Unit 1 (SPD) Q2) Project Portfolio Management

Q1) WHAT IS A PROJECT? Project Portfolio Management provides an overview of all

A project is a series of task that is carefully planned to the projects that an organization is undertaking or is
achieve a particular by either individual or a team. A considering. It is the assemblage of all the different
project is defined as a planned outcome. Project can projects, Programs and all the other functionaries of the
range from simple to complex and can be managed company which lead to the overall growth of the company.
undertaking of series of activities in the beginning to Portfolio management gives a sketch of the different
achieve the desired goals. Generally, it is undertaken to projects the company is considering and based on
explore new and unique methods precedence the fund allocation is done by the company. It
which will be far better than the old products or services. also helps to provide effective governance to meet the
Its main aim is to accomplish the desired objectives by strategic business objectivesCompanies do portfolio
incorporating interrelated tasks in a managements with the aim of including projects which
time bound manner along with funds and proper maximize the portfolio value andexclude the projects
utilization of resources. A general definition of Project is: which are a potential threat to the company’s
“It is a temporary endeavor with set of portfolio valuation. Some major applications of portfolio
well-defined activities that leads achievement of a management are risk examination, reduce or completely
specific goal(s)”. stop wastage of resources, keep track of ongoing projects,
1.2.1 Characteristics of a project do proper fund allocation. Some major aspects of project
A project has the following characteristics. portfolio management are
• Project has specific goal(s) A) Project portfolio definition – The company must have
• It has a definite start date and end date. the details of the projects of the company and a resolution
• It is not group of routine task or daily task must be taken about which types ofprojects are to be
• Unlike routine activities, project comes to end when its included whether it should include only renewal projects or
goal(s) is only new projects.
achieved B) Project Portfolio Management – After the creation of
• Every project requires enough resources in terms of the portfolio the progress of the project can be tracked, and
time, skilled the detailed costings can also be recorded.
workforce, budget, material, and other support C) Project Portfolio Optimization – Some projects may
have huge profits while some projects may have modest
profits, there are extremely knowledgeable managers
which have the knowledge of
tracking the performance on a regular basis and a
Q3) Risk Evaluation
Risk evaluation in Software Project Development (SPD) 3) Risk Prioritization
refers to the process of identifying, analyzing, and Risk prioritization involves ranking the risks based on the
assessing potential risks that could impact the success of assessment of their probability and impact. High-priority
a software project. It involves understanding the risks require immediate attention and mitigation planning,
probability of risks occurring, their potential impact, and while lower-priority risks can be monitored over time or
deciding on appropriate strategies for mitigating or addressed if they arise.
managing these risks. Proper risk evaluation ensures that
a project can proceed smoothly by preparing for possible 4) Risk Mitigation and Control
challenges and minimizing their impact. Once risks are prioritized, appropriate mitigation strategies
Key Components of Risk Evaluation in SPD need to be devised. Risk mitigation involves actions to
1 )Risk Identification reduce the likelihood of a risk occurring or minimizing its
The first step in evaluating risks is identifying potential impact if it does happen. These strategies can include:
risks that might affect the software development project. 5) Risk Response Planning
These risks can arise from multiple sources, such as For high-priority risks, a detailed risk response plan is
technical challenges, schedule delays, budget overruns, or developed. This plan outlines how the team will respond if
external factors like regulatory changes. a specific risk event occurs. It includes:
2) Risk Assessment (Analysis) Trigger events: Specific circumstances or indicators that
After identifying the risks, the next step is to assess the signal the onset of a risk.
probability of each risk occurring and the impact it Response actions: Detailed steps to take when the risk
would have on the project if it did occur. This helps occurs.
prioritize which risks require more attention and Responsible persons: Identifying who in the team is
mitigation responsible for executing the risk response.
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 Elements of the project charter
Q4) What is Project Charter In a nutshell, the elements of the project charter which
A project charter is a formal, characteristically brief serves the
document that describes the project in its wholeness — following are: -
including what the objectives are,how it will be carried i. Reasons for the project ii. Objectives and constraints of
out, and who all are the stakeholders in the project.It is a the project iii. The main stakeholders
critical component in planning the project because it is iv. Risks identified v. Benefits of the project
used throughout the project life cycle. A project charter vi. General overview of the budget
explains the project in clear, concise wording for high Benefits of project charter
level management. Project charters summarizes the Some of the benefits of project charter are as follows:
entirety of projects to support teams rapidly comprehend 1 .It improves the customer relationship
the goals, tasks, timelines, and stakeholders. The 2. It improves project management methods
document provides key information about a project and 3. Expands and enhances the regional and headquarters
provides approval to start the project. Therefore, it serves communications
as a formal announcement that a new approved project 4. Supports in gaining project funding
is about to commence Contained also in the project 5.It recognizes senior management roles and authorities
charter is the appointment of the project manager, the 6 )Allows development, which is meant at achieving
person who is overall responsible for the project. industry best practices
The project charter is a final official document that is
prepared in accordance with the mission and visions of
the company along with the deadlines and the milestones
to be achieved in the project.

Q5) What is business case

Business case states the reasons to adopt the project i) Formation of the project team – a teamwork is required
charter. It provides the justification for undertaking a to develop a business case and the team includes the
project, programmed or portfolio. It is very similar to an stakeholders, users, project team and IT experts. This team
investment proposal. It evaluates the benefit, cost and risk is formed with the intention toexchange knowledge,
of alternative options and provides a rationale for the experience and the information in order to develop the
preferred solution A business case is a way to prove to software project. As the stakeholders, are the primary ones
your client, customer, or who will be affected by the project, so their views points
stakeholder that the product you are developing is worth should be properly represented in the business case
the investment. The need for a business case is that it
collects the proposal, outline, strategy and marketing plan Developing Measurable Organizational Value (MOV) – in
in one document and offers a full look at how the project IT projects, the success of the project is assessed through
will benefit the organization. But one can also proceed Measurable Organizational Value (MOV. For any project to
without business case in project planning as it is very be successful, the MOV should align with the
similar to it. It is a document that provides the top organization’s mission, objectives and
management with all the necessary information needed to Goals
select the project that is to be funded. It is generally
built on the significance of the business goals and Identifying Alternatives – Alternative solutions to
objectives. problems and opportunities should be properly accounted
Objectives of Business case in the business case.These alternatives should also enable
The objective of the business case is to evaluate and the company to reach the desired MOV. The business case
advocate the utilization of information technology to should put out convincing reasons to bring about any
improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the changes and the cost that would be associated
organization. Information Technology are generally with the changes.
undertaken for various reasons like improving customer
satisfaction, reducing costs, improving communications,
integrating customers, etc. with the underlying objectives
of achieving organizational goals. There are number of
steps involved in developing the business case and they
are as
follows: -

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Q6) Project Management life cycle
A project management life cycle is a framework Q7) Outline the general approach that might be
encompassing of a set of different high-level stages taken for project planning in an organize
essential to transform an idea of concept into reality in an A structured approach to project planning involves several
orderly and efficient manner. Projects are temporary key steps that help define the project’s objectives,
activities of the organization and have definite aims. They deliverables, resources, timelines, and potential risks. Here
do not form the core activity of the organization. Project is a step-by-step outline of the general approach to project
life cycles is also used in all works o fLife. Like in planning:
aerospace, government offices, hospitals, hotel, etc. The Step 1: Define Project Objectives and Scope
Project Lifecycles defines the different rational stages in 1)Establish Project Goals: Determine the overall purpose,
the life of a project, and it starts from the incorporation of objectives, and desired outcomes of the project.
the project till the end. The project life cycle structure Define the Project Scope: Specify what is included in the
project and what is not. Clearly outline the deliverables and
1. Project Initiation boundaries to prevent scope creep.
Project initiation is the first stage in Project Management Identify Stakeholders: List all stakeholders involved in or
life cycle, where the project starts rolling. It offers a affected by the project, including their roles and
summary of the project, along with the tactics which are expectations.
essential to achieve the desired results. In this stage, the Step 2: Gather and Document Requirements
feasibility and business value of the project are Conduct Requirements Analysis: Collect and document
determined. the functional and non-functional requirements from
stakeholders and users.
2. Project Planning – Define Acceptance Criteria: Establish criteria for
A lot of planning is associated with the project in this deliverables that define what constitutes successful
phase. On identifying the project objectives, it is time to completion.
develop a project plan which could be followed by all. Step 3: Develop a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
The planning phase decides a set of plans which will Break Down Project Tasks: Decompose the project into
guide the team in implementing the phase and thereafter smaller, manageable tasks or components.
closing it. Organize Tasks in a Hierarchy: Use a work breakdown
structure (WBS) to organize tasks, making it easier to
3. Project Execution understand project complexity and dependencies
Project execution is the stage where the execution Step 4: Estimate Effort and Resources
processes are applied, works and resources are allocated. Estimate Task Duration: Assess the time required for
The technique includes constructing and satisfying each task based on complexity and resource availability.
customer needs. Project managers or team leaders Identify Required Resources: Determine the people,
achieve the job through resource sharing and by keeping tools, technology, and budget needed for each task.
the team Step 5: Develop a Project Schedule
members focused. Define Task Dependencies: Identify relationships between
4. Project Monitoring and Control tasks, including dependencies and constraints, using tools
The Project Monitoring and Control is all about like dependency diagrams.
measuring the performance of the project and chasing the Create a Timeline: Set start and end dates for each task to
development. It is applied during the execution phase and create an overall project schedule.
the main goal of this phase is to align with the plan Step 6: Identify and Assess Risks
especially related to financial constraints and timelines. It Identify Potential Risks: List potential risks, including delays,
is the accountability of the project manager to make resource shortages, budget issues, and technical challenges.
essential modifications connected to resource allocation Assess and Prioritize Risks: Evaluate the likelihood and impact
of each risk, prioritizing them based on severity.
and guarantee that all the things are on
Step 6: Identify and Assess Risks
track
Identify Potential Risks: List potential risks, including
delays, resource shortages, budget issues, and technical
5. Project Closure
challenges.
The final phase of the Project Management life cycle
Assess and Prioritize Risks: Evaluate the likelihood and
phases is similarly significant as all other phases. This
impact of each risk, prioritizing them based on severity.
phase signifies the final phase of the Project Management
life cycle, which is also recognized as the “follow-up”
phase. During this time, the ultimate product is
completely ready for delivery.
Unit 2(SPD)
3
Q1) Describe the Capers Jones estimating rules of thumb
Capers Jones, a software engineering expert, developed a set of Q2)Define Atern/Dynamic Systems Development Method.
estimating rules of thumb to help estimate software project State and explain eight core principle of it
costs, efforts, and timelines. These guidelines are based on The Atern/Dynamic Systems Development Method
years of industry experience and are aimed at providing rough (DSDM) is an agile project delivery framework designed
estimates for software development activities. These rules of to provide a structured yet flexible approach for delivering
thumb take into account various factors that impact the size,
software projects. Originally created in the 1990s, DSDM
complexity, and cost of software project
is based on rapid application development (RAD)
1. Lines of Code (LOC) Estimation Rule
Rule: The most common and direct method to estimate principles but has evolved to become a comprehensive,
software size is based on the number of lines of code (LOC). agile framework used across various industries. DSDM
Example: If a developer writes 1,000 lines of code for a emphasizes user involvement, iterative development, and a
project, it would take between 5,000 to 10,000 minutes of work strong focus on delivering on time and within budget
(or roughly 83 to 167 hours) to complete it, based on the LOC 1. Focus on the Business Need
rule of thumb Explanation: Projects should only be pursued if they align
2. Function Points (FP) Estimation with business objectives and bring measurable benefits.
Rule: Function Points measure the size of software The primary goal is to deliver value that meets business
based on the number of functions it provides to users needs
(such as inputs, outputs, and user interfaces) and the 2. Deliver on Time
complexity of those functions.
Explanation: DSDM places a strong emphasis on
Example: If you estimate that a software system has 50 user
inputs, 30 outputs, and 10 user inquiries, each function type timeboxing, where tasks are planned within fixed time
will have a certain complexity rating. The total will then be periods. This ensures the project stays on schedule, and
used to estimate the overall effort, often factoring in a function non-essential features can be postponed or reprioritized.
point conversion rate (e.g., hours per function point). 3. Collaborate
3. Rule of Thumb for Development Time Explanation: Collaboration is crucial in DSDM,
Rule: The amount of development time can often be encouraging strong communication among business
estimated as 1 month per 1,000 lines of code for a stakeholders, developers, and users to build trust and better
medium-sized project. understand requirements.
Estimation: A 10,000 LOC project would require 4. Never Compromise Quality
approximately 10 months of development time. Explanation: DSDM upholds that quality should never be
Example: For a project requiring 20,000 LOC, the sacrificed, even when there are constraints on time or
development time could be roughly 20 months. resources. Quality is built into every step of the
4. Productivity Rule development process
Rule: The average productivity in software development 5. Build Incrementally from Firm Foundations
is 50 to 1,000 lines of code per month per developer, Explanation: Development should occur in incremental
depending on the complexity of the project. stages, with each stage building upon a stable foundation.
Example: If a team of 5 developers is working on a system This approach allows for progressive development while
with relatively low complexity, and you estimate their reducing the risk of project failure.
productivity at 100 LOC per month, then the total lines of code 6. Develop Iteratively
they can produce in a month would be: Explanation: DSDM embraces change, understanding that
5 developers × 100 LOC/month = 500 LOC per month. requirements can evolve over time. By developing
If the project requires 5,000 LOC, the team could complete the
iteratively, teams can adapt to changes based on feedback
project in about 10 months
5. Cost Estimation Rule and evolving needs
Rule: The average cost per function point or line of code 7. Communicate Continuously and Clearly
can vary depending on the region and complexity of the Explanation: Clear and ongoing communication among all
project. However, a typical range for software projects is team members and stakeholders is essential. DSDM
Example: For a project requiring 200 function points, if the promotes transparency, enabling quick decision-making
cost per function point is $150, then the estimated cost would and problem-solving.
be: 8. Demonstrate Control
200 FP × $150/FP = $30,000. Explanation: Project control is essential to ensure the
8. Testing Time Rule project stays on track and within scope. DSDM emphasizes
Rule: Testing typically takes about 50% to 100% of the structured project management to keep all activities
total development time. This is a rule of thumb for how organized and aligned with goals.
much time is needed for quality assurance and bug fixing.
Example: If development takes 6 months, then testing
might take an additional 3 to 6 months.

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Q3)COCOMO II stages Q4)Discuss the common problem faced during effort
COCOMO II (Constructive Cost Model II) is an estimation
advanced model for estimating the cost, effort, and Effort estimation is a key process in software development,
time required for software development projects. used to predict the amount of effort required to complete a
Developed by Barry Boehm and his team, COCOMO II project or a specific task within a project. Effort is typically
measured in person-hours, person-days, or person-months, and
builds upon the original COCOMO model, incorporating
represents the total time or work required by developers, testers,
adjustments for modern software practices and a wider designers, and other project personnel to deliver a product that
range of project types. COCOMO II is widely used meets the specified requirements.
because of its flexibility and adaptability to different 1.Unclear Requirements
software development environments, especially as it can Issue: If project requirements are not well-defined or
handle iterative and incremental development. change frequently, it becomes difficult to estimate the work
1. Applications Composition Model involved accurately
Purpose: Used early in the project when the requirements Impact: Leads to underestimation or overestimation of
are not fully defined, and the project scope is still effort, often requiring reevaluation and adjustments that
flexible. disrupt project timelines.
Characteristics: This stage is best suited for rapid 2. Lack of Historical Data
prototyping and GUI-oriented applications. Estimates are issue: Many organizations lack a repository of past project
based on high-level “object points” (e.g., screens, reports, data, such as time spent on similar tasks, resource
components) and are suitable for projects where you can utilization, or code complexity.
quickly develop a functional prototype. Impact: Without historical benchmarks, teams may rely on
Estimation: Object points are counted and adjusted assumptions rather than data-driven estimates, reducing the
based on complexity and developer productivity levels. accuracy of effort estimation.
This model provides a quick, rough estimation of efforts. 3. Ignoring Non-Development Tasks
Example Use Case: Estimating the resources for a customer
relationship management (CRM) system after initial planning
Issue: Effort estimation often focuses only on coding tasks,
meetings have clarified major modules and user needs. ignoring other essential activities like meetings, testing,
2. Early Design Model debugging, documentation, and deployment.
Purpose: Applied during the early design phase when Impact: This oversight leads to underestimated effort, as
high-level design decisions have been made, but detailed non-development tasks can consume a significant portion
specifications are still not fully developed. of the project timeline.
Characteristics: This stage provides more accuracy than 4. Overconfidence in Productivity Levels
the Applications Composition model and relies on a Issue: Teams may overestimate their productivity based on
rough estimate of the number of lines of code (or function best-case scenarios or optimistic assumptions.
points) along with additional factors called “cost drivers.” Impact: Overconfidence can lead to tight schedules and
These cost drivers include factors like required reliability, underestimated effort, resulting in burnout, delays, and
team experience, and use of modern development tools. quality issues as developers struggle to meet unrealistic
Estimation: The Early Design Model uses simplified equations timelines.
and general cost drivers to estimate effort based on the 5. Misjudging Complexity
expected code size and project-specific factors. Issue: Some tasks may appear simple initially but involve
Example Use Case: Estimating the resources for a customer unexpected complexity or integration challenges that are
relationship management (CRM) system after initial planning not apparent at the estimation phase.
meetings have clarified major modules and user needs. Impact: Misjudged complexity can lead to underestimated
3. Post-Architecture Model timelines, especially if unforeseen technical challenges or
Purpose: Used in the detailed design phase, after the complex business logic arise.
project's architecture and major components have been 6. Difficulty in Estimating New or Unfamiliar
defined. Technologies
Characteristics: The Post-Architecture Model is the Issue: When working with new technologies or tools,
most detailed and precise stage of COCOMO II. It teams may lack the experience to make accurate estimates
applies detailed cost drivers and a more refined set of due to the steep learning curve or unknown complexities.
equations, making it suitable for accurate estimates. Impact: Estimations may fail to account for additional
Estimation: In this model, cost drivers are evaluated at a time spent on learning and problem-solving, leading to
more granular level, and detailed inputs (like module- schedule overruns
specific code sizes and reuse factors) are used. The model
provides estimates for total project effort, schedule, and
resources.

Q5)Sprial model advantages and disadvantags Q6)Discuss Agile and Scrum as a fast delivery approach

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The Spiral Model is a risk-driven software development of a project in detail
model that combines elements of both iterative and waterfall Agile and Scrum are frameworks and methodologies within
methodologies. Proposed by Barry Boehm in 1986, the Spiral software development that emphasize flexibility, collaboration,
Model is well-suited for large, complex, and high-risk projects, and rapid delivery of functional software. Both approaches are
as it emphasizes continuous risk assessment and mitigation. It designed to accommodate changing requirements and improve
is structured as a spiral, with each loop representing a phase in project delivery speed by breaking down development into
the development process. Each loop in the spiral represents one smaller, iterative cycles
iteration, moving the project closer to the final product. Agile Methodology
The model progresses through four main phases for each Agile is a broad, iterative approach to software
iteration, which are repeated until the project is completed: development that emphasizes customer collaboration,
Planning: Define objectives, requirements, and constraints.
adaptability to change, and incremental delivery. The
Risk Analysis: Identify and analyze risks, and explore
alternatives to mitigate them. Agile Manifesto, published in 2001, outlines four core
Engineering: Design, code, and test the product incrementally. values:
Evaluation: Obtain feedback from stakeholders to make 1)Individuals and Interactions over Processes and Tools.
adjustments before the next iteration. 2)Working Software over Comprehensive
Each loop involves expanding the product's functionalities Documentation.
while refining requirements and testing outcomes, allowing 3)Customer Collaboration over Contract Negotiation.
teams to incrementally improve the system based on feedback Responding to Change over Following a Plan
and risk reassessment Scrum Framework
Advantages of the Spiral Model Scrum is one of the most popular Agile frameworks, designed to
Risk Management: The Spiral Model’s focus on risk manage and control software projects efficiently. Scrum is a
assessment helps identify and mitigate high-risk areas lightweight, team-based framework that breaks down complex
early in each iteration. projects into manageable sprints (iterations), focusing on
Flexibility: Requirements can evolve over iterations, delivering small but valuable increments of software. Scrum
making it suitable for projects with changing divides the project into sprints, typically lasting 2–4 weeks, and
requirements. incorporates roles, ceremonies, and artifacts to ensure structured
progress.
Customer Feedback: The model incorporates regular
stakeholder feedback, allowing for continuous Key Components of Scrum
1.Roles in Scrum:
improvement and realignment with customer needs. Product Owner: Responsible for maximizing the value of the
Phased Development: Allows for incremental releases of product, managing the product backlog, and prioritizing features
the product, making it easier to identify and fix issues based on business goals and customer needs.
progressively. Scrum Master: Facilitates the Scrum process, removes
5 )Enhanced Documentation: Each phase requires obstacles, and ensures the team follows Scrum practices.
detailed documentation, ensuring that project records are 2 Artifacts in Scrum:
maintained and updated iteratively. Product Backlog: A prioritized list of features, bug fixes, and
Disadvantages of the Spiral Model other requirements for the product.
Complexity: The model’s iterative nature makes it Sprint Backlog: A subset of the product backlog selected for
development in a particular sprint.
complex and difficult to manage, especially for smaller
3 Scrum Ceremonies:
projects where formal risk analysis might not be Sprint Planning: A meeting at the start of each sprint where the
necessary. team decides which backlog items to tackle and defines sprint
Costly and Time-Consuming: Each loop requires goals.
thorough planning and risk analysis, making it time- Daily Standup (Daily Scrum): A 15-minute meeting where team
intensive and potentially costly. members discuss what they accomplished yesterday, what they
Dependency on Risk Assessment: The model relies will do today, and any roadblocks they face.
heavily on accurate risk assessment, which can be Challenges of Agile and Scrum
challenging without experienced personnel. Scope Creep: The flexibility of Agile can lead to scope creep if
Overlapping Phases: The model’s overlap of planning requirements are not managed effectively.
Requires Experienced Teams: Agile and Scrum require self-
and development can lead to confusion if not managed
organizing, cross-functional teams who can communicate
effectively. effectively and manage responsibilities.
Not Suitable for Small Projects: Due to its complexity Dependency on Stakeholder Involvement: Regular feedback is
and focus on risk management, the Spiral Model is necessary for Agile success, but this depends on the availability
generally unsuitable for smaller or less complex projects and engagement of stakeholders.
Difficulty with Larger Teams: Agile and Scrum are easier to
implement in smaller teams, and scaling up can lead to
coordination challenges

Q7) Describe briefly five steps of project analysis

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Project analysis involves evaluating the viability, risks, and Q8)Explain the five major components of Albrecht Function
benefits of a project before committing resources. Here are five Point Analysis ?
essential steps: Albrecht's Function Point Analysis (FPA) is a widely used
1. Define Project Objectives and Scope method to estimate the functional size of software, focusing on
Objectives: Begin by clearly defining what the project is what the system does from the user's perspective. Developed by
expected to achieve. Objectives should be specific, Allan Albrecht at IBM in the late 1970s, FPA measures software
measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound based on the functionality delivered to users. The primary
(SMART). This includes identifying the main purpose of purpose of FPA is to provide a reliable size measure, which is
the project and any specific outcomes or deliverables that crucial for project estimation, resource allocation, and
it should produce productivity assessment. By evaluating different aspects of user
2. Identify Stakeholders and Requirements interaction, FPA breaks down software into five core
components: External Inputs (EI), External Outputs (EO),
Stakeholder Identification: Recognize all individuals,
External Inquiries (EQ), Internal Logical Files (ILF), and
teams, departments, or external parties (e.g., clients,
External Interface Files (EIF). Each component is assigned a
vendors, regulatory bodies) who will be impacted by the weight based on complexity, and together they form the basis for
project or have an interest in its outcome. Common calculating the overall Function Point count. Let’s dive deeper
stakeholders include sponsors, customers, project into each component and understand its role in determining
managers, and team members. software size.
Gather Requirements: Conduct interviews, surveys, or 1.⁠ ⁠External Inputs (EI): External inputs are any data or
workshops with stakeholders to understand their needs, control information that the user inputs into the system. They are
expectations, and concerns. This can help capture both usually provided through various data entry forms, file uploads,
functional (what the project must do) and non-functional or even through direct commands that influence the system's
(how the project should perform) requirements processing. For example, in a customer management application,
3. Conduct Feasibility Study data entry fields where users input customer details count as
Technical Feasibility: Evaluate whether the technology, external inputs. This component involves both the data entered
tools, and expertise needed for the project are available by the user and the system logic required to process that input,
within the organization or if they will need to be acquired making it an essential part of the functionality that the software
externally. Assess whether the team has the necessary offers. In FPA, external inputs are assessed based on their
technical skills and resources to complete the project as complexity, considering the data elements they carry and their
planned. interactions with other parts of the system.
2.External Outputs (EO): External outputs are pieces of
4. Risk Assessment
information that the system sends out to users. These outputs
Identify Risks: List potential risks, including financial typically involve some level of data processing, calculation, or
risks, operational risks, technical risks, and external risks formatting before they’re displayed or shared with the user. For
(like market conditions or regulatory changes). Risks can instance, reports, dashboards, and confirmation messages are all
be related to project deadlines, budget, resources, quality, examples of external outputs. They play a significant role in the
or external events. software's function by communicating processed information
Analyze Risks: Evaluate the likelihood and impact of back to the user. The complexity of external outputs is also rated
each risk. Quantify or rank the severity of risks to in FPA, depending on the amount of data processed, the
understand which are most critical. Risk analysis often complexity of the processing, and the degree of formatting
involves categorizing risks as low, medium, or high in required. Higher complexity outputs contribute more to the
terms of both probability and impact. Function Point count, as they require additional development
5. Cost-Benefit Analysis and Decision Making effort.
Identify Costs and Benefits: Identify and quantify all 3.External Inquiries (EQ): External inquiries are user-driven
expected costs and benefits associated with the project. requests for data retrieval, where the system provides a response
based on existing data without altering it. For example, a search
Costs may include fixed costs, variable costs, capital
function that allows users to find customer information based on
expenses, and operational costs. Benefits could be
a query represents an external inquiry. These inquiries are
financial returns, increased efficiency, customer
typically less complex than outputs since they don’t require
satisfaction, or strategic advantages.
extensive data manipulation; they simply retrieve and display
Calculate Return on Investment (ROI): Compare the project’s
existing data. However, they do require a certain level of
expected benefits against its costs to assess profitability or
processing and data retrieval logic, which FPA considers in its
viability. This analysis could include calculating net present
calculations. The classification of an external inquiry's
value (NPV), payback period, internal rate of return (IRR), or
complexity in FPA is determined by the amount of data
other financial metrics.
displayed and the effort required to implement the retrieval
functionality.

Q10)Q.Explain the top down approach associated with

Q9)Explain review process model with the help of parametric models ?
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diagram ? In data modeling and statistical analysis, the top-down approach
The review process model is an essential quality associated with parametric models involves beginning with a
assurance technique in software engineering, focused on general theory or hypothesis about the structure of the data, then
improving the quality of software products through refining it through a detailed, step-by-step process. Here’s a
detailed explanation of how it works:
structured examination and feedback. By performing
1.⁠Starting with a General Hypothesis
systematic reviews at various development stages, this In the top-down approach, we begin by assuming a specific
model helps detect errors early, ensuring quality and structure for the data. This often means selecting a parametric
reducing the cost of fixing issues later. Reviews are model based on prior knowledge or theoretical assumptions. A
conducted through a series of stages, each contributing to parametric model assumes that the data follows a certain
the quality assurance of the final product. Let’s explore distribution (e.g., normal, Poisson) and has a fixed number of
the review process model with its steps and a visual parameters that define this distribution
diagram to illustrate its flow. 2.Model Specification and Defining Parameters
1. Planning: The first step in the review process is The next step is to specify the model in detail. In a parametric
model, this involves identifying and defining the parameters that
planning, where the review leader identifies the
describe the model.
objectives and scope of the review. Here, necessary Setting Parameters: For a normal distribution, the parameters
resources are arranged, including the selection of would be the mean and standard deviation. For a regression
reviewers with relevant expertise. The review leader sets model, the parameters would be the coefficients of predictors.
timelines, assigns roles, and establishes the 3.Data Collection and Parameter Estimation
documentation required, such as design specifications, With the top-down approach, data collection is focused on
code, or test plans. gathering observations that help estimate the parameters of the
2. Preparation: In the preparation stage, reviewers are model. Common estimation methods include Maximum
provided with the documents to be reviewed. They go Likelihood Estimation (MLE) or Least Squares.
through these documents individually to understand the Example: Using the students' scores data, you would collect test
scores and use them to estimate the mean and standard deviation,
content, identify any potential issues, and make notes.
or the regression coefficients if you're using a regression model.
Preparation is crucial because it ensures that reviewers 4.⁠Model Testing and Validation
are familiar with the material and are ready to contribute Once parameters are estimated, the model is tested and validated
effectively during the review meeting. against the data. This includes checking if the data fits the model
3. Review Meeting: The review meeting is a well and if the model assumptions hold.
collaborative session where reviewers discuss their Goodness of Fit: This can be done using statistical tests, like Chi-
findings and identify defects, inconsistencies, or areas for square tests for distributions or R-squared values for regression
improvement. This meeting is moderated by the review models.
leader, who ensures that the discussion remains focused Residual Analysis: For regression, residuals are checked to see if
they show any patterns, which might indicate that the model
and constructive. Each reviewer presents their
doesn’t capture all aspects of the data.
observations, and the team collectively analyzes each 5.⁠Refinement of the Model
issue, seeking resolutions or prioritizing issues for further If the model does not adequately fit the data, adjustments are
analysis. made. This could involve changing the functional form of the
4. Rework: After the review meeting, the author of the model, introducing additional parameters, or considering
reviewed document (e.g., code, design) addresses the alternative distributions.
identified issues. This stage is called rework. The author Iterative Adjustment: For example, if residuals in a linear
corrects errors, makes improvements, and ensures that the regression model show non-linearity, you might try a polynomial
reviewed material meets the required quality standards. regression to better capture the data’s structure.
The review team may conduct follow-up checks to verify Advantages of the Top-Down Approach with Parametric Models
1.⁠ ⁠Efficiency: Knowing the structure and distribution in
that corrections have been made adequately.
advance makes it easier to estimate parameters directly.
5. Follow-up: In the final follow-up stage, the review 2.⁠ ⁠Interpretability: Parametric models provide clear
leader verifies that all major issues discussed during the interpretations of each parameter.
review meeting have been addressed satisfactorily. 3.⁠ ⁠Powerful Analysis: If the model assumptions are correct,
Follow-up may involve additional rounds of review if parametric methods can be highly powerful for prediction and
significant issues remain unresolved. Once all concerns inference.
are addressed, the review process for that document or
code is considered complete.

Q12).List the advantages and disadvantages of software

prototyping. ?
Software prototyping is a process in which an early, simplified
Q11) Rapid application development ? version of the software (prototype) is built to test and refine
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Rapid Application Development (RAD) is an Agile functionalities, design, and user experience. Prototyping allows
methodology focused on quickly developing software stakeholders and developers to explore the design and
through iterative prototyping and user feedback, rather functionality of a system early in the software development
than extensive planning and testing. Originating in the lifecycle. Below are the detailed advantages and disadvantages
of software prototyping.
1980s as a response to lengthy traditional development
Advanatges
cycles, RAD emphasizes speed, flexibility, and 1. Improved Requirements Gathering and Clarification
collaboration. It’s especially suited to projects where User Feedback: Prototyping helps gather accurate requirements
requirements may evolve or where there is a need for fast by allowing users to interact with a functional model. This
turnaround times. Here’s an overview of the RAD clarifies requirements and reduces misunderstandings between
approach, including its phases and advantages. users and developers
1.Requirements Planning: Instead of a lengthy 2. Enhanced User Involvement
requirements-gathering phase, RAD begins with a quick, User-Centric Development: Prototyping allows end-users to
collaborative session involving developers, users, and engage with a tangible model, improving their understanding of
what is being developed. This helps ensure the final product
stakeholders. The team identifies high-level project goals,
meets user needs and expectations.
scope, and major requirements, focusing on core 3. Early Detection of Design and Functional Issues
functions and desired outcomes. Because RAD is Identify and Fix Issues Early: With a working prototype, design
flexible, detailed requirements are less emphasized at this flaws, usability issues, and functional limitations can be
stage. identified early. This minimizes the risk of major problems
2.User Design (Prototyping): In this phase, the surfacing late in the development process.
development team creates prototypes—early versions of 4. Reduced Development Time and Cost
the software with basic functionality. Users provide Fewer Changes Late in Development: By capturing requirements
feedback on these prototypes, allowing the team to refine accurately early on and refining the product based on user
features iteratively. This continuous loop of prototype feedback, the need for major changes later in development is
reduced, lowering overall development time and cost.
development and user feedback ensures that the final
Disadvantages
product aligns with user needs and expectations. Design 1. Increased Development Time and Cost in Initial Phases
changes can be made on the fly, accommodating evolving Initial Cost of Prototyping: Building and refining a prototype
requirements. requires time and resources, which may increase the initial
3.Rapid Construction: Once the user design is validated, development costs, especially if the prototype is complex
the team moves on to the rapid construction phase. Here, 2. Scope Creep
developers focus on building a more complete version of Unclear Boundaries: As users interact with prototypes, they may
the application using the feedback and lessons from the request additional features or changes, which can lead to scope
prototyping phase. Features are refined, and additional creep—unplanned increases in project scope, timelines, and
budget.
functionality is added as needed. Frequent user testing
3. Misleading Expectations
continues, allowing developers to adjust and improve the Confusion between Prototype and Final Product: Users may
application as necessary. mistake the prototype for the actual final product, leading to
4.⁠Cutover (Finalization and Deployment): The cutover unrealistic expectations about functionality, performance, or
phase is the transition to a fully operational system. It design. They may expect a fully functioning solution when the
includes finalizing any remaining components, prototype is only a rough version
conducting comprehensive testing, training end-users, 4. Insufficient Documentation
and implementing the application in the live environment. Focus on Prototype Rather Than Documentation: Prototyping
This phase is typically shorter in RAD than in traditional may sometimes lead to a lack of thorough documentation since
models because much of the testing and refinement has the focus is often on quickly iterating the design and
functionality. This can create problems during final
already occurred through iterative prototyping.
implementation or future maintenance.
When to Use RAD 5. Potential for Lower Quality Code
RAD is best suited to projects with a well-defined Quick-and-Dirty Code: Prototypes are often developed with the
audience that needs quick delivery and where intent to test ideas quickly, which may encourage using
requirements are expected to change. It’s ideal for unoptimized or “quick-and-dirty” code. If parts of the prototype
software that will undergo frequent updates, such as are reused in the final product, this can lead to quality and
customer-facing apps, user interfaces, or tools with a high performance issues.
degree of user interaction

Q9)Project scope and objectives in detail

Project scope defines the boundaries, deliverables, features, and
expectations of a project. It provides a clear understanding of
what the project will accomplish, as well as what it will not.
Unit 1 Establishing the project scope is critical to avoid "scope creep"
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Q8)How do you perform Cost benefit analysis (CBA)? (unplanned changes that expand the project’s size and
Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) is a systematic approach to complexity). A well-defined scope provides a foundation for
evaluate the financial, social, and economic implications project planning, resource allocation, scheduling, and cost
of a project or decision. By comparing the costs and management.
benefits, organizations can assess whether an investment Key Components of Project ScopeProject
Goals and Deliverables:
is worthwhile and determine the best course of action
Clearly outline what the project aims to achieve and produce. For
among various options. Here's a step-by-step guide on example, in a software project, this might include a list of
how to perform CBA: specific software features or modules that must be developed.
1.⁠ ⁠Define the Project or Decision Scope Each deliverable should be concrete, measurable, and aligned
Start by clearly outlining the project, decision, or policy with the project's goals.
under consideration. Identify the purpose, objectives, and Inclusions and Exclusions:
potential alternatives if applicable. Understanding the Inclusions specify what is inside the scope of the project. For
scope ensures that you include all relevant costs and example, a project to launch a new product might include
benefits in your analysis. developing the product, marketing materials, and training for the
sales team.
2.⁠ ⁠Identify Costs and Benefits
Exclusions clarify what is explicitly not covered in the project.
Costs: List all expenses associated with the project, In the above example, exclusions might be post-launch customer
including direct costs (such as equipment, materials, and support or expansion to additional product lines.
labor) and indirect costs (such as administrative expenses Project Boundaries and Limitations:
and maintenance). Also, consider any opportunity costs— This defines the limits of the project, including any restrictions
the benefits lost by choosing this project over an due to time, budget, resources, or technology. For instance, a
alternative. project might be restricted to using only existing technology or
3.⁠ ⁠Quantify Costs and Benefits limited to certain regions.
Assign monetary values to each cost and benefit. For Setting these boundaries helps stakeholders understand what the
tangible items, this involves market prices or financial project will achieve without overstepping resources or extending
beyond manageable limits.
estimates. For intangibles (e.g., customer satisfaction),
Project objectives are the specific, measurable outcomes that a
use proxy measures or estimates based on similar project aims to achieve. Unlike broader goals, objectives are
projects. While challenging, estimating intangible values precise and often have clear deadlines or quantitative targets.
is essential for a complete analysis. Defining objectives helps guide the project team, align
4.⁠ ⁠Determine the Time Horizon stakeholder expectations, and measure project success.
Decide on the time frame over which the costs and Characteristics of Good Project Objectives
benefits will be analyzed. For projects with long-term SMART Criteria:
impacts, it’s crucial to include future costs and benefits. Objectives should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
A typical time frame might range from a few months to Relevant, and Time-bound. Using SMART criteria
several years, depending on the project scope. ensures objectives are practical, focused, and trackable.
5.⁠ ⁠Discount Future Values For example, instead of an objective like "increase
Since money today is worth more than the same amount customer satisfaction," a SMART objective might be
in the future due to inflation and opportunity costs, apply "increase customer satisfaction scores by 15% within six
a discount rate to future costs and benefits. Discounting months."
adjusts future values to their present value, making it Clear Alignment with Project Goals:
easier to compare immediate and future expenditures. Objectives should directly contribute to the overarching
Commonly used discount rates vary but typically fall project goal. If the project goal is to improve user
between 3% and 10%, depending on organizational or experience on a website, objectives might include reducing
market conditions. page load times or enhancing navigation.
6.⁠ ⁠Calculate Net Present Value (NPV) Quantifiable Metrics and KPIs:
Net Present Value (NPV) represents the difference Quantitative objectives provide a basis for measurement
between the total present value of benefits and the total and comparison. Examples include "reduce costs by 10%,"
present value of costs. To calculate NPV, subtract the "increase sales by 20%," or "complete the project within 12
discounted costs from the discounted benefits: months."
7.⁠ ⁠Perform a Sensitivity Analysis Key performance indicators (KPIs) are often used to track
progress on these objectives, giving the project team data to
A sensitivity analysis helps assess the impact of
evaluate success.
uncertainty in key assumptions (e.g., discount rate,
estimated costs, or benefits). By adjusting these variables, Q12)Define the following terms
you can see how sensitive your results are to changes and i)Net profit ii)Return on Investment iii)Payback period iv)Net
evaluate the level of risk associated with the project. present value
v)Internal rate of return?
Q10) What is a project product? Explain Product
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Breakdown Structure with the help of example. i) Net Profit
A project product refers to the final deliverable or outcome Net profit is the amount of money that remains after subtracting
that the project aims to create, which meets the project's all expenses, including operating costs, interest, taxes, and other
objectives and satisfies stakeholder requirements. It can be a costs, from a company's total revenue. It is often referred to as
tangible product (like a car or a piece of software), a service the "bottom line" and reflects a company's profitability.
(like consulting or support), or even an intangible outcome
(like a research report or policy implementation). The project ii) Return on Investment (ROI)
product is the culmination of all activities, resources, and Return on Investment (ROI) is a financial metric used to assess
processes undertaken during the project lifecycle. the profitability of an investment. It is calculated by dividing the
Product Breakdown Structure (PBS) net profit of the investment by the initial cost of the investment,
A Product Breakdown Structure (PBS) is a hierarchical then multiplying by 100 to get a percentage. It shows how
decomposition of the project’s end product. It breaks down the effectively an investment generates profits relative to its cost.
product into smaller, manageable components or parts, starting
from the main deliverable and moving down to its sub- iii) Payback Period
components. PBS is similar in structure to a Work Breakdown The payback period is the time it takes for an investment to
Structure (WBS) but differs in that it specifically focuses on generate enough cash flow to recover its initial cost. It’s a
the product’s parts rather than the work or tasks needed to measure of how long an investment takes to "pay back" the
create them. amount spent, often used to assess risk in capital investments. A
Product Breakdown Structure (PBS) shorter payback period is generally preferred as it indicates
A Product Breakdown Structure (PBS) is a hierarchical quicker recovery of costs.
decomposition of the project’s end product. It breaks down the
product into smaller, manageable components or parts, starting iv) Net Present Value (NPV)
from the main deliverable and moving down to its sub- Net Present Value (NPV) is the calculation of the present value
components. PBS is similar in structure to a Work Breakdown of cash flows generated by an investment, minus the initial
Structure (WBS) but differs in that it specifically focuses on investment cost. NPV takes into account the time value of
the product’s parts rather than the work or tasks needed to money, discounting future cash flows to reflect their present
create them. value. A positive NPV indicates that an investment is expected to
Example of Product Breakdown Structure generate profit, while a negative NPV suggests a loss.
Consider a project to design and build a smartphone. The final
product is the smartphone, which can be broken down into v) Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
various components that contribute to the whole. Below is an Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is the discount rate at which the net
example PBS for a smartphone project: present value (NPV) of an investment’s cash flows becomes
Smartphone (Main Product) zero. In other words, it is the rate of return where the present
1.1 Hardware value of future cash flows equals the initial investment cost. IRR
1.1.1 Display (screen) is used to assess the profitability of an investment; a higher IRR
1.1.2 Battery indicates a more favorable investment
1.1.3 Processor and Chipset
1.1.4 Camera Module
1.1.4.1 Front Camera
1.1.4.2 Rear Camera

1.1.5 Housing/Body
1.1.6 Sensors (e.g., fingerprint sensor, accelerometer,
gyroscope)

1.2 Software
1.2.1 Operating System (OS)
1.2.2 User Interface (UI)
1.2.3 Pre-installed Apps
1.2.3.1 Messaging App
1.2.3.2 Camera App
1.2.3.3 Settings App
1.3 Accessories
1.3.1 Charger
1.3.2 Earphones
1.3.3 Instruction Manual

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