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Week 13: Atmospheric Science

I
Characteristics of the Atmosphere
Atmospheric Layering
Earth’s atmosphere is made of “air”

Atmosphere - thin layer of gases

The Earth’s atmosphere absorbs solar radiation, moderates climate,

drives weather-forming processes

Human activity is changing the atmosphere

It is divided into permanent and variable gases

permanent gases: 78% N, 21% O, 1% other

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 1

 Atmospheric properties include pressure, temperature and humidity

pressure, temperature and humidity decline with increasing altitude

within the troposphere (where we are right now)

Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude

atm: force per unit area produces by overlaying column of air

1000 mbar = 1 atm

as altitude increases, there are fewer molecules

Declining temperature with altitude

lower atmosphere is warmed by conductance from the Earth

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 2

 as a parcel of air moves up, it expands (lower pressure) and loses
energy

Water content of air varies with temperature

saturated cold air has much less water than saturated warm air

relative humidity: amount of water in a volume of air compared to the

amount it could hold at a given temperature

dew point: temperature below which water droplets condense (i.e.,

100% relative humidity)

Earth’s atmosphere is vertically layered

layers are mainly defined by temperature and composition

Troposphere

heated from below

temperature decreases with altitude

80% of mass, 99% of water vapour and aerosols

thickest at the equator, thinnest at poles

Tropopause

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 3

 prevents mixing between troposphere and stratosphere

Stratosphere

drier, less dense

temperature increases upward

highest concentration of ozone at ~17-30 km

warmed by O3 absorption of solar energy

Stratopause

Mesosphere

extremely low pressure

temperature decreases with altitude

Thermosphere

warmed from above by solar radiation

Exosphere

outermost layer

How the Sun affects the atmosphere

Solar energy heats the atmosphere unevenly

energy from the Sun creates seasons, drives photosynthesis, influences

weather and climate

solar radiation is highest near the equator

Effect of axial tilt

changes in day length and altitude of Sun at noon

Solar energy and axial tilt create seasons

Water vapour in the atmosphere is critical for transferring heat around the
globe

air is being circulated

Characteristics of Air Masses

Air masses have different characteristics

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 4

 air mass - large volume of air with ~uniform temperature, humidity, and
pressure

major types of air masses:

continental Tropical (cT)

maritime Tropical (mT)

continental Polar (cP)

maritime Polar (mP)

continental Arctic (cA)

maritime Equatorial (mE)

Air masses move horizontally and vertically

rising air: warm, moist

sinking air: cool, dry

How air masses interact to generate weather

Air masses interact to produce weather

active weather tends to occur along fronts

Front = boundary between air masses that differ in pressure,

temperature, and humidity

where the most active weather tends to occur

warm front: warm, moist air replaces colder, drier air at the surface

cold front: cold, dry air displaces warmer, moister air at the surface

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 5

 Weather and climate are different

Weather involves temperature, atmospheric pressure, precipitation,

wind and humidity

specific conditions over short time periods and small areas

Climate is influenced by latitude, altitude, geography & topography, and

prevailing winds

average atmospheric conditions over long periods across large

areas

Global Atmospheric Circulation

What causes wind to blow and influences its direction
What causes wind to blow?

Convection (hot air rises, cool air sinks)

moisture condenses, precipitation falls

cool, dry air descends and compresses, becoming warmer (warmed

again by the surface)

Pressure gradient force (variations in atmospheric pressure)

Pressure gradient - variations in atmospheric pressure

Barocline - a change in pressure from one air mass to another,

across a front

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 6

 air always moves from areas of high to areas of low pressure

Coriolis force (influences air movement direction)

caused by the rotation of Earth

Coriolis effect - apparent deflection of moving objects when viewed

from a rotating frame of reference

The Coriolis Force

Coriolis force affects air motion

a result of inertia

only discernible in motions over long distances and times

The equator spins faster than the poles

The Coriolis force acts in an opposite sense in the two hemispheres

Wind direction is the result of balance between pressure gradient and

Coriolis forces

In the Northern Hemisphere

low-pressure region - winds circulate in the counter-clockwise

(cyclonic) direction

high-pressure region - winds circulate in the clockwise (anti-

cyclonic) direction

How global atmospheric circulation cells are formed

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 7

 Large-scale air movements drive global circulation,
influence weather and climate

air moves from the equator to the poles

influenced by the Coriolis force

Coriolis force and geographic barriers create global circulation cells

heat is transferred from the equator (surplus solar energy) to the poles
(deficit solar energy)

the Coriolis effect causes the simple equator-to-pole circulation to

break up into a series of cells

Convection is broken up into a series of circulation cells

Hadley cells

form near the Equator where surface air warms, rises, and expands

force of convection is strongest here

rise near the Equator

descend at 30 degrees latitude N and S

Ferrel cells

form at mid-latitude

circulate from 30 to 60 degrees latitude N and S

Polar cells

form near the poles

circulate from 60 to 90 degrees latitude N and S

How they influence weather and climate

Global circulation influences moisture and temperature distribution

intense heating at the Equator → warm, moist air rises

air cools → it loses moisture through precipitation

cool dry air descends; is warmed at the surface

dry, warm air absorbs moisture as it moves back to the Equator

Coriolis force causes a deflection of air masses

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 8

 circulation cells + Coriolis force = trade winds

Trade winds

easterlies, westerlies, doldrums (no Coriolis force right at the

equator)

Weather Systems
Tropical Weather Systems
intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

heavy cloud cover, humid conditions, rain

caused by convergence and rising motion in the equator

thermal equator: moves north in NH summer, south in SH summer

monsoons

seasonally reversing weather system

South Asian Monsoon: results in the occurrence of rainy (monsoon)

and dry seasons over South Asia

tropical cyclones & hurricanes

with winds exceeding 119 km/h

Hurricanes: over the Atlantic and East Pacific, including the Caribbean
Sea and the Gulf of Mexico

Typhoons: over the Northwest Pacific Ocean, including East Asia

Cyclones: in the Indian Ocean and near Australia, including the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea

Tropical cyclones originate as "depressions“, or areas of low pressure

centre of the cyclonic storm - lowest atmospheric pressure

rotation is counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and

clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere

Anti-cyclone

high-pressure system

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 9

 rotation is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter-
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere

Cyclones form over warm ocean water

cyclones draw energy from warm ocean water, weaken when

passing over land

Warming sea surface temperature will lead to increasing frequency and

strength of hurricanes

2023 Atlantic hurricane season was very active

Extratropical Weather Systems

extratropical and post-tropical cyclones

occur outside of the tropics

Summer: convective weather systems (thunderstorms) driven by local

heating

Winter: large cyclonic weather systems that act to transport heat

polewards

thunderstorms and tornadoes

thunderstorms form over land when air rises due to being heated

thunderstorms can sometimes spawn tornadoes

“mature” thunderstorms produce anvil clouds

lightning (discharge of electricity)

thunder is the shock wave produced by lightning discharge

mid-latitude synoptic cyclones

mid-latitude weather is greatly influenced by jet streams

Each hemisphere has a polar (or mid-latitude) and a subtropical jet

stream

influence of jet streams and polar vortex

jet streams are high-altitude, high-speed winds

tube-like, meandering winds near the top of the troposphere

can split into two branches, etc.

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 10

 jet streams shift their positions in the summer and winter

polar vortex

high-speed wind that circulates around each pole

can shift its position

climate change will lead to more “slippage” of the polar vortex

cold air masses will move farther south (or north)

Week 13: Atmospheric Science I 11