Electric Railway Systems

05-DC Motors
Dr. Yi Wang
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
The University of Hong Kong
[email protected]
http://www.eeyiwang.com/
Outline

• Introduction to Direct Current (DC) machines

• Voltage & torque equations
• Magnetization curve
• Equivalent circuit for a DC machine
• Fundamental machine equations

2
Outline (Cont’d)

• Losses & Efficiency

• Speed Control in DC Motors
• Different Motor Configurations:
➢ Separately Excited Motors
➢ Series Connected
➢ Shunt Connected
➢ Compound
• Various ways of connecting the machine impose
constraints, in terms of field and armature current and
armature voltage

3
DC Motors: Basic Concept

4
Outline

• Introduction to Direct Current (DC) machines

• Voltage & torque equations
• Magnetization curve
• Equivalent circuit for a DC machine
• Fundamental machine equations

5
The simplest rotating DC machine

6
DC Machines

• Earliest power systems were DC

• AC won out, but DC motors are still an important
component
• DC motors used a lot in cars
• DC generators much more rare
• DC machine is almost identical to the AC machine
➢ DC machine converts internal AC currents to DC
➢ Commutation

7
DC Machines

• DC machines can be used as motors and generators.

➢ A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a
force perpendicular to both the field and current directions.
➢ A voltage is induced across the ends of a conductor moving in a
magnetic field. Convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy
Delivers a unidirectional
Generators current
DC machines
Motors
Convert electrical energy
into mechanical energy

8
DC Machine

• Operation of DC machines is easiest of all the electrical

machines to understand

• Although physical construction is quite complex due to

switching requirements

9
Machine Components

• Stator (Stationary) – Cylindrical shape with a magnetic

core
• Rotor (Rotating) – The rotor consists of a magnetic shaft
that rotates inside the stator and can be connected to a
prime mover or a mechanical load
• Field Winding – carries magnetizing/excitation current,
which is usually DC, and is used to magnetize the core
• Armature – Carries the load current
• Machines can operate as generators or motors

10
Motor vs. Generator

If ia ≠ 0 current-carrying conductors in
a magnetic field

Motor experience a force ii f

f

=BA
+

rotor will rotate iia

a

vv f
f ++
T, w
ea
ea
-
-

If w ≠ 0
-
conductors moving in a
magnetic field

Generator Induced e.m.f.

Electrical energy generated

11
Prototype Machine

N S
slip ring

e
e
q
brush

12
Prototype Motor

• Single rectangular loop of conducting wire of area A is

rotated in a uniform magnetic field with flux density B.
• In order to supply current to an external load, the ends
of the coil are connected to split slip rings

13
Simple Motor

From Faraday's Law the induced voltage is,

d d (sin q )
v= = BA
dt dt
d (sin q ) d (sin q ) d (sin q )
= =w
dt q dq
d
w
d (sin q )
 v = BAw = BAw cos q
dq
B

N S

14
Simple Motor

• Voltage produced is, therefore, sinusoidal

• Maximum value when θ = 0°, i.e., when B lies in the
plane of the coil
• Minimum value when θ =90°, i.e., when B is normal to
the plane of the coil

15
Commutation

16
Commutation

• Commutator, which is a mechanical switch, is required

• Ensures that rotor poles are consistently at 90 degrees
with respect to the fixed stator poles
• Commutation is employed in the form of split slips rings
to produce DC
• Switching used at correct time
• Every time the voltage of the loop switched direction,
the contacts also switch connections and the output is
always built up in the same way

17
Commutation

• Commutator is fixed to the rotor

• Is split into a number of segments (in real machines ~60)
• Shown the e.m.f is sinusoidal and that it depends on the
position of the rotor with respect to the magnetic field
• By switching at an appropriate time, can obtain a DC
signal
• More Switching => Less ripple

18
Reduce Voltage Harmonics

19
 DC Motor, How it works?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAtPHANEfQo
20
DC Machine Equations

• Power = Work/Time = (Force x Distance)/Time

=> Power = Force x Speed
Pmech = Fu
But , u = wr
Where, u = tangential velocity,
w = angular velocity,
r = perpendicular distance.
T = Fr
Torque (T) is force which causes motion
 Pmech = Fwr
Pmech = T w

21
Voltage & Torque Equations

The geometry of the rotor is such that the magnetic flux density, B,
varies with angle in the airgap. It is approximately constant
under the poles and falls off abruptly between them. The voltage
induced by this movement in a side, e, is given by:
e = Blu
So the emf induced in the whole coil is therefore,
ec = 2 Blu
= 2 Blrw
Where l is the length of the coil, r is its radius and w is its angular velocity.
The commutator inverts the negative half cycles of the coil emf, ec , so the armature
voltage ea , is given by,
ea = 2lrw B(q )

22
Voltage & Torque Equations

The average armature voltage over a revolution is then,

 
1 1
eavg =
  e dq =  2w Blrdq
0
a
 0

Since lrdq = dA, an element of area on the rotor surface, then,

q =
2w 2w
eavg =
 q

=0
BdA =

Where  is the total flux passing through the rotor surface.

23
Voltage & Torque Equations

In a real d.c. machine there are groups of coils in series between the
commutator brushes, and so the average induced e.m.f. becomes,
2n
eavg = w

where n is the number of conductors in series between the brushes.

In an real machine, the voltage will depend on the flux, the speed of
rotation and a constant representing the construcion of the machine

24
Voltage & Torque Equations

Note, the electrical power in (motor) or out (generator) is given by,

Pelec = ea ia
The mechanical power out (motor) or in (generator) is given by,
Pmech = T w
Assuming these are equal gives,
ea ia = T w
2n
Then, w ia = Tavgw , giving,

2n
Tavg =  ia

Torque in any general machine is dependent on the current, flux and
a constant based on cosntruction of machine

25
Voltage & Torque

2n
Average Induced e.m.f.: eav = w


Assume Pin = Pout: Pelec = eaia Pmech = Tw

2n
Average Torque: Tav = ia

With a large number of conductors, the generated voltage and torque
will be almost constant, and so we may generalize equations

ea = K a w volts

T = K a ia newton metres

where the constant Ka is a property of the particular armature winding

26
Field & Magnetization

ea, 
Usually operate in linear region,
approximate  = Kfif

knee
Fundamental machine equations
become
Linear
ea = Kifw Region

T = Kifia

if
Where K = KaKf [@ Ia=0]

27
Magnetization Curve

• A of the plot of ϕ vs. if (or Nfif, the field mmf) is known

as the magnetization curve of the machine.
• Notice that the curve does not pass through (0, 0).
• Prolonged exposure to d.c. magnetic fields cause a
ferromagnetic material to become magnetized to a
small degree: it behaves like a weak permanent magnet,
with magnetization Hc.

28
Magnetization Curve

• Thus, at if=0, there exists a small remnant flux ϕr which is

sometimes enough to cause the armature to turn and
induce a back-emf in the armature coil.

• At constant speed, e is proportional to ϕ; a graph of ea

against if for ia=0 is known as the open circuit
characteristic of the machine, and has the same shape
as the magnetization curve.

29
Magnetization Curve

• In permanent-magnet d.c. machines, the magnetic flux

Φ is constant, and there is nothing to add to the
equations.
• However, in wound field machines we must consider
how the pole flux is produced.
• A current if flowing in the field winding produces a flux Φ
at the poles.
• With ia=0, Flux is a function of if only

30
 ii f
f

=BA
+
iia
a

vv f
f + +
T, w
ea ea
- -
-

31
Summary

Machine Equations Efficiency

losses
ea = Kifw  = 1−
input power

T = Kifia

Vaia = wT + Ia2Ra

32
DC Motors: Equivalent Circuit

33
Outline

• Introduction to Direct Current (DC) machines

• Voltage & torque equations
• Magnetization curve
• Equivalent circuit for a DC machine
• Fundamental machine equations
• Losses & Efficiency

34
Voltage & Torque

2n
Average Induced e.m.f.: eav = w


Assume Pin = Pout: Pelec = eaia Pmech = Tw

2n
Average Torque: Tav = ia


ea = K a w volts

T = K a ia newton metres

where the constant Ka is a property of the particular armature winding

35
Example

• Simple rotating loop between the curved pole faces

connected to a battery through a resistor
r = 0.5m l=1.0m
R = 0.3 ohm B = 0.25T
VB = 120V
• What happens when the battery is connected?
• What is the maximum starting current?
• What is its angular velocity at no load

36
Example

• When switch is closed, a current will flow in the loop.

Loop is initially stationary => e = 0
VB − eind VB
i= =
R R
The current flows into the rotor and produces a torque,
2
Tind =  i

This torque then causes the rotor to turn,
thus inducing a voltage,
2
eind = w

37
Example

• As voltage increases, the current falls, causing the

torque to decrease until it reaches a steady state, with
T=0 and VB=eind

• Starting Current?

VB − eind VB 120
i= = = = 400 A
R R 0.3

38
Example

• No Load steady state conditions

(1) T=0
(2) i=0
(3) VB=eind
2
VB = eind = fw
p
VB VB
w= =
(2 / p )f (2 / p )BAp
Ap = p rl = Pole Surface Area
VB 120
\w = = = 480rad/s
2Brl 2(0.25T )(1.0)(0.5)

39
DC Machine Equivalent Circuit

motor generator
if ia

Rf Ra La
Vf Lf ea Va

ea < Va – the source is supplying voltage to the machine (motor).

ea > Va – the source is absorbing power from the machine, (generator).

40
Equivalent Circuit

• The armature circuit (conductors, commutators, brushes,

etc.) have a resistance that can be represented by a
single resistance Ra, and reluctance, etc. which can be
represented by a single inductor La. The back-emf
induced across the armature coil is represented by a
voltage source Ea.
• The field winding has a resistance Rf and inductance Lf.

41
DC Equivalent Circuit Equations

d f
V f = Rf I f + = Rf I f
dt
d a
V a = Ra I a + + e(  ,w ) = Ra I a + e(  ,w )
dt

42
Equivalent Circuit

• In steady state operation d/dt = 0, constant flux linkage

• Field Winding: power Vfif is all dissipated as heat in R . All

the field power is wasted.
• Armature: terminal power is split between dissipation as
heat and conversion to mechanical form in the ratio of
the resistive drop RaIa to the speed voltage.
• e is a motional or "speed" voltage, independent of ia.
• The armature symbol in the diagram represents an ideal
voltage source/sink with

• By convention Ia > 0 for motoring, Ia < 0 for generation

43
Losses

electrical input to motor

1 field loss (I f2Rf)

Input to armature (V aIa)

armature resistance losses:
2 armature copper loss (I a2Ra')
brush contact loss (I aVb)

Electromechanical energy
conversion
(EaIa=wT)
3 rotational losses:
friction and windage loss
core loss
Mechanical output ( wTm)

44
Losses

• The losses in a d.c. machine are essentially the same,

whether motoring or generating.

• so VIa, the electrical power to the armature, is split

between the gross mechanical output power ωT and
resistive loss Ia2Ra. Not all of ωT is developed as
mechanical output in the rotor shaft, since some of T
(the gross or electromagnetic torque) is absorbed in
rotational losses.

• The three principal loss agents in the machine are the

field and armature resistance losses, and the rotational
losses.

45
Losses

• These are classic a.c. effects, but occur in a d.c. machine

due to local field fluctuations about the field poles and
the armature’s iron core.
• core loss includes eddy-current and hysteresis loss
• Eddy-currents: induced when a conductor is subjected
to varying magnetic field.

46
Efficiency

output power
=
input power
input power - losses
=
input power
losses
= 1−
input power

47
Motor Speed Control

Varying the armature voltage, Va

Control speed by:
Varying the field current, If

Assumptions:
1. Steady-state operation: Ia and If are constant, and so La and Lf can
be ignored, as the voltage across them is zero.
2 The voltage dropped across the armature resistance Ra is small in
comparison with Ea.
3 The machine is operated in the linear region of the magnetisation
curve: Ka, Kf etc. are approximately constant.

48
Connections

• The field and armature circuits may be connected in a

variety of ways to impose additional relations between
V, If and Ia, and thus effect various performance
characteristics.
• Separately Excited Motor – Va and If controlled
independently
• Series Connected Motor – the field windings connected
in series with the armature, (only when N is small)

49
Separately Excited Motor Speed Control

Va = IaRa + Ladia/dt + ea
Va ≈ ea

Va ≈ Kaw

Va Va
Va = =
w≈ Ka Kf I f KIf
Ka 

This equation is the basis for motor speed control.

It shows that the speed varies directly with supply voltage, and inversely with field current.

50
Armature Voltage Control

Va
Here the field voltage Vf is fixed, and hence the field current If and flux Φ are kept constant.
The speed, w is directly proportional to the armature voltage
when the Vf, If, & F are fixed

51
Field Current Control

• Because d.c. motors are usually run at a nominal value

near the top part of the linear region, then increasing If
drives the motor into saturation, and the speed control
equation no longer holds.
• This type of speed control is thus possible only if If is
reduced below its nominal value, in a process called
field weakening.

52
Lecture Summary

Equivalent
Circuit

Machine Equations Efficiency

losses
ea = Kifw  = 1−
input power

T = Kifia

Vaia = wT + Ia2Ra

53
DC Motors: Control Methods

54
Outline

• Speed Control in DC Motors

• Different Motor Configurations:
➢ Separately Excited Motors
➢ Series Connected
➢ Shunt Connected
➢ Compound
• Various ways of connecting the machine impose
constraints, in terms of field and armature current and
armature voltage

55
Voltage & Torque

2n
Average Induced e.m.f.: eav = w


Assume Pin = Pout: Pelec = eaia Pmech = Tw

2n
Average Torque: Tav = ia


ea = K a w volts

T = K a ia newton metres

where the constant Ka is a property of the particular armature winding

56
Series Connected Motor

I +
Ia = If
V

V = Ea + (Ra + R f )I a + (La + L f ) a
dI -

dt

V = K a w + ( Ra + R f )
T
Ka

w=
V
− ( Ra + R f )
T
w=
V
−
(Ra + R f )
Ka ( Ka )
2

Ka K f T Ka K f

57
Derivation on Board

Ia = I f
Applying K.V.L.
dI a
V = Ea + ( Ra + R f ) I a + ( La + L f )
dt
Assume Steady State and using from before,
Ea = K aw , T = K a I a
T
 V = K aw + ( Ra + R f )
K a
V T
w= − ( Ra + R f )
K a ( K a ) 2

58
Series Connected Motor

In the Linear region,  = K f I f = K f I a

 T = K a K f I f I a = K a K f I a2
T
Ia =
Ka K f
and
K a = K a K f I a
T
= Ka K f
Ka K f
= Ka K f T

59
Series Connected Motor

Inseting this into previous expression for w

− ( Ra + R f )
V T
w=
Ka K f T Ka K f T

=
V
−
( Ra + R f )
Ka K f T Ka K f
1
i.e. w 
T

60
Series Connected Motor

For a given supply voltage V and resistance , the highest

torque obtainable is that at w =0

w =0
V (Ra + R f )
= −
K a K f T0 Ka K f
V (Ra + R f )
=
K a K f T0 Ka K f
2
 V 
T0 = K a K f  

 Ra + R f 

61
Series Connected Motor

1
w w
T

This is a useful characteristic for

vehicle traction motors, e.g. battery
Ra+Rf increasing
electric vehicles and electric trains.
At low speeds the machine
develops high accelerating torque,
which falls off as the speed rises
until it is just sufficient to maintain
the speed. Speed control can easily
be achieved, since w  V T0 T

62
Shunt Connected Motor

In this arrangement the field current If is obtained from the armature

supply voltage Va through a resistance Rf (internal winding resistance
plus external variable resistance).

I +
V
If = Ia
Rf Rf

V
Rf  Ra R f 
w= V − T  If

K a K f V  K a K f V  -

Rf  Ra R f 
= 1 − T
K a K f  K a K f V 2 

Rf
The no-load speed
w0 =
Ka K f
63
Shunt Derivation
dI a
V = I a Ra + La + Ea
dt
In Steady State,
V = I a Ra + Ea
= I a Ra + K aw
1
w = (V − I a Ra )
K a
1
w= (V − I a Ra ) in linear region
Ka K f I f
Recall,
T = K a I a
T T
Ia = =
K a K a K f I f

64
Shunt Derivation

Note,
V
If =
Rf
Subbing this in,
Rf  Ra R f 
w=  V − T
Ka K f V  K a K f V 
Rf  Ra R f 
w=  1 − 2
T

Ka K f  Ka K f V 
This is a linear relationship

65
No Load Speed

• The no load speed is that value of ω for which T = 0

Rf
w0 =
Ka K f

66
Shunt Connected Motor

w
Starting Torque
Ka K f V 2
T0 = Increasing R f
Ra R f w

Shunt motor is essentially a constant-speed machine

67
Starting Torque

• The starting torque is that torque for which the speed is

zero

Rf  Ra R f 
0=  1 − T
K a K f  K a K f V  2

Ka K f V 2
 T0 =
Ra R f

68
Starting Torque

• So for constant supply voltage, T0 is inversely

proportional to Rf.
• Some speed control is available by field weakening
(increasing Rf, so decreasing If), but this is limited to
small variations from the nominal speed.

69
Compound Motor

I +

series shunt
field field

70
Compound Motor

• A d.c. motor is sometimes built with shunt and series

field windings connected as shown.

• If the series field winding has many turns, then the

torque/speed characteristic is somewhere between that
of a shunt motor and series motor.

71
Torque/Speed Relationships

Shunt

Compound

Series

Often the field coils are few, and their action in this case is to
counteract the field weakening resulting from armature reaction:
the disturbance of the field by spurious fields
set up around the armature conductors themselves as a result of Ia.
72
Example on DC machines

• A 12V series connected DC machine has a current of 1A

at a speed of 1,000RPM. Assuming a linear magnetising
curve calculate the torque for this motor at 500RPM
and 1,500RPM.

73
Example

V = 12V, i = 1A @1,000RPM
2000
w= = 33.33 rad/s
60
If Linear,  =K f ia
ea 12 0.36
K= = =
iw 33.33 
T = Ki f ia , but i f =i a
 T = Ki 2

74
Example

@ 500 RPM
1000
w= = 16.66 rad/s
60
ea 12
i= = = 2A
Kw 0.36(16.66 )
0.36(4)
T@500 = = 0.4584Nm


75
Example

@1,500 RPM
3000
w= = 50 rad/s
60
ea 12
i = = = 0.6667A
K w 0.36(50 )
0.36(0.667 2 )
T@1500 = = 0.0509Nm


76
Summary

• Speed Control in DC Motors:

-- Separately Excited Motors
-- Series Connected
-- Shunt Connected
-- Compound

77