is dE.
Then
There will be two components of this field:
∫ ∫ ∫

Assuming, x = r tan θ dx = r sec2θ. dθ

So ∫ ∫
…(1)
Similarly, y-component

∫
Net electric field at the point: √
Magnitude of Net electric field
Direction of Net Electric Field: along the angular bisector of the total angle
subtended or along the angular bisector of (θ1 + θ2)

(ii) Uniformly Charged Wire Arc

The magnitude of electric field is same as that for a straight line wire. Also,
the direction of electric field is along the angular bisector
We can derive a result for infinitely long line charge:
θ1 = θ2 = 90°, we can get required result.
 In this case, the net electric field is directed along the angular bisector of the
total angle subtended (θ1 + θ2). That’s to say, the electric field is perpendicular
to the wire.

(iii) For Semi-Infinite wire

θ1 = 90° and θ2 = 0°,
So,

(h) Electric Field due to Uniformly Charged Infinite Sheet

Assume a thin strip of width dx at distance x from line AB (see figure), which can be
considered as a infinite line charge of charge density
Due to this line charge the electric field intensity at point P will be √
Take another element similar to the first element on the other side of Aft Due to
symmetry, Y-component of all such elements will be cancelled out.
So net electric field will be given by:
 ∫ ∫ ∫ √
Assume, x = r tan θ dx = r sec2θ. dθ

∫ √
away from sheet
Note: (1) The direction of electric field is always perpendicular to the sheet.
(2) The magnitude of electric field is independent of distance from sheet.

(i) Electric Field due to Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell

For the outside points & point on the surface the uniformly charged
spherical shell behaves as a point charge placed at the centre

Electric field due to spherical shell outside it is always along the radial direction.

Derivation (without using Gauss’ Law):

Suppose we have a spherical shell of radius and charge uniformly distributed

on its surface. We have to find electric field at a point , which is at a distance ' '
from the centre of the sphere.
For this, we can divide the shell into thin rings. Let's consider a ring making an angle
with the axis and subtending a small angle . Its width will be . (arc radius
angle .
For the points outside the sphere:
Electric field due to this small ring element:
dqx
…….(1)
[ ring radius ]

So, total electric field net ∫

[ ring radius ]
Here, radius of the ring element axial distance of point from the ring

Area of the ring element (length) width (radius of the ring)

charge of the small ring element. We can find dq by unitary method.

In Area, charge is
In unit Area, charge is .
In Area, charge
Putting values of and dq in equation ...(1)
( )
We get out ∫
(The first ring will make angle and the last ring will make . So, limit
will be from to )

Steps of integration: From above integral:

out ∫
Now, let
 Now, when

( )
[ ] ( )
out ∫ ∫

*∫ ∫ ∫ + * +

On solving above, we will get: out if

For the points inside the sphere:

Now lets derive the electric field due to uniformly charged solid sphere at a point 'P'
inside it. The sphere is divided into two parts, the rings on the left part of point '
will produce electric field towards right and the rings on right part will produce
electric field towards left and For this, limit of integration is
divided into two parts.
Electric Electric
field due field due
( )
net ∫ to rings ∫ ( ) to rings
of right of left
( part ) ( part )
As
When ( ) √
When
When
From the result of previous case and just by changing limits we can write
√
in * + * +
√
On solving this expression, we will get and if .
Finding electric field due to shell by integration is very lengthy, so we will not use
this method. The given hand-out was just for knowledge. The best method to find
due to shell is by Gauss theorem which we will study later.

Question: Electrostatic force experienced by –3µC charge placed at point 'P' due to a system
'S' of fixed-point charges as shown in figure is ⃗ ̂ ̂
(i) Find out electric field intensity at point P due to S.
 (ii) If now, 2µC charge is placed and –3µC is removed at point P then force
experienced by it will be.

Solution:
(i) ⃗ ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ( ⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
(ii) Since the source charges are not disturbed the electric field intensity at 'P' will remain
same.
⃗ ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

Question: Two positive point charges q1 =16µC and q2 = 4µC, are separated in vacuum by a
distance of 3.0 m. Find the point on the line between the charges where the net
electric field is zero.
Solution:
Between the charges the two field contributions have opposite directions, and the net electric
field is zero at a point (say P) where the magnitudes of E1 and E2 are equal. However, since
, point P must be closer to q2, in order that the field of the smaller charge can
balance the field of the larger charge.

At P, E1 = E2
or

√ √ …(i)

Also, r1 + r2 = 3.0 m …(ii)

Solving these equations, we get
r1 = 2 m and r2 = 1 m
Thus, the point P is at a distance of 2 m from q1 and 1 m from q2

Question: A charge q = 1µC is placed at point (1m, 2m, 4m). Find the electric field at point P
(0, –4m, 3m).
Solution:
Here, ̂ ̂ ̂
And ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂
or | | √ √
Now, ( )
| |
Substituting the values, we have

̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂

Question: Calculate electric field intensity at 0 in each case shown below.

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

(v)
Solution:
In all the cases, we have n vectors of equal magnitude, such that each vector makes an angle
with adjoining vector. So, Enet = 0

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)
(v)

Question: A uniform electric field is created between two parallel charged plates as shown
in figure shown. An electron enters the field symmetrically between the plates
with a speed . The length of each plate is , find the angle of deviation of the path
of the electron as it comes out of the field.
Solution:
The situation is shown in figure.
Here we know in direction speed of electron remains uniform

In direction
ux = u
In direction
vy initial = 0
Acceleration in y-direction of electron is

( )( )

( )

Question: Two point charges 2µc and –2µc are placed at points A and B as shown in figure.
Find out electric field intensity at points C and D. [All the distances are measured
in meter].
Solution:
Electric field at point C (EA, EB are magnitudes only and arrows represent directions).
Electric field due to positive charge is away from it while due to negative charge, it is
towards the charge. It is clear that EB > EA.

ENet = (EB – EA) towards negative X-axis

towards negative X-axis ̂
√ √
Electric field at point D:
Since magnitude of charges are same and also AD = BD
So, EA = EB
Vertical components of EA and EB cancel each other while horizontal components are in the
same direction.

So,
̂
√ √

A non-conducting solid sphere has volume charge density that varies as , where is
a constant and is distance from centre. Find out electric field intensities at following
positions.
(i) (ii)
Solution:
Method I:
(i) For :
The sphere can be considered to be made of large number of spherical shells. Each shell has
uniform charge density on its surface. So the previous results of the spherical shell can be
used. Consider a shell of radius and thickness as an element. Charge on shell

Electric field intensity at point due to shell,

Since all the shell will have electric field in same direction
∫ ∫ ∫
Due to shells which lie between region , electric field at point will be zero.
⃗⃗ ∫ ∫ * +

(ii) For ⃗⃗ ∫ ∫ ˆ
Method II:
(i) The sphere can be considered to be made of large number of spherical shells. Each
shell has uniform charge density on its surface. So the previous results of the spherical shell
can be used. We can say that all the shells for which point lies inside will make electric field
zero at that point,
∫ ( )
So, ⃗⃗ ˆ
(ii) Similarly, for , all the shells will contribute in electric field. Therefore:
∫ ( )
⃗⃗ ˆ

Question: A Uniformly charged solid non-conducting sphere of uniform volume charge

density and radius is having a concentric spherical cavity of radius . Find out
electric field intensity at following points, as shown in the figure:

(i) Point (ii) Point

(iii)Point (iv) Centre of the sphere
Solution:
Method-I:
(i) For point : We can consider the solid part of sphere to be made of large number of
spherical shells which have uniformly distributed charge on its surface. Now, since point
lies inside all spherical shells so electric field intensity due to all shells will be zero.
‾
(ii) For point B: All the spherical shells for which point lies inside will make electric
field zero at point . So electric field will be due to charge present from radius to .
( ) [ ]
So, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(iii) For point C, similarly we can say that for all the shell points lies outside the shell
* ( )+
So, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Method-II: We can consider that the spherical cavity is filled with charge density and also
, thereby making net charge density zero after combining. We can consider two concentric
solid spheres: One of radius and charge density and other of radius and charge density
. Applying superposition principle:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ * +
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

* + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ * + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
( ) ( )
(iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

(iv) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Question: Figure shows a uniformly charged sphere of radius and total

charge . A point charge is situated outside the sphere at a distance from
centre of sphere. Find out the following:
(i) Force acting on the point charge due to the sphere.
(ii) Force acting on the sphere due to the point charge.
Solution:
(i) Electric field at the position of point charge ⃗⃗ ˆ
So, ⃗ ˆ ⃗
(ii) Since we know that every action has equal and opposite reaction so ⃗ sphere ˆ
⃗⃗

Question: Two concentric uniformly charged spherical shells of radius and

have total charges and respectively. Derive an expression of electric field as
a function of for following positions.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Solution:
(i) For , therefore, point lies inside both the spheres
 net nner outer
(ii) For , point lies outside inner sphere but inside outer sphere:
net inner outer

ˆ ˆ
(iii) For
point lies outside inner as well as outer sphere.
Therefore, Net inner outer ˆ ˆ ˆ

4. Electric Field Lines and Electric Flux

(a) Electric Lines of Force (ELOF)
The line of force in an electric field is an imaginary line, the tangent to which at any
point on it represents the direction of electric field at the given point.
Properties:
 Line of force originates out from a positive charge and terminates on a negative
charge. If there is only one positive charge, then lines start from positive charge
and terminates at . If there is only one negative charge, then lines start from
and terminates at negative charge.

 Two lines of force never intersect each other because there cannot be two
directions of ⃗⃗ at a single point.

 Electric lines of force produced by static charges do not form closed loop.
If lines of force make a closed loop, then work done to move charge along
the loop will be non-zero. So it will not be conservative field. So these type of
lines of force are not possible in electrostatics.
  The Number of lines per unit area (line density) represents the magnitude of
electric field.

If lines are dense will be more

If Lines are rare will be less and if , no line of force will be found
there
 Number of lines originating (terminating) at a charge is proportional to the
magnitude of charge
 Electric lines of force end or start perpendicularly on the surface of a conductor.
 Electric lines of force never enter into conductors.

(b) Electric Flux

Electric Flux represents the number of field lines passing through a given area.
Mathematically, Electric flux can be defined as follows:
Consider some surface in an electric field ⃗⃗ . Let us select a small area element ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ on
this surface. The electric flux of the field over the area element is given by
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is normal to the surface. It is along ˆ .

or
or
or
Where is the component of electric field in the direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
The electric flux over the whole area is given by ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫
If the electric field is uniform over that area then ⃗⃗ ⃗
Physical Meaning: The electric flux through a surface inside an electric field
represents the total number of electric lines of force crossing the surface. It is a
property of electric field
Unit:
 The unit of electric flux is (Gauss) or .
 Electric flux is a scalar quantity. (It can be positive, negative or zero)

Special Cases:
(i) Case I
If the electric field is normal to the surface, then angle of electric field ⃗⃗ with
normal will be zero

So or

(ii) Case II
If electric field is parallel of the surface (grazing), then angle made by ⃗⃗ with
normal

So

(iii) Case III

Curved surface in uniform electric field
Suppose a circular surface of radius is placed in a uniform electric field as
shown.

Flux passing through the surface

 Now suppose, a hemispherical surface, is placed in the electric field. Flux
through hemispherical surface:

∫
∫
where, ∫ is projection of the spherical surface area on base.
∫
So,
Same answer as in previous case
So, we can conclude that
If the number of electric field lines passing through two surfaces are same then
flux passing through these surfaces will also be same, irrespective of the shape
of surface

(iv) Case IV

Flux through a closed surface: Suppose there is a spherical surface and a

charge ' ' is placed at centre.
Flux through the spherical surface
∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ (as ⃗⃗ is along ds (normal))
∫ where, ∫

( )
Now if the charge is enclosed by any other closed surface, still same
number of lines of force will pass through the surface.
So, here also flux will be . That's what Gauss Theorem is.
Question: If number of electric lines of force from charge are 10, then find out number of
electric lines of force from charge.
Solution:
No. of ELOF charge

So, number of ELOF will be 20

Question: A charge is fixed at a distance in front of an infinite metal plate. Draw the
lines of force indicating the directions clearly.
Solution:
There will be induced charge on two surfaces of conducting plate, so ELOF will start from
charge and terminate at conductor and then will again start from other surface of
conductor.

Question: If a charge is released in electric field, will it follow lines of force?

Solution:
Case I: If lines of force are parallel (in uniform electric field):
In this type of field, if a charge is released, force on it will be and its direction will be
along.
So, the charge will move in a straight line, along the lines of force.
Case II: If lines of force are curved (in non-uniform electric field):

The charge will not follow lines of force.

Question: The electric field in a region is given by ⃗⃗ ˆ ˆ with

. Find the flux of this field through a rectangular surface of area
parallel to the plane.
Solution:
⃗⃗ ⃗ ( ˆ ˆ) ˆ

Question: A point charge is placed at the corner of a square of side , then find the flux
through the square.

Solution:
The electric field due to at any point of the square will be along the plane of square and the
electric field lines are perpendicular to square; so . In other words, we can say that no
line is crossing the square so, flux .

Question: A uniform electric field ˆ ˆ ˆ exists in a region. A cube of side a

is placed with one vertex at origin and 3 edges coinciding with coordinate axis.
Calculate the flux of electric field through each face of the cube and total flux
through the cube.
Solution:
Solution:
Area of each face
(outward)
(inward)
(outward)
(inward)
(outward)
(inward)
Total
Note: This is a point to remember that flux of electric field through any closed surface is zero
in a uniform electric field.

5. Gauss's Law in Electrostatics or Gauss's Theorem

This law was stated by a mathematician Karl F Gauss. This law gives the relation
between the electric field at a point on a closed surface and the net charge enclosed by
that surface. This surface is called Gaussian surface. It is a closed hypothetical surface. Its
validity is shown by experiments. It is used to determine the electric field due to some
symmetric charge distributions.

Gauss's law is stated as given below:

The surface integral of the electric field intensity over any closed hypothetical surface
(called Gaussian surface) in free space is equal to times the total charge enclosed
within the surface. Here, is the permittivity of free space.
If is the Gaussian surface and is the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian
surface, then according to Gauss's law,
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The circle on the sign of integration indicates that the integration is to be carried out over
the closed surface.
Gauss' Law in Differential Form:
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Here is the volume charge density at a point.

(a) Some Important points

 Flux through Gaussian surface is independent of its shape.
 Flux through Gaussian surface depends only on total charge present inside
Gaussian surface.
 Flux through Gaussian surface is independent of position of charges inside
Gaussian surface.
 Electric field intensity at the Gaussian surface is due to all the charges present
inside as well as outside the Gaussian surface.
 In a closed surface incoming flux is taken negative, while outgoing flux is taken
positive, because ˆ is taken positive in outward direction.
 In a Gaussian surface, does not imply at every point of the surface
but at every point implies .

(b) Finding electric field from Gauss' Law

in
From Gauss's theorem, we can say ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Gauss's law provides a convenient tool for evaluating electric field. Earlier, we have
been calculating electric field due to various charge distributions using Coulomb's
law. But these involved extensive use of integration. Gauss's law gives an alternate
way to evaluate electric field. However, its application is limited only to systems that
possess certain symmetry, namely, systems with cylindrical, planar and spherical
symmetry. In the table below, we give some example of system in which Gauss's law
is applicable for determining electric field, with the corresponding Gaussian surfaces:
Symmetry System Gaussian Surface

Cylindrical Infinite rod Coaxial Cylinder

Planar Infinite plane Gaussian "Pillbox"

Spherical Sphere, Spherical shell Concentric Sphere

The following steps may be useful when applying Gauss's law:

 Identify the symmetry associated with the charge distribution.
 Determine the direction of the electric field, and a "Gaussian surface" on which
the magnitude of the electric field is constant over portions of the surface.
 Divide the space into different regions associated with the charge distribution. For
each region, calculate en the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
 Calculate the electric flux through the Gaussian surface for each region.

(i) Electric Field due to a Point Charge

 First, we shall look for the symmetry of the field. Clearly the field is
spherically symmetric. If we enclose the charge in a sphere of radius , the
magnitude of electric field will be same at any point on the surface.
⃗⃗ ‾

By Gauss law,

(This is the same result as given by Coulomb's law.)

(ii) Electric Field due to a Charged Conducting Sphere (Charge Q, Radius R)

The charge will be uniformly distributed on the outer surface of the spherical
body. Since the charge distribution in both the cases is same, the electric field
will also have the same function.
Electric field outside the spherical shell:

Since electric field due to a shell will be radially outwards. So, let’s choose a
spherical Gaussian surface.
Applying Gauss's theorem for this spherical Gaussian surface,
in
∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ net

∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (Because ⃗⃗ is normal to the surface)

∫ (Because value of is constant at the surface)
( ∫ total area of the spherical surface
 out

Electric field inside the spherical shell:

Let choose a spherical Gaussian surface inside the shell. Applying Gauss's
theorem for this surface
in
∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫

Variation of with is also shown graphically here.

(iii) Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged Non-Conducting Sphere

(Charge Q, Radius R)
Electric field outside the sphere:

Direction of electric field is radially outwards, so we will choose a spherical

Gaussian surface Applying Gauss's theorem
in
∫ ⃗⃗

∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 or out

Electric field inside a solid sphere:

For this choose a spherical Gaussian surface inside the solid sphere Applying
Gauss's theorem for this surface

in
∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

in
Variation of Electric Field is shown graphically here:

(iv) Electric Field due to Infinite Line Charge (having uniformly distributed
charge of charge density λ)
First, we shall look for the symmetry of electric field. Consider any point at
a distance from the line charge. The resultant of ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ is along -axis
i.e., in a direction normal to the line charge.
If a long linear charge distribution is kept along -axis, at any point, field is
directed radially away from -axis. The field has a cylindrical symmetry.
To find electric field, we enclose the distribution in a Gaussian cylinder of
radius and length

Electric field due to infinitely wire is radial so we will choose cylindrical

Gaussian surface as shown is figure:

∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ∫

Variation of with is also shown graphically here.

(v) Electric field due to Infinitely Long Charged Tube (having Uniform
Surface Charge Density and Radius )
E outside the tube:
Lets choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length :
in
net out

inside the tube:

Lets choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface inside the tube.
in
net

So

Variation of Electric Field is shown graphically here:

(vi) E due to infinitely Long Solid Cylinder of Radius (having Volume
charge density )
at outside point:
Let choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface. Applying Gauss's theorem:

in

out

at inside point:
Let choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface inside the solid cylinder. Applying
Gauss's theorem
 in

(vii) Electric Field due to an Infinite, Thin non-conducting sheet

Consider an infinitely large non-conducting plane in the xy-plane with
uniform surface charge density . We shall determine the electric field
everywhere in space.
An infinitely large plane possesses a planar symmetry.
Since the charge is uniformly distributed on the surface, the electric field must
point perpendicular away from the plane ⃗⃗ ˆ . The magnitude of the
electric field is constant on planes parallel to the non-conducting plane.

Since the surface charge distribution is uniform the charge enclosed by the
Gaussian "pillbox" is enc . where is the area of the end-
caps.
The total flux through the Gaussian pillbox is
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Since the two ends are at the same distance from the plane, by symmetry, the
magnitude of the electric field must be the same: . Hence, the
total flux can be rewritten as .
By applying Gauss's law, we obtain
enc

Which gives,
In unit-vector notation, we have
In unit-vector notation, we have
ˆ
⃗⃗ {
ˆ

Thus, we see that the electric field due to an infinite large non-conducting
plane is uniform in space. The result, plotted in figure, is the same as that
obtained in using Coulomb's law.

 Applications of above result

Two parallel sheets are given surface charge densities and . Electric
fields in different regions are as shown

Consider the following specific cases:

 When , the situation will be like the one shown below

 When , the situation will be like the one shown below

Question: Find out flux through the given Gaussian surface.

Solution:
in

Question: Find flux through the hemispherical surface

Solution:
(i) Flux through the hemispherical surface due to (we have seen in previous
examples)
(ii) Flux through the hemispherical surface due to is 0, because due to , field
lines entering the surface field lines coming out of the surface.

Question: If a point charge is placed at the centre of a cube, then find out flux through any
one face of cube.
Solution:
Flux through all 6 faces . Since, all the surfaces are symmetrical
So, flux through one face
Question: Figure shows a long thread along the axis of a long hollow cylinder. The charge
per unit length of thread is , while that of the cylinder is . The radius of
cylinder is . What is the electric field at radial distance from the axis for (i)
(ii) ?

Solution:
(i) . This point lies inside the cylinder
(due to thread only)

(ii) . This point lies outside the cylinder

(due to thread) (due to cylinder)
The field is limited to the region inside the cylinder.

6. Electric Dipole
If two point charges, equal in magnitude ' ' and opposite in sign separated by a distance '
' such that the distance of field point , the system is called a dipole. The electric
dipole moment is defined as a vector quantity having magnitude and
direction from negative charge to positive charge.
The C.G.S unit of electric dipole moment is debye which is defined as the dipole moment
of two equal and opposite point charges each having charge Franklin and
separation of , i.e.,
1 debye (D)
Or .
S.I. Unit is coulomb metre

Note: In chemistry, the direction of dipole moment is assumed to be from positive to

negative charge.

(a) Electric Field Intensity Due to Dipole

(i) On the Axis of the dipole
 Net electric field at ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, where ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ are fields due to and
respectively
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ˆ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ˆ
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ * +ˆ
⃗⃗ * +ˆ
ˆ ˆ
⃗⃗ ⃗ ˆ
⃗
⃗⃗
For a short dipole, a is very small in comparison

⃗
⃗⃗ i.e., ⃗⃗

(ii) On the Equatorial Plane

⃗ ˆ
Electric field vector due to is
⃗⃗ ˆ ˆ
Electric field vector due to is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ˆ ˆ
Resultant field at is ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
ˆ
⃗⃗
ˆ
⃗⃗ * +
√ √
ˆ
⃗⃗
⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗ ˆ

⃗
⃗⃗ i.e., ⃗⃗
 (iii) At any Point

The result that is being derived here is applicable only for a short dipole of
dipole moment ⃗.
Consider a point , at a distance from a short dipole such the position vector
of point w.r.t. The dipole makes an angle with the dipole moment vector.
The net electric field ⃗⃗ at point is made of two components ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ is
generated by the component of dipole moment vector along the line
given as
( )
⃗⃗ is generated by the component of dipole moment vector to line (i.e.,
) given as
( )
Now,
√
√

The direction is given by ( ) ( ).

The field vector ⃗⃗ makes an angle ( ) with the dipole moment

vector.

(b) Electric Dipole in a Uniform External Electric Field

(i) Dipole is placed along Electric Field

In this case, net net , so it is an equilibrium state. And it is a stable

equilibrium position.

(ii) If the Dipole is placed at Angle θ from ⃗⃗

 In this case net but
Net torque (a)
Here
in vector form: ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

(c) Dipole in Non-Uniform External Electric Field

If the dipole is placed along ⃗⃗ , (shown in figure)

Then, Net force on the dipole: net

here net ( )

(i) Situation 1

Here ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
Note: -ve sign indicates that the force is attractive in nature.

(ii) Situation 2

Clearly
Question: The electric field due to a short dipole at a distance r, on the axial line, from its
mid-point is the same as that of electric field at a distance ', on the equatorial
line, from its mid-point. Determine the ratio .
Solution:

or

or
or,

Question: Two charges are placed apart as shown in figure. Determine

the electric field at a point which is away from , on the equatorial line.
Solution:
In the given problem,

or

Question: Two-point masses of mass and equal and opposite charge of magnitude are
attached on the corners of a non-conducting uniform rod of mass and the
system is released from rest in uniform electric field as shown in figure from

(i) Find angular acceleration of the rod just after releasing

(ii) What will be angular velocity of the rod when it passes through stable
equilibrium.
(iii)Find work required to rotate the system by .
Solution:
(i) net
 ( )

( ) ( )

(ii) From energy conservation:

where ( ) ( )

or √
(iii) ext

ext ( )
or ext ( ) ( ) ext ( )

Question: Two short dipoles ( and ) with their moments and respectively are placed
as shown in figure. Find

(i) Torque on due to

(ii) Potential energy of in the field of
(iii)Force on due to
Solution:
(i) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
(ii) Potential Energy ⃗ ⃗⃗

(iii) For Force * +

Question: Find force on short dipole due to short dipole if they are placed a distance
apart as shown in figure.

Solution:
 ( )
or net ( )
(Usually this formula is valid when the dipole is placed along ⃗⃗ . However, in this case also,
we are getting the same formula)

net ( ( ))

net (in magnitude) & (direction upwards)

Question: A short dipole is placed on the axis of a uniformly charged ring (total charge ,
radius ) at a distance from centre of ring as shown in figure. Find the Force
√
on the dipole due to the ring

Solution:
( )
( ) ( at )
√
Solving we get,

Question: A short dipole of dipole moment is placed near a point charge as shown in
figure. Find force on the dipole due to the point charge

Solution:

Force on the point charge due to the dipole dipole

( ) (Towards right)
From action reaction concept, force on the dipole due to point charge will be equal to the
force on charge due to dipole
(Towards left)
Summary
 Electric and magnetic forces determine the properties of atoms, molecules and bulk
matter.
 From simple experiments on frictional electricity, one can infer that there are two types of
charges in nature. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. By convention, the
charge on a glass rod rubbed with silk is positive; that on a plastic rod rubbed with fur is
then negative.
 Conductors allow movement of electric charge through them, insulators do not. In metals,
the mobile charges are electrons; in electrolytes both positive and negative ions are
mobile.
 Electric charge has three basic properties: quantisation, additivity and conservation.
 Quantisation of electric charge means that total charge of a body is always an
integral multiple of a basic quantum of charge i.e., , where
. Proton and electron have charges , respectively. For
macroscopic charges for which is a very large number, quantisation of charge can
be ignored.
 Additivity of electric charges means that the total charge of a system is the algebraic
sum (i.e., the sum taking into account proper signs) of all individual charges in the
system.
 Conservation of electric charges means that the total charge of an isolated system
remains unchanged with time. This means that when bodies are charged through
friction, there is a transfer of electric charge from one body to another, but no creation
or destruction of charge.
 Coulomb's Law: The mutual electrostatic force between two point charges and is
proportional to the product and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
separating them. Mathematically,
⃗⃗ force on due to ˆ
where ˆ is a unit vector in the direction from to and is the constant of
proportionality.
In SI units, the unit of charge is coulomb. The experimental value of the constant is

The approximate value of is

 The ratio of electric force and gravitational force between a proton and an electron is

 Superposition Principle: The principle is based on the property that the forces with which
two charges attract or repel each other are not affected by the presence of a third (or
more) additional charge(s). For an assembly of charges , the force on any
charge, say , is the vector sum of the force on due to , the force on due to ,
and so on. For each pair, the force is given by the Coulomb's law for two charges stated
earlier.
 The electric field ⃗⃗ at a point due to a charge configuration is the force on a small positive
test charge placed at the point divided by the magnitude of the charge. Electric field due
to a point charge has a magnitude ; it is radially outwards from , if is
positive, and radially inwards if is negative. Like Coulomb force, electric field also
satisfies superposition principle.
 An electric field line is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent at each point on the
curve gives the direction of electric field at that point. The relative closeness of field lines
indicates the relative strength of electric field at different points; they crowd near each
other in regions of strong electric field and are far apart where the electric field is weak.
In regions of constant electric field, the field lines are uniformly spaced parallel straight
lines.
 Some of the important properties of field lines are: (i) Field lines are continuous curves
without any breaks. (ii) Two field lines cannot cross each other. (iii) Electrostatic field
lines start at positive charges and end at negative charges - they cannot form closed loops.
 An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges and separated by some
distance . Its dipole moment vector has magnitude and is in the direction of the
dipole axis from to .
 Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane (i.e., the plane perpendicular to its axis
and passing through its centre) at a distance from the centre:
⃗⃗
⃗⃗

⃗⃗
for
Dipole electric field on the axis at a distance from the centre:
⃗⃗
⃗⃗

⃗⃗
for

The dependence of dipole electric fields should be noted in contrast to the

dependence of electric field due to a point charge.
 In a uniform electric field ⃗⃗, a dipole experiences a torque given by
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
but experiences no net force.
 The flux of electric field through a small area element is given by
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
The vector area element is
⃗⃗ ˆ
where is the magnitude of the area element and ˆ is normal to the area element, which
can be considered planar for sufficiently small . For an area element of a closed
surface, ˆ is taken to be the direction of outward normal, by convention.
 Gauss's law: The flux of electric field through any closed surface is times the total
charge enclosed by . The law is especially useful in determining electric field ⃗⃗, when
the source distribution has simple symmetry:
 Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge density
⃗⃗ ˆ

where is the perpendicular distance of the point from the wire and ˆ is the radial
unit vector in the plane normal to the wire passing through the point.
 Infinite thin plane sheet of uniform surface charge density
 ⃗⃗ ˆ

where ˆ is a unit vector normal to the plane, outward on either side.

 Thin spherical shell of uniform surface charge density
⃗⃗ ˆ
⃗⃗
where is the distance of the point from the centre of the shell and the radius of the
shell. is the total charge of the shell: .
The electric field outside the shell is as though the total charge is concentrated at the
centre. The same result is true for a solid sphere of uniform volume charge density.
The field is zero at all points inside the shell.

Some Important Questions

Question: In 1 g of a solid, there are 5 × 1021 atoms. If one electron is removed from
everyone of 0.01% atoms of the solid, the charge gained by the solid is (given that electronic
charge is 1.6 × 10–19 )
(A) +0.08 C (B) +0.8 C (C) –0.08 C (D) –0.8 C
Solution: (A)
To calculate charge, we will apply formula for this, we must have number of
21
electrons. Here, number of electrons = .01% of 5 × 10
i.e.,
So, = 5 × 1017 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 8 ×10–2 = 0.08
Since electrons have been removed, charge will be positive i.e., = +0.08 C

Question: A point charge is placed at point (1, 0, 2) m and another point

charge is placed at point (4, 4, 2) . Find:
(i) Magnitude of electrostatic interaction force acting between them
(ii) Find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (force on A due to B) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (force on due to ) in vector form
Solution:

(i)
( )( )( )
Value of ⃗
(√ )
( )( )( )
(ii) Force on B, ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ ˆ ˆ
(√ )
ˆ
 ( ˆ ˆ)
Similarly, ⃗ ( ̂ ̂)
Note: Action ( ⃗ ) and Reaction ( ⃗ ) are equal but in opposite direction.

Question: is a right-angle triangle in which , and

. The three charges +15, +12 and –20 are placed respectively on
and . The force acting on B is
(A) 125 dynes (B) 35 dynes
(C) 25 dynes (D) Zero
Solution: (C)

Net force on B √
20

15
= 25 dynes

Question: A particle A having a charge is fixed on a vertical wall. A

second particle B of mass and having equal charge is suspended by a silk
thread of length 30 cm from the wall. The point of suspension is above the
particle A. Find the angle of thread with vertical when it stays in equilibrium.
Solution:
The situation is shown in figure.
Here the forces acting on bob B can be shown as FBD of B is
Using Lami's theorem, we get

( )

or

or

or

On solving we get, θ = 17°

Question: Three equal point charges of charge +q each are moving along a circle of radius R
and a point charge –2q is also placed at the centre of circle (as shown in figure). If
charges are revolving with constant and same speed in the circle then calculate
speed of charges.

Solution:

( )
√
 √ * +
√

Question: A small point mass m has a charge q, which is constrained to move inside a
narrow frictionless cylinder. At the base of the cylinder is a point mass of charge
Q having the same sign as q. Show that if the mass m is displaced by a small
amount from, its equilibrium position and released, it will exhibit simple harmonic
motion with angular frequency (1) = (2g/y0)1/2 where y0 is the equilibrium position
of charge q.
Solution:
In equilibrium position, gravitational force is balanced by Coulombic repulsive force

If charge q is displaced in positive y-direction, such that y << y0 from Newton's second law,

* +

or * + or

Which is equation for SHM with √

Question: Four identical charges are fixed at the corners of a square of side . A fifth point
charge –Q lies a distance z along the line perpendicular to the plane of the square.
 Show that for the motion of –Q is simple harmonic. What would be the
period of motion, if the mass of –Q is m? (Neglect gravitational force.)
Solution:
We consider two diagonally opposite charges. They exert attractive forces on charge – . The
horizontal component of farce cancels, whereas vertical components add, similarly for
other two diagonally opposite charges only vertical component remains.
⃗ ̂ ̂
( )
( )

̂
( )

⃗
For z << a, we may neglect z2 term in the denominator.
Thus, ⃗

⃗
Comparing acceleration with equation of SHM, a = –ω2z

Question: A particle of mass m and charge q is released at rest in a uniform field of

magnitude E. The uniform field is created between two parallel plates of charge
density +σ and –σ respectively. The particle accelerates towards the other plate a
distance d away. Determine the speed at which it strikes the opposite plate.

Assume the value of electric field to be ‘E0’, distance between the plates to be 'd',
charge and mass od particle to be 'q' & ‘m’.
Solution:
The applied electric field is
⃗⃗ ˆ
The force experienced by the charge q,
⃗ ⃗⃗ ˆ
The force is constant, and so the acceleration is constant as well
⃗
⃗ ˆ
Due to constant acceleration the particle moves in y-direction; the problem is analogous to
motion of a mass released from rest in a gravitational field.
From equations of motion,
Vy = vy0 + ayt
 …(1)
And
...(2)
Particle starts at y0 = d and impact occurs at y = 0.
From eqn. (2),
( )
From eqn. (1),
( )
Method 2. We can use work-energy theorem.
W=Δ E
They only force acting on the charge is the electric force
⃗ ˆ
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ˆ
ˆ ˆ
( )
( )

Question: A particle of charge q and mass m moves rectilinearly under the action of an
electric field – where B is a positive constant and x is a distance from
the point where the particles was initially at rest. Calculate:
(i) distance travelled by the particle till it comes to rest and
(ii) acceleration at that moment.
Solution:
Method 1: Force acting on the charged particle as function of x is
–
From Newton's second law, we have

Or
Or ∫ ∫

Or ( )
When the particle comes to rest momentarily,
v = 0, i.e., Ax
i.e.,
The two values of x correspond to initial position and desired position,
Acceleration at this instant,
( )
Method 2: The particle' will come to rest when its kinetic energy is zero,
i.e., ∫ ∫

i.e.,
And acceleration ( )

√ √

Question: Calculate the electric field of a dipole at a point located a distance from the
centre of the dipole along its axis as shown

Also find the expression of the field if

Solution:
Explain what a dipole is. Two equal and opposite point charges held at some separation (la' in
this case)
The positive charge creates a field ⃗⃗ at P directed away from it, as shown in figure.
The negative charge creates a field ⃗⃗ at P directed towards it,
The resultant field at P is the vector sum of these fields.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ̂
⃗⃗ ̂
⃗⃗ * + ̂

[( ) ( ) ] ̂
If we can use binomial expansion to simplify the above expression,
n
(1 + x) =1+ nx for x << 1
Thus, ⃗⃗ ,* ( )+ * ( )+- ̂

̂
As magnitude of dipole moment: vector ⃗⃗ =|Q| a, therefore the field is,
⃗⃗ ̂

Question: Four equal positive charges each of value are arranged at the four corners of a
square of side . A unit positive charge mass is placed at , at a height h above
the centre of the square. What should be the value of in order that this unit
charge is in equilibrium.
Solution:
The situation is shown in figure (A)

Force experienced by unit positive charge placed at due to a charge at is given by

( )

Similarly, equal forces act on unit positive charge at P due to charge at B, C and D. When
these forces are resolved in horizontal and vertical directions, the horizontal component (F sin
θ) cancel each other and the net vertical force is 4F cos θ.
Thus, net upward force
( )

For the equilibrium of unit positive charge at ,

Upward force Weight of unit charge
( )

From figure (B)

{ }
√

Or
( )

Or ( )

Question: A solid non conducting sphere of radius and uniform volume charge density
has its centre at origin. Find out electric field intensity in vector form at following
positions:
(i) (ii) ( )
√ √
(iii)
Solution:
(i) At :
Distance of point from centre √
so point lies inside the sphere, so ⃗⃗ * ˆ+

(ii) At ( )
√ √

distance of point from centre √ √ √ , so point lies at the

surface of sphere, therefore
⃗⃗ ⃗ * ˆ ˆ+ * ˆ ˆ+
√ √ √ √
(iii) The point is outside the sphere

So, ⃗⃗ ⃗ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
√ √

Question: Derive an expression for electric field due to solid sphere of radius and total
charge which is uniformly distributed in the volume, at a point which is at a
distance from centre for given two cases.

(i) (ii)
Solution:
Assume an elementary concentric shell of charge . Due to this shell, the electric field at the
point will be:
[from above result of hollow sphere]
 ∫
For , there will be no electric field due to shell of radius greater than , so electric field
at the point will be present only due to shells having radius less than .

net

Here,

net
away from the centre.
Note: The electric field inside and outside the sphere is always in radial direction.

Question: There exists a uniform electric field ˆ ˆ ˆ in a region. Calculate the

flux of electric field through the surfaces bounded by the following curves.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Solution:
This is a case of uniform electric field. So you can straightaway apply ⃗⃗ ⃗
(i) is a circle of radius lying in plane.
⃗ ˆ
⃗⃗ ⃗ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
(ii) is a circle of radius in -z plane.
⃗ ˆ
⃗⃗ ⃗
(iii) is a circle of radius in plane.
⃗ ˆ
⃗⃗ ⃗

Find the electric flux due to a point charge 'Q' through the circular region of radius if the
charge is placed on the axis of ring at a distance .

Solution:
We can divide the circular region into small rings.

Lets take a ring of radius and width .

Flux through this small element
net ∫ ∫ (√ ) * √
+

Question: A point charge is placed at the centre of curvature of a hemisphere. Find flux
through the hemispherical surface.

Solution:
Let’s put an upper half hemisphere.
Now, flux passing through the entire sphere

As the charge is symmetrical to the upper half and lower half hemispheres, so half-half flux
will emit from both the surfaces.

Question: Two concentric shells of radii and carry charge and (uniformly
distributed) respectively . Calculate electric field at radial distance from
the centre for
(i)
(ii)
 (iii) .
Represent this field graphically.
Solution:
(i) . This point lies inside inner shell. due to both the shells. Thus, net field
is zero.
(ii) . This point lies in between the shells i.e., outside inner shell, but inside
outer shell
directed radially outward (due to inner shell only)
(iii) . This point lies outside outer shell.
(due to inner shell) (due to outer shell)
directed radially outward

Graph: The field remains zero for . It suddenly becomes non-zero as soon as
exceeds a. Then it decreases as .

It suddenly increases (assuming and to be of same sign) as soon as exceeds .

Again, for . Here the following graph is obtained.

Question: A large plane conducting sheet is given a charge so that its surface charge density
becomes . Describe the electric field produced by it, inside the sheet and outside
the sheet.
Solution:
 inside the conductor, as fields due to charge on both the surfaces are opposing and
therefore cancel out.
Outside, fields due to charge on both surfaces add giving resultant field

Question: Find the locus of all the points where the resultant ⃗⃗ field will always have a
bearing of 45° with the axis of a short dipole.
Solution:
(Given) …(i)
(from the theory of dipole) …(ii)
From (i) & (ii), we get
( )

√
or

Question: Two charges, each of but opposite in sign, are placed apart. Calculate
the electric field intensity of a point that is at a distance from the mid point
on the axial line of the dipole.
Solution:
We cannot use formula of short dipole here because distance
of the point is comparable to the distance between the two
point charges.

res

Question: Find force on short dipole due to short dipole if they are placed at a distance
a part as shown in figure.

Solution:
Force on due to
 ( )
( ( )) or
Here - sign indicates that this force will be attractive (opposite to )

Question: A short dipole of dipole moment is placed near a point charge as shown in
figure. Find force on the dipole due to the point charge.

Solution:
Force on the point charge due to dipole (Edipole)

( )
So, force on the dipole due to the point charge will also be
( ) (Opposite direction)