COMPSCI 453 Computer Networks

Professor Jim Kurose

Chapter 5 College of Information and Computer Sciences
University of Massachusetts
Network Layer:
The Control Plane
Class textbook:
Computer Networking: A Top-
Down Approach (8th ed.)
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All material copyright 1996-2020

J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-1
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing protocols
 link state

 distance vector

5.3 Intra-AS routing in the

Internet: OSPF
5.4 Routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-2

 Routing Algorithm Classification

Q: Global or Decentralized information? Q: Static or Dynamic?

Static:
 Routes change slowly over time
Global:
 All routers have complete topology,
link cost info
 “Link State” algorithms Dynamic:
 Routes change more quickly

Decentralized:  Periodic update

 Router knows physically-connected  In response to link cost
neighbors, link costs to neighbors changes
 Iterative process of computation,
exchange of info with neighbors
 “Distance Vector” algorithms

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-3

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing protocols
 link state

 distance vector

5.3 Intra-AS routing in the

Internet: OSPF
5.4 Routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-4

A Link-State Dijkstra’s algorithm: Example
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9
Notes: 5 7
 Construct shortest path tree 4
by tracing predecessor nodes 8
 Ties can exist (can be broken u 3 w y z
arbitrarily) 2
3
7 4
v
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-5
Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
Algorithm complexity: n nodes

 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)

 More efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-6

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing protocols
 link state

 distance vector

5.3 Intra-AS routing in the

Internet: OSPF
5.4 Routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-7

 5
Distance Vector Algorithm a 3 b
2 5
x y
2 1
Bellman-Ford equation 1
3
v d 2
1
c(x,v)
let
dx(y) = cost of least-cost PATH from x to y dv(y)
then
dx(y) = minv {c(x,v) + dv(y) }

cost PATH from neighbor v to destination y

cost of LINK to neighbor v
min taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-8

 Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} Dx(z) = min{c(x,y)+Dy(z), c(x,z)+Dz(z)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3

Node x cost to cost to cost to Bellman Ford

Table x y z x y z x y z Distance Vector
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3 Algorithm

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1

from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
Node y cost to cost to cost to
Table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1

from
y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

Node z cost to cost to cost to

Table x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-9
Distance Vector: Link Cost changes

Link cost changes:

 Node detects local link cost change 1
y
 Updates routing info, recalculates 4 1
distance vector x z
50
 If DV changes, notify neighbors Good news
travels fast”
 Bad news travels slow.
60
Poisoned reverse: y
4 1
 If Z routes through Y to get to X :
x z
 Y tells Z its (Y’s) distance to X is infinite 50
(so Z won’t route to X via Y)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-10

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing protocols
 link state

 distance vector

5.3 Intra-AS routing in the

Internet: OSPF
5.4 Routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-11

 Hierarchical Routing
Our routing study thus far - idealization
 All routers identical
 Network “flat”
… not true in practice!

Scale: With 600 million destinations:

 Can’t store all destinations in routing tables!
 Routing table exchange would swamp links!

Administrative autonomy
 Internet = Network of networks
 Each network admin may want to control routing in its own network
 Aggregate routers into regions, “Autonomous Systems” (AS)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-12

Example: Setting Forwarding Table in Router 1d

Hot potato routing: Send packet towards

closest of two routers
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-13
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing protocols
 link state

 distance vector

5.3 Intra-AS routing in the

Internet: OSPF
5.4 Routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-14

Routing Protocols

Routing Protocols

Intra-AS Routing Protocols Inter-AS Routing Protocols

RIP: Routing Information Protocol BGP: Border Gateway Protocol

OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing

Protocol (Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-15

 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

 Included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982

 Distance Vector Algorithm

 Distance Metric: # hops (max = 15 hops). Each link has cost of ONE
 DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response message (aka advertisement)
 Each Advertisement: List of up to 25 destination subnets (in IP addressing sense)

From Router A to destination subnets:

u v subnet hops
A w u 1
B
v 2
w 2
x x 3
z C D y 3
y z 2
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-16
RIP: Example 1- Graph
Routing Table at Router A
Dest Next Hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
Advertisement

w x m y v q o p z
A D B E F G H I

l
C J
Routing Table at Router D
Destination subnet Next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-17
RIP Example 1- Routing Tables

Destination subnet Next router # hops to destination

w A 2
Dold

y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1

Destination subnet Next router # hops to destination

w -- 1
A

x -- 1
z C 4

Destination subnet Next router # hops to destination

w A 2
Dnew

y B 2
z A 5
x -- 1
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-18
RIP Example 2 - Routing Tables

Destination subnet Next router # hops to destination

X W 5
Aold

Y V 6
Z B 7

Destination subnet Next router # hops to destination

X N 3
B

Y F 6
Z Q 8

Destination subnet Next router # hops to destination

X B 4
Anew

Y V 6
Z B 9

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-19

 RIP: Link Failure, Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec  neighbor/link declared dead
1. Routes via neighbor invalidated
2. New advertisements sent to neighbors
3. Neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables changed)
4. Link failure info propagates to entire net
5. Poison Reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops (infinite distance = 16
hops)

RIP Table Processing

• RIP routing tables managed by application-level process called route-d
(daemon)
• Advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically repeated

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-20

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing protocols
 link state

 distance vector

5.3 Intra-AS routing in the

Internet: OSPF
5.4 Routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-

21
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “Open”: Publicly available
 Uses link state algorithm. Route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
 Advertisements flooded to entire AS carried in OSPF messages directly
over IP (rather than TCP or UDP)

OSPF Advanced Features (not in RIP)

 Security: All OSPF messages authenticated (to prevent malicious intrusion)
 Multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in RIP)
 For each link, multiple cost metrics for different ToS
 Satellite link cost set “low” for best effort ToS
 Satellite link cost set “high” for real time ToS
 Integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology database as OSPF
 Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-22

 Hierarchical OSPF

 Two-level hierarchy: Local area, backbone.

 Link-state advertisements only in area
 Each node has detailed area topology; only know direction (shortest path) to nets
in other areas.

 Area border routers: “Summarize” distances to nets in own area, advertise to other
Area Border routers.

 Backbone routers: Run OSPF routing limited to backbone.

 Boundary routers: Connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-23
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction 5.5 Routing algorithms
5.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
datagram networks  Distance vector
5.3 What’s inside a router  Hierarchical routing
5.4 IP: Internet Protocol 5.6 Routing in the Internet
 datagram format  RIP
 IPv4 addressing  OSPF
 ICMP  BGP
 IPv6

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-24

 Internet inter-AS routing: BGP

 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): The de facto inter-domain routing protocol

 “Glue that holds the Internet together”

 BGP provides each AS a means to:

 eBGP: Obtain subnet reachability information from neighboring AS-external
routers.
 iBGP: Propagate reachability information to all AS-internal routers.
 Determine “good” routes to other networks based on reachability
information and policy.

 Allows subnet to advertise its existence to rest of Internet: “I am here”

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-25

BGP Basics: Distributing Path Information

eBGP: external
iBGP: internal

eBGP session
3a iBGP session
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-26

BGP Route Selection
 Router may learn about more than 1 route to destination AS, selects route
based on:
1. Local preference value attribute: Policy decision (by Admin)
2. Shortest AS-PATH
3. Closest NEXT-HOP router: Hot potato routing
4. Additional criteria (e.g ID, or seq number)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-27

BGP Messages

 BGP messages exchanged between peers over TCP connection

 BGP messages:
 OPEN: Opens TCP connection to peer and authenticates sender
 UPDATE: Advertises new path (or withdraws old)
 KEEPALIVE: Keeps connection alive in absence of UPDATES; also
ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: Reports errors in previous message; also used to
close connection

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-28

Why different Intra-, Inter-AS routing?
Policy:
 Inter-AS: Admin wants control over how its traffic routed, who routes
through its net.
 Intra-AS: Single admin, so no policy decisions needed.

Performance:
 Intra-AS: Can focus on performance.
 Inter-AS: Policy may dominate over performance.

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-29