Principles of

MCD-001 Development

Development of
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Continuing Education
the Child: Birth
to Eight Years

Block

2
PHYSICAL, MOTOR AND SENSORY DEVELOPMENT
UNIT 4
Prenatal Development and Care 61
UNIT 5
Physical, Motor and Sensory Development of the Neonate 73
UNIT 6
Physical, Motor and Sensory Development During
Infancy and Toddlerhood 85
UNIT 7
Physical, Motor and Sensory Development During
Preschool Years 126
UNIT 8
Physical, Motor and Sensory Development
During Middle Childhood Years 150

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Introduction to
Child Development BLOCK 2 INTRODUCTION
The birth of child is generally a joyous occasion. The routines of the family
members change, revolving around the infant’s needs. The young children in
the home play with the infant, marveling at her hands and feet. They perform
a variety of tricks to win a smile from her. And as soon as the infant is able to
make speech sounds, they make efforts to teach her their names.

The first year is a period of rapid development. It is a year of firsts: the first
smile, the first step, the first tooth, the first words, the first attachment. In this
Block, we will study the growth of the baby from the time of conception till
middle childhood years.
Unit 4 describes development during the prenatal period. It will enumerate
the stages of prenatal development, its characteristics, the type of nutritional
care and emotional support a mother needs during pregnancy.
Unit 5 details a neonate’s sensory and motor capabilities, a newborn’s
routine and the milestones of physical development during the first year of
life. This Unit also describes the important rules in taking care of the
newborn.
Unit 6 outlines and specifies development of sensory capabilities, and
physical growth in terms of gross and fine motor skills for the period of
toddlerhood. It also provides information on caring of an infant and a toddler.

Changes in the body proportions and development of brain, eyes and internal
organs, acquisition of fine an gross motor abilities during the preschool years
are highlighted in Unit 7. Other important aspects like the need for
immunization and the nutritional requirements of a preschooler are also
discussed in the Unit.
Besides describing the pattern of physical growth and development during
middle childhood years, Unit 8 delineates the refinement and the acquisition
of new gross and fine motor abilities. This Unit also explains how the child
develops her body image during these years.

The descriptions of the above mentioned areas of development will become

clearer to you if you supplement them with observations of infants,
preschoolers and children in middle childhood years in your home or around
in the neighbourhood.

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UNIT 4 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND Prenatal
Development and
CARE Care

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Conception
4.3 Intra-uterine Growth
4.3.1 Period of the Ovum
4.3.2 Period of the Embryo
4.3.3 Period of the Foetus
4.4 Birth of the Child
4.5 Care of the Mother During Pregnancy
4.5.1 Nutrition
4.5.2 Health Care
4.5.3 Emotional States
4.6 Summary
4.7 Glossary
4.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The growth of the baby within the mother’s womb is most fascinating. It is
important to understand prenatal development so that the mother can take
adequate care during pregnancy and thereby provide a good environment for
the baby to develop. The health of the mother, the amount and the quality of
food she eats and her emotional states influence the development of the baby
within the womb. The uterine environment not only influences development
in the prenatal period but is also important for development and adjustment
after birth.

With advancements in the field of medicine we have information about intra-

uterine growth which was not available earlier. There are detailed
illustrations and pictures of foetuses in textbooks of physiology. Now-a-days
there are methods to scan the unborn baby in the womb using very advanced
techniques. The period of prenatal development is no longer completely
mysterious, though we do not know the answers to all the questions.

Objectives
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
• enumerate the stages of prenatal development and describe the
characteristics of each stage;
• explain the type of care the mother needs during pregnancy in terms of
health, nutrition and emotional support; and
• describe how the body systems begin to function before birth.
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development 4.2 CONCEPTION
Conception occurs around the middle of the woman’s menstrual cycle, when
a sperm from the male parent unites with the ovum, also called the egg, from
the female parent to form a single cell. This cell, called zygote, is the first cell
of a new person. The life of a human being thus begins at conception.
Prenatal development from conception to birth takes about 266 days or 9
months.
You have read in Block 1 that genes contain all the necessary information for
development. They are responsible for the transmission of characteristics
from the parents to the child. It is during conception that the genetic material
is transmitted. The first cell after conception, i.e. the zygote, contains
everything necessary for the development of a person. Let us now read
about the development of the baby in the womb.

4.3 INTRA-UTERINE GROWTH

The period of prenatal development is usually divided into three stages
— the period of the ovum, the period of the embryo and the period of the
foetus. We will now read about the developments that take place during each
of these stages.

4.3.1 Period of the Ovum

This period lasts from conception to two weeks. During this period, the
single-celled zygote begins to multiply rapidly and forms several dozen cells.
This mass of cells differentiates into an inner and outer layer of cells,
separated by a hollow cavity. The group of inner cells will form the baby.
The cells of the outer layer will form the placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic
sac and other structures. In the earlier Block you read that development
proceeds through differentiation. This division of the zygote into an outer
and inner layer of cells, which later form different structures, illustrates
the process of differentiation.
During this period, small tendrils begin to project from the outer wall of the
zygote and burrow into the wall of the uterus. In this manner the zygote
attaches itself to the wall of the uterus and begins to get its nourishment from
the mother’s blood. This process is called implantation. Later these tendrils
form the placenta and the umbilical cord. The implantation of the zygote
occurs by the end of the second week. This is the end of the period of the
ovum.

4.3.2 Period of the Embryo

The term ‘embryo’ is used to refer to the developing baby from the time of
implantation until the beginning of bone formation. In other words, this
period begins from the third week after conception and ends in the
eighth week. During this period cell division continues and the cells
differentiate into various types. Development during this short period of
five weeks is very rapid. This period is crucial in prenatal development since
62
it is now that all the major organs, tissues and systems of the body are being Prenatal
Development and
formed. The most rapid development of a majority of the organs and Care
systems occurs during this period and in the early part of the foetal
period, i.e. up to 12 weeks after conception. You have read in Unit 3 that
an organ is most vulnerable to harmful influences at the time when it is
developing most rapidly. Thus the period of the embryo and the early
foetal period are critical in development. If the mother takes drugs, is
exposed to radiation, has an accident or has an infection like rubella
during these periods, it can cause most harm to the developing baby.
You would also recall reading in Unit 3 that development follows two
directions, head-to-toe and centre-to-ends. These directions of development
are evident in prenatal development also. In keeping with these principles
of development, can you state which organs would be the first to develop and
which ones would develop later? Write down your answers and check them
from the following description.

By three weeks the head and the posterior region, the front and the back of
the embryo can be distinguished easily. The brain and the spinal cord also
begin to develop and they develop faster compared to other organs during
this period. By this time a rudimentary heart also develops and it begins to
beat a few days later. This is an important sign of life in the embryo and
indicates that basic functions are beginning. By the end of four weeks the
sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose) kidneys, liver and the alimentary canal
begin to develop. Small projections begin to appear where the arms and the
legs will be formed.
Between five and eight weeks the eyes, nose and ears become more distinct
and the baby’s face begins to have a human appearance. During the fifth
week the reproductive system begins to form. By the seventh week the arms
and legs, hands and feet, toes and fingers are formed though all of these are
still to develop fully. The internal organs like the intestines, liver, pancreas,
lungs and kidneys take a definite shape and some organs begin to function:
the liver begins to produce red blood cells, the kidneys start to excrete urine
and the circulatory system becomes operative. The respiratory and digestive
systems are formed though they do not begin to function yet. By this time the
embryo has a skeleton made of soft bony tissue called cartilage. Thus by the
end of this period, the main parts of the body are developed in some
basic form. The embryo by this time is one and a half inches long.
During this period a sac — like structure forms around the embryo and
encloses it totally. This is called the amniotic sac and it contains the fluid
within which the developing baby floats. The amniotic sac with the fluid
serves to protect the developing baby from any injury or shock the
mother may have. It also helps to maintain a constant temperature for
the foetus.
The placenta and the umbilical cord also form in the period of the
embryo. The placenta is a disc-like organ formed from the tissues of the
mother and the embryo. It is attached to the wall of the uterus. The placenta
has a very important function. It is here that the exchange of oxygen and
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
nutrients from the mother’s blood to the embryo’s blood takes place. Also,
the waste products and carbon dioxide from the baby’s blood are passed onto
the mother’s blood. The placenta is connected to the embryo by the umbilical
cord. Thus the umbilical cord carries food substances from the mother’s
blood to the embryo’s and removes the waste products from the embryo’s
blood into the mother’s blood. The placenta and the umbilical cord enable
the baby to survive in the womb.

4.3.3 Period of the Foetus

This period extends from the beginning of the ninth week until birth. Its
beginning is marked by the development of the bone structure. During this
period refinement and development of the various body systems takes
place. Now the growth of the head region slows down and the rest of the
body grows more rapidly. The major development changes in this period
have been summarized in the table that follows.

Table 4 (a): Major Developments during the Period of the Foetus

Age Major Developments

By the end of 3 Muscles develop more extensively; nerve-muscle
months connections increase; sex of the foetus can be
determined; eyelids, lips and nails begin to form; vocal
cords are formed; digestive secretions of liver and
stomach begin to be produced; spontaneous movements
of arms and legs of the foetus occurs which the mother
may not feel because the foetus is too small; however,
the foetus even somersaults in the amniotic sac.
By the end of 4 The mother can now feel the movements of the foetus
months because it grows in size. This makes the baby feel to the
mother. Growth of the lower parts of body takes place.
By the end of 5 Skin begins to form; hair appear on the head; eyebrows
months and eyelashes form; hands become capable of opening
and closing and gripping; some photographs show the
foetus sucking its thumb; facial muscles become capable
of movement; a layer of fat begins to form under the
skin.
By the end of 6 Eyes are completely formed though they are closed; taste
months buds, fingernails and sweat glands are formed; the foetus
can inhale and exhale; if prematurely born at this time it
can breathe but survival rate is low.
By the end of 7 The eyelids open and blink; all the systems are developed
months and functioning so that if the child is born prematurely
now it can survive. However, each additional week the
foetus stays in the womb after this period, increases its
chances of survival after birth. The premature baby can
see, hear and differentiate tastes just like full-term
babies.
By the end of 9 During the eighth and ninth months the body structures
months further refine; the foetus gains height and weight.

64
About two weeks before birth, most babies settle with the head towards the Prenatal
Development and
lower end of the uterus. Generally babies are born this way — head first — Care
and this is the easiest and safest way of delivery for the mother as well as for
the child.

Sometimes the baby does not position itself head downwards in the uterus. It
lies in a crosswise manner or lies with its feet towards the lower end of the
uterus. If the baby cannot be turned while in the uterus, it will have to be a
breech delivery or it will have to be delivered by caesarean section.

4.4 BIRTH OF THE CHILD

When the baby positions itself head downwards in the mother’s body, the
mother feels lightened pressure on the upper abdomen but greater pressure
upon the bladder. This lightening which the mother feels because of the
shifting of the baby’s weight is the first sign that birth may occur within
a few days.

The onset of labour pains indicate that the birth of the child is imminent.
During labour, the amniotic sac ruptures and the fluid comes out. The uterus
contracts rhythmically to push the child outward through the birth canal. The
structure of the mother’s body and the formation of the baby’s bones,
particularly those of the head, make it possible for the baby to emerge. After
the child is born, the umbilical cord and the placenta are expelled from the
womb. The umbilical cord is surgically cut and the baby, from being totally
dependent on the mother for survival, has to learn to lead an independent
existence.

The presence of a professionally qualified person trained to conduct

deliveries is important during the birth process whether the delivery is
conducted at home or in the hospital, such as a doctor, nurse or skilled
birth attendant. Institutional deliveries are recommended because it is
possible to take care of the health needs of the pregnant woman and the new
born baby more effectively in the health care facility as compared to a home
setting. The health of the mother and the baby depends on how the delivery is
conducted. If, for example, the umbilical cord is cut by an untrained person
with unclean and unsterilized instruments, the child may get tetanus and die.

A child is born with well-developed and functioning sensory capacities of

vision, hearing, touch and smell. In fact research has now shown that
some of these capacities are functioning even before the child is born.
The evidence from these studies indicates that the auditory system is well-
developed some weeks before birth and the unborn baby is responsive to
sounds and voices in the environment. It is now also known that sounds can
be heard in the uterus. Through the use of sophisticated technology,
researchers have recorded the sound of the mother’s heart beat, the rumbling
of her intestines, the movement of the lungs, the music from the radio, the
conversation between the mother and other people, the sound of a passing
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
train and many other sounds as audible in the mother’s womb. That the foetus
reacts to these sounds is indicated by many studies. In one study researchers
sounded automobile horns and loud buzzers near the mother’s abdomen. The
foetus responded by increasing its physical activity such as kicking and other
body movements.

Research on babies of one to two hours old shows that the newborns
responded more to the recording of their mother’s voice compared to those of
other women. This is so because the mother’s voice is one which the unborn
baby has heard the most. Newborns are also sensitive to the rhythm of their
native language. In a study done on French newborns, the babies moved their
bodies more to the sound of French than of Russian. In one particular study,
pregnant women listened to a particular tune during the last weeks of their
pregnancy. After the babies were born, the recordings of this tune as well as
other tunes which the pregnant mothers had not heard were played to the
newborns. They clearly preferred the familiar tune, i.e. the one they must
have heard in the womb.

The above discussion also shows that, contrary to popular belief, the
period of prenatal development is not one of passive existence for the
child. The child is active and responds to stimulation. It seems that the
environment within the womb prepares the child for what lies ahead.
Pictures of foetuses show some of them sucking their thumb in the amniotic
sac. Thus the child has practiced sucking while in the uterus and a normal
newborn is able to suck within moments of birth. The foetus does not need to
breathe (since it gets oxygen from the mother’s blood through the placenta),
yet the diaphragm practices breathing movements while the child is in the
womb. The unborn child does not need to eat and drink, yet it swallows the
amniotic fluid and thus the digestive and excretory systems are put to work
and prepare for life outside the womb.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

In the following puzzle, the blank spaces have to be filled with suitable words
which you have read in the text. The thirteen sentences written below provide
clues for the words which have to be inserted in the puzzle.

The words in the puzzle can be written either horizontally (which means
across), or vertically (which means down). Each sentence has a number
written before it. The numbers 1 to 13 are written in the squares of the puzzle
also. When writing the word or a particular sentence, begin by writing the
first letter of the word in the square where that particular number is written.
For example, the answer to sentence No. 2 is “Brain” and will be written as
indicated in the puzzle.

66
 Prenatal
Development and
Care

Sentences for ‘Across’

1) The cord which carries food substances and waste products to and from
the embryo.
3) The process of rhythmic contractions of the uterus which cause the baby
to be pushed out of the mother’s womb.
5) The process of attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus which
occurs by the end of the second week of conception.
7) The term that refers to the developing baby from the time of implantation
until the beginning of bone growth.
9) The first cell of the human being formed after the sperm from the male
parent unites with the ovum from the female parent.
11) These are responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics
from the parents to the child and contain all the information necessary
for development.
13) The period of the foetus which begins from the ninth week is marked by
the development of the........................
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
Sentences for ‘Down’
2) …………………develops fastest during the period of embryo as
compared to other parts.
4) A disc-like structure through which the exchange of oxygen and
nutrients from the mother’s blood to embryo’s blood and the waste
products from the embryo’s blood to the mother’s blood takes place.
6) The mother can feel the movements of the foetus by the end of
...................months.
8) If the child is born prematurely at ………………months, it can survive.
10) The sex of the foetus can be determined by the end of the ..................
month.
12) The sac which encloses the foetus totally and protects it from shocks
experienced by the mother and helps to maintain a constant temperature.

4.5 CARE OF THE MOTHER DURING

PREGNANCY
Pregnancy brings about many changes in the woman’s body. The increased
activity of her systems and the growing baby make many demands on her
body. The mother requires special care during this period so that her
health as well as the baby’s does not suffer. You will read about the kind of
care the mother needs in the following paragraphs. The care the mother gets
will influence the growth of the foetus in the prenatal period. If we view the
aspects of care of the mother in another manner, we can also refer to
them as the environmental factors that influence prenatal development.

4.5.1 Nutrition
You have read that the developing foetus gets nutrition from the mother.
Besides, the mother’s body is also undergoing changes and she needs extra
calories, proteins, vitamins and minerals. Because of both these reasons, the
expectant mother needs extra food. Some minerals and vitamins are required
in greater quantities as compared to others. These are calcium, iron and
B-complex vitamins. The quality of the diet is as important as its quantity. To
ensure that the mother gets a nutritive diet, care should be taken to include
fruits, green vegetables, pulses, milk and its products. Mothers who have an
adequate diet have better health during pregnancy and fewer disorders. If the
mother is healthy, the chances of her delivering a premature baby are low.
Children born of mothers who have a good diet have better health, a higher
resistance to infections and fewer chances of contracting cold, bronchitis,
pneumonia and tetanus. Mothers who have a poor diet have infants who have
low birth weight and this can have adverse effects on the child’s physical and
mental development.

4.5.2 Health Care

The health of the mother has a direct impact on the health of the growing
child. If some disease causing virus, bacteria or harmful chemicals are
68
present in the mother’s blood, they pass on to the baby’s blood through the Prenatal
Development and
placenta. Let us read about the health care which is needed for the mother Care
with reference to the following points.

Diseases and disorders during pregnancy: The organisms that cause

rubella, syphilis, diphtheria, influenza, typhoid, hepatitis, tetanus and chicken
pox can pass on to the foetus through the placenta if they are present in the
mother’s blood. The period during which the mother has the infection is
critical in determining the degree of effect on the developing foetus. As you
know major malformations in the foetus result if these infections occur in the
first few months of pregnancy, particularly in the first twelve weeks, than in
the later months. In Unit 3 you have read about the harmful effects of rubella
on the foetus if the mother has the infection during the first three months of
pregnancy. Therefore, before the woman conceives she should have been
immunized against rubella. The pregnant mother should be immunized
against tetanus also as this is a major cause of mortality (death) among
mothers and infants.

Another disorder that can occur during pregnancy is toxaemia. In its mild
form it is characterised by high blood pressure, rapid and excessive weight
gain and retention of fluid in the tissues. If the condition is controlled at this
stage there is no danger to the foetus. If it continues to progress, it can lead to
convulsions and even coma, which can cause death of the mother and the
foetus. If the baby is born, her development in all areas will be seriously
affected.

Smoking and alcohol consumption: Heavy drinking and excessive smoking

during pregnancy can lead to low birth weight of the infant. The infant is also
likely to be less active in the first few months. Additionally, alcohol also
causes deformities of the foetus’ eyes, ears and heart, development of extra
fingers and toes and abnormally small head. Illnesses are more common
among infants of mothers who smoke and consume alcohol.

Drugs: A mother who takes strong drugs and narcotics is most likely to have
an infant who is irritable, has tremors and convulsions, vomiting, diarrhoea
and difficulty in breathing. These symptoms may last as long as six months.

Besides these drugs, many medicines can also have a harmful effect on the
foetus. Some drugs taken by the mother may affect the child later during
infancy. For example, the intake of tetracyclin by the pregnant woman can
cause stained teeth in the infant. The effects of many drugs, even the most
commonly used such as aspirin, depends on the dosage taken and the period
during which it is taken. Therefore a woman who is pregnant should not
take drugs/medicines unless absolutely necessary and then too on the
advice of a doctor.

4.5.3 Emotional States

The mother’s emotions can influence the development of the foetus. This is
because emotions such as rage, fear and anxiety lead to release of hormones
and other chemical substances in the mother’s bloodstream. These substances
are transmitted through the placenta to the foetus’ bloodstream and may be
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
irritating to it. Whenever the mother is undergoing emotional stress, the
bodily movements of the foetus increase. If the mother is upset and unhappy
for prolonged periods, the baby is likely to have low birth weight. The infant
also tends to be irritable, feeds irregularly, has excessive bowel movements,
cries a lot and shows an unusual need to be held. Emotional tension can also
result in difficult labour and delivery. Therefore, it is important that the
mother remains happy and relaxed during pregnancy and has an accepting
attitude towards the child to be born.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Answer the following questions briefly in the space provided below:
1) What are the effects of inadequate diet during pregnancy on the health of
the mother and the baby?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) In what way does excessive smoking and consumption of alcohol by the
pregnant woman harm the developing foetus in the womb?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
3) List the three environmental factors that affect prenatal development.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
4) Why is it important for the mother to remain happy and relaxed during
pregnancy?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

70
4.6 SUMMARY Prenatal
Development and
Care
In this Unit, you have read about the development of the baby within the
mother’s womb. Conception occurs when the sperm unites with the egg to
form a single cell called the zygote. This is the first cell of a human being.
Development from conception till birth takes around nine months. The period
of prenatal development is usually divided into three stages — the period of
the ovum which lasts from conception to two weeks, the period of the
embryo which lasts from the third week after conception to the eighth week
and the period of the foetus which begins from the ninth week and lasts till
birth. The period of the embryo and the early foetal period, i.e. the period up
to 12 weeks after conception, is a critical period since this is the time when
the major organs and systems of the body are being formed and are
developing at a fast rate. At this time, the embryo is vulnerable to harmful
influences. If the mother has an illness, takes drugs, ingests some harmful
chemicals or has an accident, it may cause irreversible damage to the
developing baby.
The foetus derives its food supply and oxygen from the mother’s blood via
the placenta and the umbilical cord. The umbilical cord also carries the waste
products and carbon dioxide from the foetus’ blood to the placenta from
where it diffuses to the mother’s bloodstream. The seventh month of
gestation is an important period in prenatal development. By this time all the
systems of the body have developed, and are functioning so that if the child is
born prematurely, she can survive.

It is important to have a professionally qualified person trained to conduct

deliveries whether the delivery is conducted at home or in the hospital, so
that the health of the mother and the baby is ensured. The child is born with
well-developed capacities of hearing, smell, vision and touch. Research has
shown that the capacities of hearing and vision are developed even before
birth. The excretory, digestive and circulatory systems are also working
during the prenatal period.

You have also read that it is important that the mother takes care of herself
during pregnancy. She must maintain good health, eat enough food to take
care of her increasing nutritional needs and remain relaxed and happy. Anger,
fear and tension lead to release of hormones and other chemical substances in
her body. These may harm the foetus. All these factors of care of the mother
are important because they can affect the development of the foetus.

4.7 GLOSSARY
Gestation Period: The duration/period of pregnancy.
Intra-uterine: Within or inside the uterus. In this case, we mean the
development of the baby inside the womb.
Vulnerable: Sensitive, open to harmful influences.

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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development 4.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
ACROSS DOWN
1) Umbilical 2) Brain
3) Labour 4) Placenta
5) Implantation 6) Four
7) Embryo 8) Seven
9) Zygote 10) Third
11) Genes 12) Amniotic
13) Bone

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Inadequate diet can adversely affect the mother’s health leading to
disorders and diseases. It can also cause low birth weight of the infant,
which leads to lower resistance to infections and the baby has more
chances of contracting (catching) colds, bronchitis, tetanus and
pneumonia. If the diet was very deficient it can also have adverse effect
on the child’s physical and mental development.

2) Infants born to mothers who smoke and consume alcohol excessively

have low birth weight and are less active in the first few months. Alcohol
also causes deformities of the eyes, ears, heart and abnormally small
head of the infant.

3) The three environmental factors that affect prenatal development are: the
health of the mother, her nutritional and her emotional states.

4) It is important for the mother to be relaxed and happy during pregnancy

because emotional stress can lead to release of hormones and chemical
substances in the mother’s blood which get transmitted to the
bloodstream of the foetus. These are irritating to the foetus.

72
UNIT 5 PHYSICAL, MOTOR AND SENSORY Physical, Motor
and Sensory

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEONATE Development of the

Neonate

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Neonate
5.2.1 The First Day
5.2.2 Feeding
5.2.3 Other Body Processes
5.3 Capabilities of the Newborn
5.3.1 Motor Capabilities of the Newborn – Reflexes
5.3.2 Sensory Capabilities of the Neonate
5.4 Newborn’s Routine
5.5 Care of the Neonate
5.6 Summary
5.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last Unit, you read about the development of the foetus in the womb,
the birth process and the care that the mother should take during pregnancy.
In this Unit, we will focus on the development that takes place in the area of
physical, motor and sensory development from birth to one month of age.
The first month of life is the most crucial for survival of the child. Hence, we
have devoted an entire chapter to the discussion on development during this
period.

Objectives
After studying the Unit, you should be able to:
• describe the motor capabilities (reflexes) of neonates;
• describe the sensory development during the first year of life;
• describe the newborn’s routine; and
• state important rules in taking care of the newborn.

5.2 THE NEONATE

‘Neonate’ is the term used to refer to the newborn baby in the first
month of life. This period is crucial for survival of the baby. In our country,
at this stage, a large proportion of infants die. One reason why this period is
crucial for survival is because the newborn experiences a sudden change in
her environment from the womb to the outside world. If the caregivers do not
give her adequate protection, she becomes vulnerable to (open to; exposed to;
at risk of) illness which can lead to death. Let us see how the environment is
different after birth compared to what it was in the womb. 73
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
The Changed Environment
The newborn child has to adjust to an environment which is very different
from the one in the mother’s womb. In the womb the foetus had a
comfortable and protected existence — the temperature was controlled and so
the foetus did not experience ‘hot’ or ‘cold’; it was cushioned from physical
shocks by the amniotic fluid; and received nutrition from the mother. From
this comfortable existence the baby is pushed out into an atmosphere of
relative discomfort. She is surrounded by air which may be cold or hot, dry or
humid. She has to cry to call attention and to indicate that she is hungry, wet
or uncomfortable.

Thus after birth, the newborn has to make efforts to satisfy her needs
and has to depend wholly on adults, usually the mother. But as you will
read further, you will see that the newborn has many capabilities which
help her to adjust to the new surroundings.
Let us now read about the main aspects in the first month.

5.2.1 The First Day

A full-term Indian baby, on an average, weighs about 2.5 kilograms at
birth. The skin of the newborn is usually covered with a white wax-like
coating. Soon after birth, this coating dries and begins to peel off. The skin is
greyish or pink in colour and may be covered with fine hair, which
disappears during the first month. The newborn’s head is large in proportion
to the rest of the body. It may be slightly elongated due to the birth process
and regains shape in the first few weeks after birth. Genitals in both boys and
girls appear to be enlarged.

The Neonate – Three days old

74
Birth Cry — As soon as the baby is born, she gasps for air to breathe and Physical, Motor
and Sensory
this causes the baby to cry. Thus, the baby’s cry indicates to us that she has Development of the
begun to breathe and that there is adequate supply of oxygen to the brain. Neonate
Remember, the baby does not breathe in the womb. Her oxygen needs are
met through the umbilical cord. The birth attendants are fully aware of the
significance of the birth cry. If the cry does not come naturally, the baby is
patted on the back to facilitate the cry. If the child does not breathe at birth,
the lack of oxygen to the brain can cause brain damage resulting in serious
disorders like cerebral palsy or other mental disorders.

After the birth cry, the baby may have some difficulty in breathing due to the
presence of ‘amniotic fluid’ in the lungs. The baby’s breathing during this
period is irregular and strained which may worry a new mother. But it clears
out soon. Coughing, sneezing and yawning help in clearing the air passage
which enables the infant to breathe.
APGAR Scale — In the hospitals, as soon as the baby is born, her condition
is evaluated on the APGAR scale. This Scale is administered twice by the
hospital staff — at one minute after delivery and then at five minutes after the
delivery. This scale, named APGAR helps us to remember the five signs
which are evaluated through this scale to judge the baby’s condition at birth.
These signs are — A-Activity, P-Pulse, G-Grimace, A-Appearance, and R-
Respiration.
The baby is given 0, 1 or 2 points for each sign (i.e. activity, pulse, grimace,
appearance and respiration) depending upon her condition. Hence, APGAR is
a 10 point scale with maximum score of 2 points for each sign. Table 1 below
explains the scale:
Table 1: The Apgar Scale
Sign 0 Points 1 Point 2 Points
A Activity (Muscle Completely Weak movements Strong
Tone) limp body of arms and legs movements of
arms and legs
P Pulse No Heart Below 100 beats 100-140 beats
beat per minute per minute
G Grimace (Reflex No response Weak reflexive Strong reflexive
Irritability) (sneezing, response response
coughing, expressions
on face due to pain,
disgust etc.)
A Appearance (Skin Blue body, Body pink with Body, arms and
Color) arms and blue arms and legs legs completely
legs pink
R Respiration No breathing Slow, irregular Strong breathing
breathing and crying
Source: Berk, L. (2017). Development through the Lifespan. (7th Ed). Boston: Pearson.

A score of 7-10 on the APGAR Scale is considered normal, while a score of

4-7 indicates that the child needs medical attention to maintain her breathing
and blood circulation in the body. A baby with an APGAR score of 3 and
below is in a serious condition and in need of urgent immediate medical
attention to help her to survive.
75
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
When the baby scores low on APGAR scale, additional scorings are done at
10 minutes, 15 minutes and 20 minutes after birth along with providing the
required medical services. If the score remains between 0-3 in these
additional scores also, it may indicate possibility of neurological or other
damage in the newborn.

However, a low Apgar score does not always mean that the child may have
brain damage or may not survive. The baby’s activity level and
responsiveness may be low because of the following:
• Because of sedatives and pain killers received by the mother during
delivery.
• Due to physiological immaturity as in case of Premature/Pre-term babies
Hence, if the baby scores low on the APGAR scale, the doctor checks for all
the factors which may cause it and acts accordingly.
APGAR scale is easy to administer, quick and inexpensive, causes no harm
to the newborn and helps doctors evaluate the child’s condition and act
accordingly in time. It is the first test conducted on the babies soon after
their birth in hospitals all around the world.

5.2.2 Feeding
After birth the child has to take in food through the mouth. Her lower jaw and
cheeks are especially formed to suck. The chin and lower lip are receding, i.e.
they slope backwards, and there are soft pads in the cheeks. This enables her
to come close to the breast and suck, while still being able to breathe. The
child is born with Rooting and Sucking Reflexes which help her to feed.
These are described in the section ‘Capabilities of the Newborn’.
The neonate should be given breast milk from the very first day. This
helps to induce and maintain the secretion of milk. The milk secreted for the
first two or three days is a thick yellowish fluid called colostrum which has
high protein content as well as certain substances that are good for the baby
as they build resistance to disease. It is extremely important that the child has
this milk. However, in many parts of the country the mother does not feed
this ‘first milk’ to the newborn and this ‘first milk’ is thrown away, which is
not a good practice. When the baby does not receive this ‘first milk’, she is
deprived of the proteins and the substances present in this first milk which
help fight diseases (gives her immunity or resistance to disease) and hence
her body’s immunity to diseases tends to get low. Therefore, it is very
important to make everyone aware of the importance of colostrum for the
child’s health.
Many times, the mother and the child are separated immediately after birth to
allow the mother to gain strength. However, recent research studies have
shown that it is important for the baby to be close to the mother as soon as
possible after birth. When the mother holds the baby in her arms, feeds her,
gazes at her face and touches her, she experiences satisfying feelings and
develops an emotional bond with the child. The baby too derives a feeling of
security from this initial physical contact and this is important for her socio-
emotional development as you will read in the later Units. Therefore, it is
very important that the child is breast fed from the first day itself.
76
5.2.3 Other Body Processes Physical, Motor
and Sensory
The neonate’s first elimination from the bowels is dark and sticky and is Development of the
Neonate
formed from the dead intestinal cells, mucous, fluid as well as what was
taken in by the baby while still in the uterus.

5.3 CAPABILITIES OF THE NEWBORN

Until a few decades ago, the newborn babies were considered as helpless
beings who could do very little on their own. But now research has shown
that babies have several capabilities right from the time of their birth, which
are crucial for their survival and for attracting care and attention of the
parents/caregivers. These capabilities help the babies to perceive, understand
and adjust to the new environment around them. Babies are active from birth
and they actively relate to the people and environment around them. We shall
now read in detail about the capabilities of the newborn:

5.3.1 Motor Capabilities of the Newborn — Reflexes

All babies are born with a range of reflexes necessary for their survival.
Reflexes are automatic physical movements in response to a particular event
or stimulus. In other words, they are involuntary physical actions. For
example, if you stroke the corner of the newborn’s mouth, her head turns
towards the corner you are stroking, she opens her lips, puts out her tongue
and tries to take the object in her mouth to suck it. This reflex is referred to as
the rooting reflex. It can be seen before birth and disappears in three months
after birth. The reflex is necessary for survival since it allows the newborn to
reach for the breast or bottle. The second reflex associated with feeding, and
thus important for the baby’s health, is the sucking reflex. When something
is placed in her mouth, she sucks at it. This reflex disappears some time after
birth. In sleep, however, it can be seen till seven months after birth. When we
say that the rooting and sucking reflexes disappear after some time, it does
not mean that the infant does not suck anymore. It means that sucking comes
under voluntary control instead of being reflexive (involuntary).
When the baby sucks, she forms a seal around the nipple with her lips and
creates a vacuum in her mouth by moving the jaws, which helps to draw the
milk from the nipple. At the same time the infant uses the tongue to draw
milk from the nipple towards the back of her mouth. Infants can suck and
inhale (breathe in air) simultaneously, swallowing between the breaths at a
very fast rate, three times faster than adults. The synchronized activities of
sucking, swallowing and breathing are mastered by infants in the first one or
two weeks of birth.
In the newborn some twenty reflexes have been identified. All the reflexes
help the neonate to adjust to her environment and to survive. Specific reflexes
are present at specific times and disappear after a particular age. The
appearance of these reflexes indicates healthy development of the nervous
system. Some reflexes are present only for a short period — they disappear
after a given period. Others remain throughout the lifespan such as the
automatic blinking of our eyes when something comes close to them or the
automatic moving away of one’s hand when it touches a hot object. Table 2 77
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
lists some reflexes that all healthy newborns have. When assessing the health
status of the infant the doctor looks for the presence of the reflexes at the
given ages. Absence of any of the reflexes in the ages when they should be
seen or their persistence after the age when they should have
disappeared or abnormal responses indicate problems of the nervous
system. Medical attention is needed in such cases.

Table 2: Some Reflexes shown by Infants

Reflex Stimulation Response Age of Function
Disappearance
Eye Blink Shine bright Infant quickly Permanent Protects baby
light or clap closes eyes reflex from strong
hands near head stimulus
Rooting Stroke cheek Head turns Three months Helps baby
near corner of towards source after birth find the nipple
mouth of stimulation (becomes for feeding
voluntary by
this time)
Sucking Place finger in Infant sucks Some months Helps baby in
infant’s mouth finger after birth feeding
rhythmically (becomes
voluntary by
this time)
Moro- Produce a Infant makes an 6 months In the
embrace sudden loud “embracing” evolutionary
sound against motion by past, it may
surface arching back, have helped
supporting throwing arms the baby to
infant outward and cling to the
toward body caregiver
Palmar Place finger in Infant Usually Prepares baby
grasp infant’s hand spontaneously disappears by for grasping
and press curls her the age of 2-3 objects
against palm fingers around months. Then,
the adult’s grasping
finger and becomes
grasps it voluntary
instead of
being reflexive.
Stepping Hold infant Infant lifts one 2 months Prepares baby
under arms and foot after for walking
permit bare another in
feet to touch stepping
flat surface response
Babinski Stroke sole of Toes fan out 8-12 months Not known
foot from toe and curl as
toward heel foot twists in
Tonic neck Turn baby’s The arm and 4 months May prepare
neck to one leg of that side baby for
side while extend while voluntarily
lying awake on those on the reach out for
back other side bend things
Source: Berk, L. (2017). Development through the Lifespan. (7th Ed). Boston: Pearson.
78
5.3.2 Sensory Capabilities of the Neonate Physical, Motor
and Sensory
Development of the
The neonate has various sensory capabilities which help her to adjust to the Neonate
outside world. On the basis of many research studies, it is now known that
the eyes, ears and other sense organs function in a remarkable manner
from birth onwards. Neonates react to touch, heat and cold and can
distinguish certain sounds, tastes and smells. Let us read about these in detail.

a) Vision: The infant’s visual system matures over the first two years. Due
to this visual immaturity, the newborn baby cannot focus on objects as
well as adults. Also unlike adults, who can see nearby objects clearly, the
newborn babies see nearby and far off objects similarly. The vision of
the newborn is quite immature and the infant cannot see as clearly as
adults. It has also been found that although newborns prefer to look at
bright objects, their colour vision is immature and they are not able to
discriminate between different colours. It takes about a month or two for
their colour vision to develop.

But most of us when we hold a baby in our arms do not get the feeling
that the baby is not able to focus – in fact, we often feel that the infant is
looking quite intensely at us. Studies indicate that the neonate can see
objects and people clearly when they are at a distance of eight to ten
inches from her face. This is usually the distance between the adult’s
and the baby’s face when the adult holds the baby in the arms! Thus
during these interactions the baby can clearly see the caregiver’s face and
gets an opportunity to examine it. This is the way in which the baby
learns to recognize the people around her. This mutual gazing also helps
to establish an emotional bond between the child and the caregivers.
Though the infant finds it difficult to focus, she has many visual abilities.
The newborn’s eyes are sensitive to light. If placed in a dark room, her
eyes search actively for light and if she finds a source of light, she
continues to look at it. The light, however, should be bright. This means
that she can differentiate between light and dark.

Immediately after birth, the baby can follow a moving object with her
eyes. The object should be moderately bright and should move slowly.
The newborn is attracted by things that move, produce sound and those
which have a light and dark contrast. The human face has all these
characteristics and it greatly attracts the newborn. When the caregivers
interact with the child, their eyes and mouth move frequently. The eyes,
in addition, have a light and dark contrast.
In fact, the newborn baby continuously scans her surroundings and when
she sees an object she gives it a good deal of attention. The child thus
seems predisposed to look around and examine the world. She may
not understand all that she sees, but she is building up a store of
experience which will help her in learning later.

b) Hearing: From the time of birth babies respond to sound. This is

evident from the fact that they turn their head towards the direction of the
sound source. However, they cannot hear as well as, for example, a one
79
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
year old child. They can hear only moderately loud sounds. Different
levels of sounds have different effects on the child. Loud noises distress
the babies and they get startled and begin to cry. Soft sounds soothe
them. They are most responsive to human voice as compared to any
other sound. The newborn’s preference for human speech is reflected in
the fact that they move their arms, legs and body in rhythm to the
caregiver’s speech as early as twelve hours after birth. If the pace of the
adult’s speech is fast, the movements of the neonate become fast. If the
rhythm of the speech slows down, so do the infant’s movements.

While it will take the infant another three months to distinguish the
mother’s face from other people’s faces, she can discriminate the
mother’s voice from other female voices in the very first week of
birth. This is probably because the baby has been hearing the mother’s
voice while in the womb and is already familiar with it.

c) Taste and Smell: The senses of taste and smell are also well developed
in the newborn. Neonates can distinguish the four basic tastes: sweet,
sour, salt and bitter. Research indicates that when newborns are given
sweet liquid instead of plain water, they suck more. However if they are
given salty water, they reduce sucking or do not suck at all. These
reactions are essential for survival as the ideal food for the newborn is
the sweet tasting milk from the mother’s breast. The infant responds
positively to other tastes by the age of 4 months, when she is ready to eat
solid foods.
As regards the sense of smell, the baby turns her head away from any
unpleasant odours as early as the first day after birth. Babies who are
breast-fed appear to be able to recognize the smell of breastmilk as early
as in the first week.
d) Touch: Sensitivity to touch is well developed at birth. Newborns
respond when touched on any part of the body. They are especially
sensitive to touch on the mouth, face, soles of the feet and the palms.
Newborn babies also react to stimuli that are colder or warmer than their
body temperature. Babies are sensitive to pain as well and react with
intense and high-pitched crying to pain.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Read the following statements carefully and state whether they are
correct or incorrect.

a) ‘Neonate’ is a term used to refer to the baby between birth and six
months of age.
b) The newborn is not helpless. She can see, hear, smell, move her
arms and legs and cries to attract attention.
c) Breast milk provides all nutrients the child needs and breast-feeding
is important for mother-child attachment.
d) Neonates can see clearly at a distance of ‘8-10’ inches.
80 e) Neonates can discriminate the mother’s voice and other female
 voices as early as the first week after birth. Physical, Motor
and Sensory
f) Absence of any reflex in the ages when it should be there or its Development of the
Neonate
persistence for longer that necessary, indicates problems of the
nervous system.

2) Match the statements in column I with those in column II:

COLUMN I COLUMN II
a) Moro reflex i) When touched on the cheek, the child turns
towards the touch and seeks something to
suck on.
b) Grasping reflex ii) If the infant’s head is turned to one side,
the arm and leg on that side extend while
those on the other side bend.
c) Tonic neck reflex iii) On hearing a loud sound or receiving a
physical shock, the infant throws out her
arms and arches her back.
d) Rooting reflex iv) When pressure is applied on the infant’s
palm, she curls her fingers and grasps the
object.

5.4 THE NEWBORN’S ROUTINE

Besides knowing about the motor skills and sensory capabilities of the
newborn, it is also important for us to know what the newborn does in a day.
Does she sleep all the time or are there periods when she is active and alert?
Such understanding will help the caregiver to know what can be expected
from the newborn and she will be able to look after the baby better.

The newborn sleeps for about 16 to 18 hours out of 24 in a day and

remains alert for about 6 to 8 hours. If you have observed an infant under
the age of one month closely, you would have noticed that she has different
levels of activity at different times of the day. Most neonates move from deep
sleep to lighter sleep and then wake up. Crying indicates hunger. On being
fed the infant becomes quiet first and a little later, becomes active. When
awake, the baby looks around and pays attention to caregivers if they interact
with the baby. Then she becomes drowsy again and falls asleep. This cycle of
activities repeats itself. An important implication of this cycle for
caregivers is that the best time for interaction with the infant is just after
she has been fed and is active.
Many common behaviours can be observed in neonates. You have read
about some of them in the preceding sections: they cry when hungry, suck on
a nipple, and show a distinct cycle in the pattern of activity. However, you
must remember that there are individual differences in their behaviour
as well. They differ in the rate and pattern of activity, sleep and feeding
schedules as well as emotional disposition and social interaction. Some
neonates cry more than others and are fussy, requiring more attention on the
part of the caregiver to soothe them. Some are quiet and sleep for longer
81
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
periods compared to others and some are alert.

Infant’s sleep: It would be interesting for you to know that we all have two
types of sleep states:

1) Rapid Eye movement Sleep (REM Sleep): In this sleep state, our eyes
move rapidly beneath the eyelids, our heart rate, blood pressure and
breathing becomes uneven and some body movements also occur. REM
sleep occurs, when we dream. You must have noticed others in such
sleep state.

2) Non Rapid Movement Sleep (Non REM Sleep): In this sleep state, our
body is almost motionless and our heart rate and breathing are slow and
regular.

While sleeping, we all remain in Non-REM sleep pattern most of the time.
Only about 20% of our sleep time is comprised of REM sleep state.

Now as mentioned in the above section, infants sleep for about 16-18 hours a
day. However, they remain in REM sleep state for about 50% of their sleep
time! Why is it so? Why do babies remain in REM sleep state for about half
of their sleep time?

Scientists believe that during REM sleep, electrical brain wave activity is
very high. REM sleep is perhaps the way by which the brain stimulates itself.
This stimulation is necessary for the development of the central nervous
system.
Infants usually have regular REM and non-REM sleep cycles. However, it
has been found that infants with brain damage or central nervous system
abnormalities often have disturbed / irregular sleep cycles.

5.5 CARE OF THE NEONATE

All babies are different and need different kind of care from parents.
However, certain aspects of care are common to all babies and must be
kept in mind. In this section, you will read about these aspects.

The neonate does not have an efficient system to control body temperature
and cannot produce heat to keep her body warm. Her system is equally
inefficient at cooling the body. Therefore, one needs to keep the baby warm
or cool depending upon the climate.
As far as possible the neonate should be breast-fed. From birth up to the
age of four to six months, breast milk is all a baby needs to grow well, as it
meets all the nutritional requirements of the body. It is important for the
lactating mother to have a wholesome and nutritious diet. By the sixth month
a baby begins to need other foods, sometimes in addition to breast milk.
Breast-feeding is an essential part of the mother-child relationship. It
provides the child a secure and pleasant feeling and promotes attachment to
the mother. During the first month of life, the baby can suck only small
amounts of milk. Therefore, she should be fed whenever she is hungry. She
82 will need to be fed 6-8 times in a day at intervals of 3-4 hours. If the baby is
being bottle-fed, then certain points have to be kept in mind. These are as Physical, Motor
and Sensory
follows: Development of the
Neonate
• The quality/consistency of the milk should be checked to ensure that the
child is getting enough nutrition. The milk should not be so dilute that it
does not meet her nutritional needs. It should also not be too
concentrated as that it would be difficult to digest.
• The nipple and bottle should be sterilized after each use, kept clean
during storage and covered to avoid infection.
• The infant should be held while feeding, instead of propping the bottle in
her mouth and leaving her alone. Holding the child makes her feel loved
and secure. Also just leaving the bottle popped in the mouth can cause
choking.

The mother must keep the child clean, particularly the region of the
umbilicus, in order to prevent infection of the area.

Besides attending to the infant’s physical needs, the caregiver must spend
time with her. Talking to the baby, gazing and smiling at her and touching
her will help her to become familiar with the caregiver. Even though the
neonate does not talk or smile back, you know that she attends to the person
who interacts with her. She looks at the person’s face and moves her body in
response to the person’s attention. Through such experiences her mind
develops. Interacting with the child from the time she is born is necessary
to foster development in all areas.

5.6 SUMMING UP
In this Unit, you read about physical, motor and sensory capabilities of the
neonate. You learnt how the neonate adapts and adjusts to her environment.
The newborn is not helpless. She has fairly well developed sensory
capabilities — she can see, hear, smell, taste and feel touch. Her cheeks and
jaws are also specially formed to suck. The infant is born with a collection of
involuntary responses to stimuli, referred to as reflexes, and these help her to
survive.

The neonate has various sensory capabilities which help them to adjust to the
outside world. The neonate can see objects clearly when they are at a distance
of 8-10 inches from her face. She can recognize the mother’s voice in the
very first week after birth. The senses of taste and smell are also well
developed in the newborn. Sensitivity to touch is well developed at birth.
Newborns respond when touched on any part of the body.

The baby should be fed on breast milk from the first day of life, not only
because it meets her nutritional requirements but also because it helps in the
development of an emotional bond between the mother and the child. The
diet of the lactating mother should also be given due attention. If the baby is
bottle-fed, several precautions need to be taken. Interacting with the child
from the time she is born is necessary to foster development in all areas.

83
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development 5.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) a) False. ‘Neonate’ is a term used to refer to the baby between birth
and one month of age.
b) True
c) True
d) True
e) True
f) True
2) a) (iii), b) (iv), c) (ii), d) (i)

84
UNIT 6 PHYSICAL MOTOR AND SENSORY Physical Motor and
Sensory Development

DEVELOPMENT DURING During Infancy and

Toddlerhood

INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Physical Development during the First Three Years
6.2.1 Changes in Body Size and Shape
6.2.2 Development of Bones, Teeth and Muscles
6.2.3 Changes in Height and Weight
6.2.4 Development of the Brain
6.3 Motor Development in the First Year
6.4 Motor Development in the Second and Third Year
6.4.1 Gross Motor Skills
6.4.2 Fine Motor Skills
6.5 Development of Sensory Capacities
6.5.1 Vision
6.5.2 Hearing
6.5.3 Smell, Taste and Touch
6.6 Importance of Physical, Motor and Sensory Development
6.7 Maturational Basis and Environmental Influences on Physical, Sensory
and Motor Development
6.8 Care of the Infant
6.8.1 Feeding
6.8.2 Health Care and Immunization
6.8.3 Growth Monitoring
6.9 Care of the Toddler
6.9.1 Feeding
6.9.2 Immunization
6.10 Summing Up
6.11 Glossory
6.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, you have read in detail about the physical growth and
development during the neonatal period. In this Unit now, you will read in
detail about physical, motor and sensory development from one month to two
years of age.

From 1 month to two years of age, growth continues at a very rapid speed
and development in all areas is rapid. Sensory capacities of hearing, sight,
85
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
smell, taste and touch develop rapidly. Changes are visible from one week to
the next. Increase in height and weight are accompanied by changes in body
proportions. Unless there is adequate physical development, the child
cannot achieve the motor skills appropriate for that age.
Let us meet Anne who will be three years old in a month’s time. She can run,
climb stairs alternating her feet and can also walk backwards for fun! She has
better balance now. One of the things she loves to do is to fill the pages of her
brother’s notebook with scribbles whenever she finds it lying around, much
to the annoyance of her brother! Playing with water, splashing it and pouring
it from one container to another is her favourite game.

What developments have taken place from the stage of ‘trying to walk by
holding on to a support’ to being able to walk backwards, from trying to pick
up small objects to scribbling untiringly with a crayon? Let us trace the
development of gross and fine motor skills during toddlerhood and also read
about the physical growth that takes place during this period.

Objectives
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
• describe the physical growth during infancy and toddlerhood;
• enumerate the milestones of motor development during the first year of
life;
• trace the development of gross and fine motor skills during toddlerhood;
• describe the sensory development during the first year of life;
• explain how maturational and environmental factors interact to influence
physical and motor development;
• state the type of physical care needed by infants in terms of health and
nutrition; and
• know about adequate health care and nutrition for the toddler.

6.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE

FIRST THREE YEARS
We will describe the physical development under the following heads.

6.2.1 Changes in Body Size and Shape

As you already read in Unit 3, physical growth and development takes place
in a definite direction (which is common to all mammals). Growth proceeds
from head downwards (head-to-toe direction) and from centre of the body to
the periphery (ends). In other words, developments in structure and function
come first in the head region, then in the trunk, and finally in the leg region.
Similarly, the child moves her entire arm using the shoulder or her leg using
the thigh as these are near the centre of the body (nearer to the trunk). Only
later does she make movements using her hands and fingers (nearer to the
periphery of the body). Remember, however, that when one part of the body
86 is growing rapidly, the other parts are also developing at the same time, but at
a slower rate compared to the part which is the focus of growth and Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
development. During Infancy and
Toddlerhood
These two principles are applicable in the case of prenatal (before birth) as
well as postnatal (after birth) development. Thus in the embryo, the head
region is the first to develop, followed by the trunk and then the limbs. In
fact, at eight weeks after conception, the head comprises half the entire length
of the embryo. In the entire prenatal life, the head continues to be the fastest
growing part of the body. This is not to say that the rest of the body is not
developing simultaneously. It is simply that the head is developing faster.

Since the head develops fastest during the prenatal period, it is obviously
more developed than any other part of the body at birth. After birth, the focus
of development shifts downwards to other areas of the body. The focus first
becomes the torso (trunk or chest), followed by arms and legs. This is clear
when we look at the growth in size of the different body parts and hence
changes in body proportions from birth to maturity in Figure 6.1

Source: Berk, L. (2017). Development through the Lifespan. (7th Ed). Boston: Pearson.
Fig. 6.1: Changes in body proportions from prenatal period till adulthood

You can see very clearly in the above figure that the size and proportions of
the child’s body change considerably during the first two years after birth. At
birth, the head of the baby is one fourth of the total body length and the legs
only one third. However after birth, the trunk and the limbs begin to grow at a
faster pace as compared to head. In the second year, the arms increase by
about 60-70 per cent of their length at birth. Legs also increase by 40 per cent
of their length at birth. Hence, the length of legs which is about 1/3rd of the
total body length at birth increases to 1/2 of the total body length by the
age of 2 years. On the other hand, the proportion of a child’s head
decreases from 1/4th of the entire body at birth to 1/5th at the age of 2
years (and to 1/8th by adulthood).

6.2.2 Development of Bones, Teeth and Muscles

Development of bones: When babies are born, their bones are softer and
more like cartilage. This gives them flexibility, allows them to fit inside the 87
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mother’s womb, and pass through the birth canal. The hardening of the soft
cartilage of the bones begins during the foetal stage itself and continues after
birth. This process of hardening of bones is called ossification. The bones of
children harden/ossify gradually as calcium is deposited in them during
infancy and childhood. As the bones begin to harden in the first year, the
skeleton is better able to support the baby’s weight and she is able to perform
activities such as crawling. The hardening of the bones of the spinal cord and
of the arms and legs during the second year enable the toddler to stand
upright can support her weight and walk. This also enables her to master
increasingly complex motor tasks. Not only do bones ossify, the small bones
join to form larger ones and the cartilage tissue hardens to form new bones.
Thus, the number of bones in the body also increases during the toddler
years.

You may have noticed that babies have a soft spot called ‘Fontanelle’ on the
top of the skull because the bones here have not fused together yet. These
bones fuse somewhere between 9 to 12 months of age and a completely hard
skull cap is formed. That is why utmost care is needed not to let the baby get
hurt on head. By the age of 2 years, the baby’s skull is as hard as that of an
adult.

Development of muscles: As babies grow, the muscles needed to support

their weight also develop. Although human beings are born with all the
muscle fibres they will ever have, the muscles change in length and thickness
throughout childhood and adolescence. The muscles of the hands and wrists
are the first to harden, making it easier for the baby to grasp and pick-up
objects. That is why the motor skills of grasping and picking up come first.
Then muscles of the legs and feet harden making it possible for the infant to
stand alone by the age of 10 months and then walk independently by the age
of 11 months to 1 ½ years. You can see the principle of head-to-toe
development here – the muscles of the hands harden first and then that of the
legs and feet.

Development of teeth: In most babies, the first tooth appears at the age of 6-
8 months. However, some babies teeth early and the first tooth appears by the
age of 4 months while some do not develop teeth even by the age of 1 year.
The two lower middle teeth erupt first; next, the four upper middle teeth, and
after that, the incisors, then molars and finally the back molars. By the time
the toddler is three years old, she has a complete set of twenty teeth, called
milk teeth.

6.2.3 Changes in Height and Weight

The average weight of a newborn baby is around 3 kilograms and her height
is 50 cms. The infant gains both in height and weight. Her weight increases
threefold by the end of the first year to about 9 kilograms (app.) and her
height increases by about 1 inch per month for the first 6 months and reaches
to 75 cms (app.) by the age of one year. While growth is at a fast pace in all
infants, the rate of growth varies from child to child. Many factors contribute
to this variation: quantity and quality of food, genetic factors, freedom to
move etc. Regular monthly weight gain is the most important sign of a baby’s
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development and the child’s weight can be compared with the norms for her Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
age. However, though it is desirable that the child’s weight remains within During Infancy and
the range considered normal for her age, not all babies grow at the same rate. Toddlerhood
Therefore, the baby’s weight gain should be compared against her own
weight rather than comparing it with that of other children.

Growth during the second year, though not as fast as in the first year of life,
is still fast compared to the later years of childhood. By the time of the
second birthday, toddlers are taller and heavier. Their weight increases by
about 3 kgs and their height increases by about 12 cms during the second
year. Table 6.1 gives the average height and weight of normal healthy one
and three year olds. By the age of 2 years, children weigh one-fifth of what
they will weigh at 18 years. However, there are individual differences in the
rate of growth and there may be considerable variation among children of the
same age with regard to their height and weight.

Table 6.1: Average Weights and Heights of Indian Children

Weight (Kgs) Height (cms)
Age
Boys Girls Boys Girls
1 Year 9.6 8.9 75.7 74.0
2Years 12.2 11.5 87.8 86.4
3 Years 14.3 13.9 96.1 95.1
Source: WHO Child Growth Standards, 2006-2007

6.2.4 Development of the Brain

The first two years are very important for the growth of the central nervous
system. The central nervous system comprises of the:
• Brain
• Spinal Cord

As you experience the world around you through your senses, the sensory
nerves of your body gather information from the environment, send that
information to the spinal cord, which then sends it to the brain. The brain
then makes sense of that message and fires off a response which reaches the
spinal cord first and from the spinal cord to the rest of the body. Thus the
Spinal Cord, comprising of a bundle of nerves running up and down the
spine, acts as a superhighway, sending messages to and from the brain and
rest of the body every second.

We will now discuss the structure of brain, the functions of its various parts,
how the development of the brain occurs during infancy and the role of
experience in the development of the brain:

A. The Structure of the Brain

The structure of human brain is shown in Figure 6.2. The human brain can
be chiefly divided into three parts: cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem.

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Fig. 6.2: Structure of human brain

1) Cerebrum: The cerebrum / cortex is the largest part of the human brain.
The cerebrum is mainly responsible for our thinking, speech and logical
abilities. You can notice in Fig. 6.2 that the cerebral cortex/ cerebrum is
highly wrinkled (i.e., it has lots of folds). These folds increase the
surface area of the cerebral cortex and the number of nerve cells within
it. The cerebral cortex contains most of the nerve cells of the nervous
system. The development of cerebrum begins during the foetal stage in
the womb, continues after birth and many portions of cerebrum develop
during adulthood as well. The cerebrum has two halves — the left and
right cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere is further divided into a
frontal, pareital, occipital, and temporal lobe as shown in Fig. 6.2. Each
lobe has specific functions.

 Left Cerebral hemisphere: The left hemisphere receives sensory

information from the right side of our body and therefore controls
the right side of our body. This explains why the right side of the
person’s body gets paralyzed when left side of her brain is damaged.
The left hemisphere is also responsible for our language abilities
(i.e. speaking, reading and writing in a language).

 Right cerebral hemisphere: The right hemisphere receives sensory

information from the left side of our body and hence controls the left
side of our body. Hence, if the right side of the brain is damaged, the
left side of the body gets paralyzed. The right hemisphere is also
associated with spatial abilities (judging distances, reading maps,
recognizing geometrical shapes), music and the creative arts.

At birth, these hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are not lateralized

(specialized) for functions. Many areas of the cerebral cortex
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 hemispheres are not yet committed for specific functions. If a Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
hemisphere of an infant is damaged due to an accident, the other During Infancy and
hemisphere can take over some of its functions. Hence the brain is very Toddlerhood
plastic before one year of age. This is also because many synaptic
connections are not formed between neurons in the cortex before the age
of one year (we shall discuss this aspect in detail in the next section).

2) Cerebellum: The cerebellum lies below the cerebrum and just above the
brain stem. It regulates and coordinates the body’s movements, posture
and balance. The development of cerebellum continues after birth and it
is most rapid during the first two years. The neurons connecting the
cerebellum to the cerebral cortex begin to myelinate (we shall discuss
this aspect in detail in the next section) after birth and this process
continues up till adolescence.

3) Brain Stem: At birth the brain stem is one of the most developed areas
of the brain. It continues to develop further for about six months after
birth. The brain stem connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. It also
controls levels of consciousness and alertness. It controls the inborn
reflexes like rooting and sucking. It also regulates critical body
functions, such as breathing, swallowing, blood pressure, heartbeat and
sleeping and helps adjust body posture.

B. Development of the Brain

Till now we have discussed the various parts of the brain, their functions and
development. Let us now read about the development of the brain during
infancy.

It would be interesting for you to know that at the time of birth, the baby’s
brain weighs about 300-350 grams only. The brain at the foetal stage is small
so as to allow the head to pass through the birth canal. After birth, brain
development continues and brain weight doubles by one year of age and
reaches approximately 1,000 gms by the time the child is about 2 years old.
This is almost 80% of the adult brain weight (which is about 1,310 gms -
1,450 gms at about 19-21 yrs of age). However at birth, the baby’s brain has
all the neurons required and no new neurons are produced after birth. Then
what causes increase in brain weight?

We have mentioned above that the development of various brain parts occur
mainly due to development of the neurons. Hence, neurons do not increase in
number after birth but they develop gradually and form connections amongst
themselves which causes development of various parts of the brain and they
take up specialized functions. This causes an increase in brain weight as well.
It has been found that after birth, the development of brain occurs mainly due
to:
• increase in number of glial cells in the brain
• development of the neurons
• formation of more synaptic connections between the neurons
• pruning of the neurons
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We shall now discuss all these processes in detail:

1) Increase in number of Glial cells in Brain: About half of the human

brain volume is made up of glial cells. Glial cells increase in number
dramatically during the first two years of child’s life. These cells do not
carry messages but cause myelinization of the neurons (this has been
described a little later).

2) Development of the Neurons: Neurons are the nerve cells which

transmit the environmental stimuli experienced by our body parts to our
brain and the response from our brain to the body parts. Figure 6.3 given
below depicts the structure of neuron

Fig. 6.3: Structure of neuron

As mentioned above, neurons do not increase in number after birth but

these grow in size due to elongation of the branches of the neurons which
are called dendrites and due to the process of myelinization. Let us
understand each of these processes.
 Elongation of Dendrites: From 5th till 20th week of pregnancy, the brain
cells i.e. neurons are formed at the rate of 50-100 thousand cells per
second! These newly formed nerve cells then migrate to different
locations in the brain and differentiate to perform different functions.
These neurons also form branches which are called dendrites. The
dendrites of a neuron are like antennae that pick up signals from other
neurons and then pass the signal down the axon (tail of neuron) and from
there to the dendrites of the next neuron. The pattern of branching/
forming dendrites is important because it affects the amount and type of
signals the neuron receives. One very important process that occurs
during brain development (before and after birth) is elongation of
dendrites. The dendrites of neurons elongate. For example, by adulthood
the length of the dendrites of neurons in the frontal cortex (front part of
the brain) can increase to more than thirty times their length at birth.
 The process of myelinization: Another important growth process in the
brain is myelinization of neurons. It is the process by which the neurons
are covered by a substance called myelin (a sheath of fatty cells that
insulates the neurons and increases the speed of transmission of signals
through them). As mentioned above, glial cells in the brain assist in
myelinization of neurons. Myelin begins to be formed around neurons
before birth itself and this process continues after birth. In fact, it goes
on till adulthood in some areas of the cerebral cortex.
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 As more and more nerve cells/neurons become myelinated, the abilities Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
of the child expand. This is because the myelinated cells transmit signals During Infancy and
10 to 100 times faster than the unmyelinated ones, making possible more Toddlerhood
effective interconnections and complicated forms of thoughts and
actions.

3) Formation of more and more synaptic connections between the

neurons: The point of communication between the two neurons is called
a Synapse. As mentioned above, during the period of pregnancy, as the
neurons are formed in the brain, they move to different locations in the
brain and differentiate according to their functions. At this time, neurons
also start forming synaptic connections amongst themselves. Figure 6.4
shows the synaptic connections between the neurons at birth.

Fig 6.4: Synaptic connection between two neurons

After birth, as the child experiences the environment around her, the
neurons in her brain get stimulated and form more synaptic connections
(i.e. points of communication) amongst themselves. With increasing age,
more and more synaptic connections are formed between neurons and
they form a complex network of communication amongst them. In fact,
maximum synaptic connections are formed during the first three years
after birth, as the child explores the environment and gathers new
experiences. You may be surprised to know that a three year old child
has about twice the synaptic connections in her brain as compared to an
adult!
What does this mean? Is the brain of a three year old child more
developed than that of an adult? Certainly not. Although the brain of a
three year old child has twice the number of synaptic connections
compared to the brain of an adult, it has been found that the brain of a
young child does not have the ability to organize these synaptic
connections. Hence, the brain of a three year old child simply has a vast
number of synaptic connections between neurons and a vast amount of
information is stored in the brain. But the brain of the young child cannot
judge which information is unimportant and which information is being
stored more than once. Therefore, the complex network of neurons
formed by establishing synaptic connections remains unorganized.
However, after the age of three years, as the child matures and
experiences more and more of the environment around her, the pruning
(cutting; elimination) of unimportant synaptic connections occurs and the
dense network of neurons gradually becomes more and more organized. 93
Physical, Motor and
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4) Pruning of excessive synaptic connections between Neurons: From
the age of three years, the brain of the child begins to realize that in an
attempt to collect all the information experienced through senses, it has
stored information at more than one place or it has stored unimportant
information as well, resulting in dense sets of synapses. At this point it
begins to remove/cut the excessive and unimportant synapses in an
attempt to be more organized and eliminate what is not necessary.
This process is called ‘pruning’. This process continues in adult years as
well and the brain continues to become more and more organized with
age in accordance with the type of experiences the person has. We will
discuss in detail about the pruning process of neurons in Unit 7 on
“Physical Development during Preschool years”.

Thus, to summarize, brain maturation is a process of closely coordinated

development, growth and maturation of brain cells, myelinization and
formation of connections between the cells. During the course of
development the brain develops many extra cells many of which die,
extra connections between the cells are reduced or discarded and
replaced by more efficient ones. These developments of the brain are of
great importance as they allow the child to have greater control over her
movements and add speed and accuracy to her gross and fine motor
skills. Besides physical development, language and cognitive
development also take place as a result of brain growth. In fact, all
developments are closely related to the maturation of the brain.

C. The Role of Experience in the Development of Brain

Experience plays a major role in the development of the brain. As the child
explores, interacts with and experiences her surrounding environment, the
nerve cells/neurons in the brain get stimulated. This stimulation is essential
for their survival. After being stimulated, the nerve cells form synaptic
connections amongst themselves. Those nerve cells which do not get
stimulated die off soon. Therefore, it is very important to stimulate nerve
cells during the early years of the child’s life when formation of synaptic
connections between the nerve cells is taking place at a very rapid rate and
maximum brain growth is occurring. Therefore, the best way to encourage
brain development of the child during the first two years is to allow child to
continuously interact with people and things around her.

As sense centres are located in the cerebral cortex in the brain, stimulation of
the nerve cells of these sense centres in the brain is essential for the
development of the senses as well. For example, without visual stimuli from
the environment, the cells of the visual cortex will not develop. The studies
conducted on animals prove this. In a research study, it was found that when
chimpanzees were kept in total darkness for the first 16 months of their life,
they were unable to learn simple patterns and colour discrimination when put
in light later. Their retina had failed to develop normally. They were
suffering from disturbance of protein synthesis in the visual cortex region of
the brain. As a result, the neurons in the visual cortex had fewer and shorter
branches and up to 70 per cent fewer synapses than normal.
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In the first few months, a baby needs to have a caregiver upon whom she can Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
rely totally. Through this special relationship the baby learns about people During Infancy and
and the world and also gains enough confidence to explore the environment Toddlerhood
around her on her own. The baby who is securely attached to her mother feels
no anxiety in leaving her mother for a while and moving around freely to
explore her surroundings. When she learns to crawl, she crawls around and
explores her environment without any anxiety. Studies prove that crawling
plays a major role in the brain development of infants. When the baby crawls,
she is able to explore her environment. The nerve cells in the brain get
stimulated and many new synaptic connections are formed between the nerve
cells in the cerebral cortex of the brain. Hence, crawling leads to a new level
of organization of nerve cells in the brain by assisting in forming new
synaptic connections. Studies also indicate that infants who crawl are better
able to remember where objects are kept (object locations) and hence can
easily find hidden objects. Thus, the baby’s early experiences with people
and things around them play a major role in their brain development. Later as
toddlers are able to walk, they explore and interact with their environment
and form new synaptic connections between the neurons in their brain. As
young children interact with the people around them, their brain development
is enhanced further.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Fill in the blanks:
a) About half of the human brain volume is made up of ……………...
b) The process of hardening of bones is called ………………
c) Babies have a soft spot on the top of the skull called ………………
d) The set of twenty teeth of a toddler is called …………………
e) The largest part of the human brain is …………………
2) Write whether you agree or disagree with the following statements
giving reasons for the same in one or two lines.
a) Size and proportions of the child’s body change considerably during
the first two years after birth.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
b) Utmost care is needed not to let the baby get hurt on the head.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
c) The first eight years are very important for the growth of the central
nervous system.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
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Physical, Motor and
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d) The right side of the person’s body gets paralyzed when the left side
of her brain is damaged.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

6.3 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN THE FIRST

YEAR
Motor development consists of development of gross motor and fine motor
skills. Gross motor skills are those which require co-ordination of the large
muscles of the body like the shoulder, elbow, thighs and back. Activities like
running, walking, jumping, pushing, pulling, throwing, catching, and
swimming are those which involve the large muscles. Fine motor skills are
those which involve small muscles like those of the wrist and fingers. Picking
up objects, holding them, writing and painting are some activities that
involve small muscles.
Like physical growth, motor development shows predictable patterns of
development (head to foot, and torso/center to extremities/end), with
movements of the head and of the parts in the center of the body coming
under control before those of the lower part of the body or the ends of the
body, such as hands and feet.

Abilities for movement change throughout the childhood period. The young
infant largely makes reflexive (unlearned, involuntary) movement patterns.
As the infant grows, involuntary movements give way to voluntary
movements. The older infant learns to crawl and walk in a voluntary manner.
However, though the child crawls and walks when she wants to (in other
words, it is voluntary), the emergence of crawling and walking is a universal
unlearned behaviour. By middle childhood and adolescence, however, new
motor skills are acquired by instruction or observation and the child becomes
capable of highly skilled voluntary and learned movements, depending upon
what is taught and what is seen.
The following is a description of the emergence of motor abilities in the first
year:

A. Modification or disappearance of reflexes

Many of the reflexes of the newborn come under voluntary control during
the first year. For example, palmar grasp becomes voluntary by the age of 2-3
months – the child now begins to grasp objects intentionally instead of by
reflex. Other reflexes disappear within the first year – for example, stepping
reflex which disappears by the age of 2 months, moro reflex which
disappears by the age of 6 months; tonic neck reflex which disappears by the
age of 4 months, babinski reflex which disappears by the age of 8-12 months
(refer to the previous unit for details). Of course, older children, adolescents
and adults retain some reflex movements like eye-blinking and sucking in
96 addition to developing voluntary movements.
B. From birth-3 months Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
Gross Motor Skills During Infancy and
Toddlerhood
The baby can move her arms and kick with her legs. She can roll her body a
bit from side to side. Because of the tonic neck reflex, the infant mostly looks
at the side on which her arm is extended. She cannot look at objects placed
overhead since she cannot hold her head in the midline as yet. By 3rd month,
the baby can lift her head and chest if placed on stomach. She can roll from
side to back. She can also hold her head up erect and steady in one position
for some time. Now she can also hold her head in the midline while lying on
her back and is able to look at objects directly above her.

The two-month-old infant cannot yet hold head in midline

Fine Motor Skills

She now moves arms and legs more vigorously and tries to swipe at objects,
although she cannot grasp as yet. Swiping means hitting at objects with the
whole hand but without being able to grasp them.

Grasping requires the use of the muscles of the hand (fine muscles), while
reaching and swiping requires the muscles of the shoulder and elbow (gross
muscles). In keeping with the centre-to-end principle of development, the
infant only later learns to use the muscles of her hand to grasp an object.

However, the fact that she can swipe at objects and manage to touch them
sometimes means that she is able to coordinate seeing with the movement of
the hand, so that the hand reaches for the object where she sees it. This
reflects increasing eye-hand coordination but the infant cannot yet grasp an
object in her palm.

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C. From 4-6 months
Gross Motor Skills
Can you think of some gross motor skills that the child acquires in the 4 - 6
month period? During this period the infant is able to roll over from stomach
to back and a little later from back to stomach. At this time, the mother must
be careful not to leave the infant unattended as she could fall off the bed. The
5 - 6 month old infant can also support her own weight when pulled up from
sitting to standing position but has to be held to prevent her from falling over.
By six months the infant can sit with support She can sit without support by
the end of 6 months.

Between four to six months the infant begins to turn from back to stomach and vice versa

‘Look at me! I can sit!’ Sitting with support at six months

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Fine Motor Skills Physical Motor and
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During Infancy and
She is also better able to coordinate the movements of her arms and acquire Toddlerhood
fine motor skills. Now she begins to grasp objects. However, she can grasp
the object using her whole palm. Hence, the grasp at this stage is called
‘palmer grasp’.

She holds one hand with the other and bring them both towards the mouth to
suck. Any object in the hand is treated so. A little later she learns to open her
palm, drop the object she is holding and take another that is being offered to
her. This also makes for greater interaction between the child and caregiver.
They can play games that involve giving and taking objects. After the infant
has mastered this skill at six months, she learns to transfer an object from one
hand to the other and pick up another object with the first hand. This shows
an increasing control over the muscles of the fingers. She is now able to
shake the object she is holding and enjoys rattle.

D. From 8-9 months

Gross Motor Skills
By 7th month, newly strengthened back and stomach muscles help the baby to
sit without support. She can now sit up from a lying position by herself.

The infant moves by pivoting on her buttocks while lying down and makes
vigorous movements of arms and legs to reach for objects around her.
Between seven and nine months, the infant begins to move on her hands and
knees with the abdomen raised off the floor, i.e. she learns to crawl. Once the
infant accomplishes this, she begins to pull herself to a standing position
while holding on to something. Sometimes she lets go of the support and falls
to the floor. The eight-month-old can stand steadily for a short while if there
is a person to hold her.

Photo by Picsea on Unsplash; picsea—d6sy-eKQ8s-unsplash; retrieved: 12th Aug, 2021

Being able to crawl is the child’s first experience in self-mobility

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“See! I can stand!”

A nine-month-old can stand with support

Fine Motor Skills

The fine motor muscles develop further, so that the grasp improves. The
seven-month-old can rake at small objects with her fingers (i.e., move fingers
through objects) but cannot yet pick them up. This requires coordination
between the thumb and the forefinger – these must be brought opposite to
each other in order to pick up objects. This ability develops by eight months.
Finger-thumb opposition helps the baby to pick up things more easily, like a
biscuit to eat from her bowl. This type of grasp is called ‘pincer grasp’. At
this age, she can also turn an object in her hands.

E. From 9-12 months

Gross Motor Skills
During this period the infant begins to touch the floor by bending her knees
and waist. The one-year-old can walk if someone holds her hand. At one year
some children can walk by themselves, and most do so between 13 and 15
months.

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During Infancy and
Fine Motor Skills Toddlerhood

By 9-12 months the infant uses one hand to hold an object and brings the
other hand to manipulate it. At one year the infant is able to throw things,
which reflects increasing muscle coordination.
This increase in muscle co-ordination encourages her to explore her
surroundings and she often puts things in her mouth. The adults need to be
careful. Harmful and breakable things need to be put out of reach of the
infant.

The sequence of emergence of gross and fine motor skills has implications
for the play activities that you plan for a child in this age group.

6.4 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN THE SECOND

YEAR
The physical changes described in the above paragraphs that take place in the
first year enable the development of motor skills like walking, running,
climbing, jumping, scribbling and grasping in the second year. The gross and
fine motor abilities that the child acquires in the second year are described
further:

6.4.1 Gross Motor Skills

As a result of gross motor development, the toddler acquires abilities that
demand increased motor co-ordination and speed. Let us read about some
gross motor abilities that emerge during toddlerhood. These are walking,
running, jumping and kicking.

Walking
The ability to move on her own changes the child’s world in many ways.
Children begin to walk independently some time between 11 and 15 months
of age. When the child first attempts to walk, her feet are spread apart, the
toes are turned outwards and the arms are held away from the body for better
balance. While waking she does not bend the legs from the knees but instead
swings them from the hips which makes her walk seem a little stiff. The child
toddles — hence the name ‘toddler’. By the time she is 16 to 18 months old,
she can push a small table or a chair while walking. At this age she also picks
up toys and other light articles to carry them from one place to another.
Around 18 months of age, she is able to climb over obstacles that are about
one foot high – she can climb out of her cradle or crib if it is placed on the
floor. The chair that once seemed an obstacle is now a challenge — the child
enjoys climbing on it and pushing it.

With practice, the irregular movement during walking gives way to steps that
are more even. The walk of the two year old is steady and she places one foot
ahead of the other, similar to an adult’s walk. Although she does not need to
concentrate on balancing herself, she sometimes has to monitor her feet
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visually as she walks, in order to avoid obstacles. Once the toddler is steady
in her walk, she enjoys pulling along a toy tied to a string. By two-and-a-half
years of age, most toddlers walk quite well. Once confident about walking,
they try variations. Most three-year-olds are able to walk backwards.

Holding the two cushions in her hands, helps the toddler to balance while walking

Running
Walking leads to running. Initially many toddlers combine walking with
running into a ‘hurried walk’. The movements of the toddler while running
are jerky and her stops and starts are not controlled. She runs for a short
distance falls down, gets up and begins to run again. The ability to run
steadily, with controlled starts and stops develops later during preschool
years.
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Climbing Stairs Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
During Infancy and
During the periods of 19 to 24 months, the toddler can climb stairs if Toddlerhood
someone holds her hand. She can, however, go up and down the stairs by
herself on all fours using her legs and arms in a combination of stepping and
crawling. Between the second and the third year, she can climb stairs by
alternating her feet, while holding on to something.

Jumping
Jumping emerges as toddlers experiment with stepping down from stairs or
boxes. In their first attempts at jumping, toddlers step off with one foot but
are fearful to let go with the other. By two years of age, most toddlers can
jump from a low platform (about half a foot high) with both feet. Toddlers
love to jump.

Three-year-olds also try to kick toys, large balls and other objects. They do
this in a clumsy fashion and may not be able to kick the ball, often falling
while trying to do so.

6.4.2 Fine Motor Skills

During toddlerhood, the child becomes more skilled in using her hands. Her
grasp becomes better, as she is able to use the forefinger and thumb in
opposition. She is able to pick up small objects and hold them. As a result,
she is able to do many tasks that were difficult for her earlier.

Grasping
The ability to coordinate the thumb and the forefinger to pick up objects
starts to develop by 8 months of age. This is called pincer grasp. By the end
of first year, the pincer grasp is well-developed and the child can use the
thumb and forefinger in a well co-ordinated manner to pick up small objects,
turn door knobs and open and close small boxes. This skill of using the
forefinger and thumb to hold an object is very important and is used for many
day to day activities like eating, buttoning clothes, writing etc. Toddlers are
able to pick up small things like pebbles and buttons. As their grasping skill
improves, they enjoy stacking things. An 18 month old can arrange a few
wooden blocks one on top of another to build a tower. She delights in
repeatedly pushing the blocks down and stacking them again. Eye-hand
coordination improves and the toddler can put blocks, pebbles or buttons
through a small hole made in the lid of the container. By the third year,
children can turn the pages of a book.
The toddlers also begin to eat on their own. They can hold a glass firmly with
both hands and drink from it. However, while doing so they spill some of the
contents. They may insist on eating by themselves, using a spoon or their
hands. While eating they smear food on their face and drop some of it as they
carry it from the bowl to their mouth. By the third year, however, they
manage to eat food without smearing and can drink from a cup without
spilling.

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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
Scribbling
Some time in the second year of life the infant discovers scribbling.
Scribbling is the earliest form of writing. The increased muscular
coordination and the ability to use the thumb and the forefinger to hold a
chalk enables the toddler to scribble.

In the beginning, the toddler grips the crayon using her entire palm. So tight
is the grip that after some time, her grasp opens because of fatigue and the
crayon drops. The lines toddler draws look to us as if drawn by accident but
the toddler has done very definite back-and-forth lines. The first lines are
usually straight. The toddler repeats the lines over and over again. At this age
the toddler does not have total control over the movement of her hand and so
the lines often run off the paper. While scribbling the toddler moves her
entire arm. Movements are large sweeping ones, employing the shoulder and
the elbow. She does not use her wrist to move the crayon, as older children
and adults do. This stage extends up to two-and-a-half to three years of age.
However, some toddlers who are deft may go on to the next stage of
scribbling before they are three years of age.

In the next stage, semi-circular and circular patterns and loops appear. This
indicates that the toddler has begun to use the movement of the wrist to
scribble. This reflects better muscular co-ordination. The scribbles now are
not allowed to run off the paper – a sign of increased eye-hand co-ordination
and muscular control. The toddler experiments with different types of
scribbles and varies the amount of pressure she exerts on the crayon. During
toddlerhood, the child delights in the sheer physical activity of moving a
crayon around and producing marks on paper. However, as she enters the
preschool age, she attempts to control her scribbling and discover a
connection between these marks, thinking, speaking and writing.
Scribbling gives the growing child a sense of achievement. It is one of the
first accomplishments in producing something. Some toddlers who have been
taught may write some alphabets and numbers or draw squares and triangles.
But these figures are not precise and the children find it difficult to write
them. They should not be forced to do so. It would be interesting to collect a
sample of a toddler’s scribbles and write a description in the following lines.
Which stage does this child seem to be in?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

Handedness
During toddlerhood, children begin to show preference in using one of the
hands and subsequently use it predominantly. In the first year, infants use
both their hands equally for grasping and picking up objects. By two years
most toddlers prefer one hand over the other and this preference is called the
‘dominant hand’.
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 Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
During Infancy and
Toddlerhood

Children begin to show a hand preference around two years of age. Notice how the
toddler has grasped the crayon

Most of us use the right hand dominantly, a few use the left, while a few of us
can use both hands with equal efficiency. Left-handed people face a slight
disadvantage in that most tools and instruments like scissors, musical
instruments, writing desks and door handles are made with right-handed
people in mind. However, left handed people learn to adjust to a right handed
world. Studies show that there are no differences in school achievement,
intelligence or personal-social relationships between left and right-handed
children. So do not force a left-handed child to use her right hand, just
because most people are right-handed. In fact, forcing the child to
change the hand preference may seriously harm them.

Playing with ball

Games of throwing and catching interest the toddler but her skills in them
are elementary.

Perhaps you have played a game of throwing and catching a ball with a
toddler. Did you notice her actions as she tried to catch and throw the ball? It 105
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
would be interesting to write your description of her actions in the space
provided below and then read the one that follows.
…………………………………………………………………………………
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While trying to catch, the three-year-old prepares to receive the ball by

extending her arms stiffly but as the ball approaches, she flinches (draws
back or recoils) and loses track of it. If the ball happens to land in her arms,
she holds it by trapping it against her body. The toddler does not move her
body to catch the ball, if it comes little towards the side or falls a little before
her. While throwing the ball, she simply hurls (throws) the ball forward in
simple overhand, back-to-front motion. She does not rotate her body while
throwing and keeps her feet firmly on the ground instead of lifting one foot
slightly, which would result in a better throw. These skills require better
visual motor co-ordination and develop during the preschool years.

Before we complete this section, it is important to state that while we have

discussed the development of gross and fine motor skills separately, most
activities of children require a combination of gross and fine motor skills.

Table 6.2 provides a summary of the milestones of motor development and

the average age at which babies achieve them.

Table 6.2: Milestones of Gross and Fine Motor Development

Motor Skills Average age in Age range in which 90%
which skill is of the infants achieve this
achieved skill
Holds head erect for sometime 6 weeks 3 weeks-4 months
when held upright
Lifts self by arms when 2 months 3 weeks-5 months
prone (lying on the stomach)
Rolls from side to back 2 months 3 weeks-5 months
Palmar grasp — grasping 4 months 3 weeks- 5 months
using full palm
Rolls from back to side 4 ½ months 2-7 months
Sits with support 3 months, 3 weeks 2-7 months
Sits alone 7 months 5-9 months
Crawls 7 months 5-11 months
Pulls to stand 8 months 5-12 months
Pincer grasp — grasping 8 ½ months 7 ½ - 10 ½ months
with thumb and finger
Stands alone 11 months 9-16 months
Walks alone 11 months 9-17 months

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6.5 DEVELOPMENT OF SENSORY CAPACITIES Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
During Infancy and
In the last Unit, you read about the sensory capabilities of the newborn. The Toddlerhood

sensory abilities are the tools which help the new born to adjust to her
immediate surroundings. But she has to do more than this. She has to explore
her surroundings and perceive (i.e. organize and interpret in her mind)
whatever she senses. For instance, whenever she hears a sound, she has to
judge the direction and distance of the sound source. She has to understand
that a specific voice and face belong to one person. She has to learn to pay
attention to detail and discriminate between two similar looking things. She
has to develop the ability to focus on things that are essential. She also has to
be able to distinguish sounds and learn speech. She must explore the
environment to learn about it. All this depends on the development of the
senses. Let us look at what the infant accomplishes in the area of sensory
development and how she improves in her perceptual capabilities in the first
year:

6.5.1 Vision
As you have read in the earlier Unit, the infant’s vision is not well developed
at birth. However, it develops gradually during the first year. Visual
improvement is supported by the development of vision centres in the brain
and maturation of the eyes. You have read in the previous Unit that the
neonate cannot focus on objects and cannot see near or far objects clearly.
Babies can see objects clearly which are at a particular distance i.e. 8-10
inches from their face. Their colour vision is also not differentiated.

However, by the time the infant is two months, her brain develops further and
the ability to focus on objects improves. She is able to see objects, whether
they are near or far. This makes it possible for her to observe toys placed near
her and to reach for them. Being able to see the objects that are farther away
clearly, allows the baby to recognize objects and people when they are at a
distance. With this, the depth perception of the babies also improves, i.e. they
are able to judge the distance of objects from one another and from
themselves and have an idea about the depth as well. This ability greatly
helps babies and prevents themselves from falling off the stairs or bumping
into furniture when they start crawling by the age of 7-8 months. In fact, as
babies have more crawling experiences, their depth perception improves.

By the time infants are two to three months old, they pay attention to the
details of objects. This helps them to discriminate among things. They seem
to be able to distinguish familiar objects from unfamiliar ones. They can also
see colours and discriminate between different colours, i.e. their colour vision
develops.
Research studies indicate that if infants are shown two geometrical figures —
one simple (like a checkerboard pattern with few large squares) and one
complex (a checkerboard pattern with many small squares), while a 3 week
old baby looks more at a simple geometrical figure i.e. the checkerboard
pattern with a few large squares, the 2-3 month old infant prefers to look at
the complex figure of the checkerboard pattern with many small squares.
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
Studies also indicate that infants prefer to look at the drawing of a human
face rather than a geometrical shape. Interestingly, a one month old infant
focuses on the high contrast features on the border of the face such as the
hairline or chin. But a 2 month old infant starts focusing on the internal
features of the human face like eyes or lips. Infants at three months of age
can tell their parents’ faces from those of others.
Research has shown that by 5-6 months of age, most infants can discriminate
between different emotional expressions on the mother’s face such as
sadness, fear, joy, alarm or surprise and they respond accordingly. If, for
example, her face shows alarm, the child also gets scared and may begin to
cry. This ability is a remarkable achievement for the infant. It implies that she
judges the expression on the person’s face and understands its meaning. The
infant also responds to the mother’s emotional tone. Being able to
discriminate emotions and recognize people helps in social interaction.

Thus we see that the visual capacities develop greatly over the first year.
Development of the child’s visual abilities is necessary for all aspects of
functioning.

6.5.2 Hearing
You have read that the neonate can orient to (turn towards) the approximate
direction of the sound. During the first few months of life, infants attend to
different sounds and can discriminate between different sounds such as a bell
ringing, the grandmother singing or a knock on the door. By six months they
are usually able to judge the direction of the sound source correctly. Infants
are also responsive to rhythm. They are soothed by rhythmic sounds such as
music or ticking of the clock. Very loud sounds cause distress and they
respond by flailing (waving; thrashing) their arms and legs and crying.
You have read that the neonate is able to distinguish the mother’s voice from
other voices as early as the first week of life. Gradually, the infant learns to
distinguish other people’s voices as well. By six months she has understood
which face goes with which voice. This is clear from many research studies.
For example, when the infant was put in a situation where she could see both
her father and mother but hear the tape-recorded voice of only one of them,
she would look towards the parent whose voice she heard. The infant also
understands that there is a relationship between the movements of the lips
and the sounds that emerge. You have seen that infants respond to sounds
from the time they are born. This is important for the development of speech.
(You will later read more about this aspect in the Units on language
development).

6.5.3 Smell, Taste and Touch

These three senses are more developed than is commonly believed. As the
child grows, these senses become more finely tuned and she is able to detect
and respond to more subtle differences in the stimuli.

All these abilities of vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch also become more
developed during the second year of child’s life.
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6.6 IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL, MOTOR Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
AND SENSORY DEVELOPMENT During Infancy and
Toddlerhood

When in good health, toddlers are a whirlwind of activity. They are literally
everywhere, much to the parents’ exasperation — under the bed, over the
chair, behind the door, into the cupboard. Everything — a book, a tumbler, a
pot is a toy for them, something to be explored and then abandoned as they
look for something new. What is the importance of this movement and
motion for the child? Write your thoughts in the space below and then go on
to the discussion that follows.
…………………………………………………………………………………
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In what ways do physical, motor and sensory abilities help the child?

Firstly, with the increasing motor skills, rapid physical growth and
refinement of sense organs, the child’s range of activity increases. She
has greater freedom of movement and can do more things. She is able to
explore the world, reach for objects and manipulate them in different ways.
Movement promotes balance and co-ordination. As toddlers stack objects,
push them over and carry their toys, they are finding out how to manipulate
things. As they handle objects, they develop an understanding of space and
direction. They are constantly learning from their experiences. The rapidly
developing brain helps them to understand and learn from the events around
them. It is a common sight to see a baby pick up a new toy and show it to her
mother who may talk to her about it. In this way the child learns, forms ideas
about objects around her and attends to language.
Secondly, with increased freedom of movement, the toddler comes in contact
with other people. She can go to people instead of waiting for them to come
to her. This enhances her social development. Also as she interacts with
others, she learns many new things which enhance her cognitive
development. The changing physical, motor and sensory skills of the
infant also influence the way people respond to her and the nature of
interaction between them. Thus it influences the infant’s social
relationships.

Thirdly, as the child begins to master new skills, she also develops
positive feelings about herself. She feels she can do many things and control
some events. For example, she knows that she can reach for an object at a
distance from her, pick it up and play with it. From these small events emerge
the feelings of confidence and independence. The foundation of self-concept
is being laid now. Movement is also an important factor in the development
of the child’s self-image and self-esteem. Being able to move on her own
gives her a sense of independence and the confidence to encounter
challenges. If the child’s movements are restricted, she is likely to lack
confidence in her physical abilities and may hesitate in playing with peers
and adults.
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
The development of motor skills, as the development in any other area,
depends upon the maturation of the central nervous system. But once the
child is ready to perform a certain skill, she should be encouraged and given
opportunity to practice. If the child is not ready to pick a skill, do not force
her to learn. Sometimes the child’s progress may be affected by an illness or
an accident. Also, as children are eager to tryout so many things at this age,
they may not be able to keep pace with all of them at once. As they learn one
skill, they may slow down in the learning of others. But this is not a matter of
serious concern. All of us, and particularly children, have a natural drive for
mastery and competence that keeps us trying. Small delays now will be made
up later.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) The following are some gross motor, fine motor and sensory abilities.
They are not written in the order that they develop in the infant. Indicate
their order of emergence. For example, under the column of gross motor
skills, the skill numbered (iii) is the first to develop. So in the bracket
beside it, write (1) as indicated

a) GROSS MOTOR SKILLS

i) Sits with support. ( )
ii) Crawls and pulls herself to a standing position while holding
onto something. ( )
iii) Holds head in midline and can hold her head up steadily in one
position for some time. ( 1 )
iv) Throws things coordinating the arm, wrist and finger. ( )
b) FINE MOTOR SKILLS
i) Picks small objects using fingers and thumb. ( )
ii) Opens palm and drops object in hand and takes another being
offered to her. ( )
iii) Rakes at objects. ( )
iv) Grasps object and transfers it from one hand to another. ( )
c) SENSORY ABILITIES
i) Matches the parents’ voice to face. ( )
ii) Can tell parent’s face from strangers. ( )
iii) Distinguishes the mother’s voice from those of others. ( )
2) Describe some of the gross and fine motor skills of a toddler in the space
provided below.
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……………………………………………………………………………
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3) List the milestones in physical development during toddlerhood that aid Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
in acquisition of motor skills. During Infancy and
Toddlerhood
……………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………
4) In the following graph the ‘X’ axis represents the age of the toddler and
on the ‘Y’ axis are plotted some gross motor skills. Complete the graph
by matching the skills with age at which they emerge, as shown in the
example of walking.

CLIMB STAIRS
Gross motor skills
Increasing complexity

JUMP

PULL A TOY
WHILE
WALING

WALK

15 18 20 25 30 33 36
0
Age in months

5) Briefly state how physical, motor and sensory development affect the
infant’s development?

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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development 6.7 MATURATIONAL BASIS AND
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON
PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND MOTOR
DEVELOPMENT
Do you recall reading about the influences on development in Unit 3? You
had read that heredity (or biological) and environmental factors interact to
influence development. Let us briefly recapitulate the discussion here.
Physical, motor and sensory development has a strong maturational
basis (i.e. biological factor). You know that physical characteristics like
height, weight and the child’s appearance are to a large extent determined by
heredity, though the environmental factors may influence them to some
extent. There are innate genetic differences among children. You know that
children cannot acquire a motor skill before they are biologically ready
(mature) to do so and this accounts for the universal pattern in motor
development. The genes control the time of maturation of a particular part of
the body. However, you also know that opportunities to practice, the
infant’s diet and the kind of care such as environmental factors are
equally important in the development of motor skills. As the muscles,
bones and nerves develop, the infant practices the movements which in turn
foster growth.

6.8 CARE OF THE INFANT

You have read in Unit 4 that the needs of love, nurturance and stimulation
must be fulfilled for healthy development of the child. Unit 19 of this Course
will describe the emotional relationship between the caregiver and the child
and how the caregiver can provide stimulating experiences to her. In this
Section, we will talk about the kind of physical care that the infant needs.
This is important as infants are delicate and prone to illnesses and special
care must be taken to protect them. They need adequate nutrition. They must
be immunized regularly and their growth checked periodically.
6.8.1 Feeding
You have read that the newborn takes in only a small quantity of milk at a
time. As the baby grows, she is better able to coordinate swallowing with
sucking. She can now take in more milk. She also begins to sleep through the
night and feeds 5-6 times a day.
By six months of age the baby requires more nutrients than milk alone can
supply. Now she must be given food other than milk. In other words,
complementary feeding should begin. Of course, the breast or the bottle milk
continues though the number of feeds will decrease. Complementary feeding
should begin by giving a thin porridge made with milk or water. Suji, Rice,
dalia, ragi, or millet can be cooked in water or milk till it is soft and diluted
into a smooth, liquidy form. Sugar or jaggery can be added. Once the infant
accepts the complementary food with cereal alone, she can be started on a
“basic mix” which is prepared using a cereal and pulse and is semi-solid in
nature. For example, khichri made from rice and moong dal cooked together.
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If the baby does not accept a particular food, do not force her but try again Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
after some days. Only gradually will she develop a taste for different foods. During Infancy and
Toddlerhood
Between six to eight months of age, the infant can also digest soft foods like
boiled and mashed vegetables and mashed or stewed fruits. There should be
no fibre of the fruit or vegetable as it can choke the child and the child cannot
digest it either. She can be given foods like boiled and mashed chicken or fish
too. Eggs seem to cause allergies in a very small percentage of children.
Before feeding egg to the infant, you may consult your child’s pediatrician
especially if you or your family has a family history of allergy from eggs or
shell foods such as crabs or prawns.
By the time the infant is eight months old, a good way to provide nutritious
meal to the infant is by giving a multi mix. Multi mixes contain four basic
ingredients — a cereal as the main ingredient (e.g. rice or wheat, suji); a
source of protein (e.g. milk, egg, pulses, chicken, fish, pounded groundnuts);
a vitamin and mineral source (e.g. a vegetable and/or fruit); fats, oils and /or
sugar to increase the energy content of the mix. A common multimix used in
many Indian homes regularly is a mix of cereal, any pulse and vegetables.
One can add chicken or fish depending upon the food preferences of the
family.
The infant should be given complementary feeds at least three to four times a
day. Breast milk can continue till the child is 2 years old.
Between eight and twelve months the first two teeth appear. Some crisp foods
like biscuits or rusks will be enjoyed by the baby at this time as they will help
exercise her gums. At the age of one year, most children have six to eight
teeth. By the time the child is one year old she can be given foods from the
‘family pot’ as she begins to enjoy nibbling at everything that the family eats.
So items cooked for the rest of the family could be offered to the infant
before spices are added. She can also eat larger quantities. Highly spiced or
fried foods should be avoided. Some babies accept solid food easily. Others
may resist it. Infants differ greatly in their acceptance of complementary food
and the parent/crèche worker needs to be sensitive to the child’s preferences.
While introducing complementary foods some cautions have to be kept in
mind.
• Foods should be introduced in small quantities since the infant is not
used to them. Over the first few days, one or two spoons of the food is
enough. After the child’s system has adjusted to this, the amount can be
increased gradually, over a period of a month, to half a cup at one time.
• New foods should be introduced one at a time. When the child has
accepted and adjusted to one food, then the other should be introduced.
• The food should neither be too hot nor too cold when given to the baby.
• Foods like fruits and vegetables with skin, whole cereals and pulses
should not be given initially because they have too much fibre content
and the infant cannot digest them.
• Hands and utensils should be kept clean while cooking the food and
feeding the baby.
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
• Fresh foods like fruits should be washed well.
• A time schedule should be maintained for feeds but the child should not
be forced to eat.
• Feeding time is also a time when the caregiver/crèche worker interacts
with the child. She talks to her and playfully feeds her. This strengthens
the emotional bond between them. It is important to make feeding and
related activities a happy experience for the infant.

6.8.2 Health Care and Immunization

Many children in our country die during the first year of life. Infectious
diseases are a major cause of death of young children. Most of these can be
prevented through immunization. All children must be inoculated against
diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, measles,
and mumps. Table 6.3 gives the ages at which the child must be immunized.
This schedule must be followed to prevent infections.

Table 6.3 : Immunization Schedule

Age
Birth BCG, OPV(0), Hep B Birth dose (To be given at the
place of delivery)
6 Weeks OPV 1, Penta 1 (DPT+HepB+HiB), IPV)
10 Weeks OPV 2, Penta 2 (DPT+HepB+HiB)
14 Weeks OPV 3, Penta 3 (DPT+HepB+HiB), IPV)
st
9 Months – 12 Months MMR-1, MR/Measles, JE Vaccine-1, Vitamin A (1
dose)
Source: https://www.iitk.ac.in/hc/vaccination-schedule

During illness the child’s diet needs attention. As far as possible the quantity
of food the child takes should not be reduced or stopped. If the infant is
young and on breast milk only, then breast feeding should continue. If the
older infant is being given complementary foods she should be given soft and
mashed foods which are easily digested. The feeding pattern should be close
to normal.

One illness which is very common and can be fatal if the child is not given
proper care, is diarrhoea. A little care at home can ensure survival. In this
illness the child has loose motions and as a result there is loss of water, salt
and minerals from the body. This causes dehydration which may be fatal.
This can be prevented by giving the child a rehydration solution which can be
prepared at home, it can be made by adding a pinch of salt and one large
spoon of sugar to one glass of boiled water. This should be given to the child
at regular intervals in small quantities.

6.8.3 Growth Monitoring

To ensure that the child is growing according to the norms for her age, her
growth has to be checked from time to time. Monitoring the growth pattern of
children helps to detect growth failure at an early age. Growth monitoring is
114
necessary since a large majority of children in the country do not get Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
adequate food and fall ill frequently. One out of two children under 6 years of During Infancy and
age are underweight in our country. In most programmes for young children, Toddlerhood
the growth of children is monitored to assess their health.

https://asiseeit2000.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/indiangrowthchart.jpg

Fig. 6.5: Growth Chart for Boys

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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development

https://asiseeit2000.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/indiangrowthchart.jpg
Fig. 6.6: Growth Chart for Girls

There are several ways of monitoring growth. One of the best indicators
is the child’s weight. A healthy infant gains weight steadily. With age the
child’s weight must increase. Based on observations of several children,
experts have specified how much a child should weigh every month from the
time she is born. A weight lower than normal makes the child weak and
prone to infections. Being overweight may also be detrimental for the child’s
health. Taking the weight-for-age as the basis, experts have prepared a
growth chart. By checking the infant’s weight using this chart, one can find
116
out whether or not her growth is according to norms. There are separate Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
growth charts for boys and girls. A copy of both the growth charts has been During Infancy and
attached as Figure 6.5 and 6.6 Toddlerhood

Let us understand the growth chart.

The growth chart has the horizontal lines going side to side and vertical lines
going top to bottom. The vertical lines represents the age of the child from
birth to 3 years. The horizontal lines represents the weight in kg.
The weight-for-age growth curve based on WHO growth standards is
depicted in three colours — green, yellow and orange. You will notice two
boxes on the top left side of the growth chart which explains the growth
curves and meaning of the colours.
The children who are healthy with normal body weights would fall in the
green coloured area. If the child’s weight falls in the yellow coloured curve
he/she will be labeled as moderately underweight whereas the orange colour
represents severely underweight. The lower the weight, the more
undernourished the child. To understand how a growth chart is to be used,
refer to the growth chart for boys given in Figure 6.5 In a growth chart the
age is plotted on the X-axis and the weight on the Y-axis. To find out the
health status of any child, take the child’s exact age and mark it on the X-
axis. Suppose the child is a boy named Shyam, who is 9 months old. Then
weigh the child and mark his weight on the Y- axis. Suppose the child’s
weight is 7.5 kgs. Then from the point where you have marked Shyam’s age,
draw a line parallel to the Y-axis and from the point where his weight is
marked, draw a line parallel to the X-axis. Extend these lines until they meet.
Call this point ‘Z’. This has been marked in Fig 6.5 with a circle. Since the
weight is in the green coloured area, the child is healthy.
As you will plot the Shyam’s weight every month, you will get a series of
points. Join these points and see the direction of the line. If the line moves
upwards ( ) this means that the child is gaining weight each month and his
growth is normal. If the line is straight ( ) it means that the child has not
gained weight. The child in such a situation must be given nutritious meals 5-
6 times a day. If the line moves downwards ( ) it means that the child is
losing weight. This is dangerous and the child needs special care and the
attention of a doctor.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) In the space provided below, write how heredity and environment
influence physical and motor development.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
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Physical, Motor and
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2) Read the following statements carefully. Write whether they are ‘correct’
or incorrect’ in the brackets.
a) The infant should be breast-fed till 2 years of age. ( )
b) Complementary food should be given when the infant is 6 months
old. ( )
c) First dose of OPV 1, Penta 1 and IPV should be given at 6 months of
age. ( )
d) To prevent dehydration during diarrhoea, the child should be given a
sugar and salt solution in boiled water. ( )
3) The weights of three girls over the period of the first year are given
below. Plot their weight on the growth chart (Fig. 6.6) and comment on
the health status of each child in the space provided.
CHILD A CHILD B CHILD C
1 month 3.0 Kg 2.8 Kg 2.5 Kg
2 months 4.5 Kg 3.5 Kg 3.0 Kg
4 months 6.0 Kg 5.0 Kg 4.0 Kg
6 months 7.5 Kg 6.0 Kg 4.5 Kg
8 months 9.0 Kg 7.5 Kg 4.5 Kg
10 months 9.5 Kg 8.5 Kg 5.0 Kg
12 months 10.5 Kg 9.0 Kg 5.5 Kg
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

6.9 CARE OF THE TODDLER

With growth and development, there are changes in the amount and kind of
the food the child requires and in the scheduling of meal times of the child.
Growth monitoring and immunization must continue during toddlerhood as
well. Let us read about these aspects of care in the following Sub-sections.

6.9.1 Feeding
During toddlerhood, eating becomes a social activity for the child – she likes
to eat with others and share their food. Toddlers are not always able to
express their need for rest and food when they are tired and hungry. Instead,
they cry or become irritable. Therefore, the parent/crèche worker will need to
be attuned to the child and plan the child’s time for eating and rest.

While in some families there is sufficient food for the child, in others the
child does not get enough to eat. Generally, this is related to poverty, and
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occasionally, to neglect by the mother. In such cases, the role of the day care Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
centre becomes important. The supplementary food that is given in the centre During Infancy and
is very important for the child. Feeding, often becomes a situation where the Toddlerhood
child likes to have her way. The mother may insist that the child eat whatever
she is given at a specific time. But if the child does not eat a particular food
item, it is better to give it to her in some other form rather than insist that she
eat what has been cooked. If she does not eat vegetables, for example, these
can be cooked in pulses or stuffed in chapatti (pancakes made from wheat
flour). Spinach can be cooked in green gram (moong dal) and bottle gourd in
Bengal gram (channa dal). Spinach or methi leaves can be chopped and
kneaded in the dough for making chapatis or poories. These green poories
are likely to interest the child. Vegetables like cauliflower or radish can be
grated to make stuffed paranthas. Preperations like sambhar, that are made
from pulses and vegetables, can also be given to the child.

The following recipe of suji chila allows you to use any vegetable.

Take four spoonfuls of semolina (suji). Add a pinch of salt and make a batter
by mixing it with water. Leave it for two to three hours. Chop vegetables like
onion, carrot, spinach and cabbage. Heat the frying pan, put a spoonful of
cooking oil in the pan and then spread two spoons of batter on it. Then
spread the chopped vegetables on it. Cook the chila on slow fire. When the
underside is golden brown, turn the chila upside down. Cook for another
three to four minutes. When both sides of the chila are golden brown, it is
ready to serve. You can try variations of this.

While planning meals for anybody, one important point to remember is that
the meal should be balanced. What do we mean by the term ‘balanced’? A
balanced meal contains all the nutrients in the amounts required by the
body. The nutrients that are required by the human body have been
categorized as follows: carbohydrates and fats that give energy to the body,
proteins that help in body building, and minerals and vitamins that provide
resistance to diseases. In addition to these five nutrients, the diet should also
contain adequate amount of fluids.

Let us list some major foods according to the nutrients they provide:
Carbohydrates – wheat, rice, ragi, jowar, i.e. cereals and sugar.
Proteins – pulses, milk and milk products, egg, meat, fish.
Fats – oil, ghee, vanaspati and butter.
Vitamins and Minerals – vegetables and fruits.
The food items mentioned above provide nutrients in addition to the ones that
have been listed. For example, wheat provides carbohydrates in large
amounts but it also provides other nutrients. However, the foods have been
classified thus according to the major or dominant nutrients they provide.
They are important in our diet as contributors of that particular nutrient.

If one takes care to see that every meal contains one food item from each of
the above mentioned categories (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and
vitamins), then each meal is a balanced meal. When each meal is balanced,
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Physical, Motor and
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particularly the three main meals of breakfast, lunch and dinner, then the
person’s diet for the whole day is a balanced one. On the face of it, it may
seem that including one item from each of the categories would be expensive
and may be cumbersome to cook. But this is not so. Take the following meal
that was served for lunch to Feroza. She ate cauliflower parantha with curd.
The dough for the parantha was prepared by kneading wheat flour, and besan
(flour made from Bengal gram or channa dal) and it was stuffed with finely
grated cauliflower.
Feroza got a balanced meal. The parantha provided carbohydrates, proteins,
vitamins and minerals. Let us read how this was so. The wheat flour provided
carbodhydrates, besan provided proteins and cauliflower provided vitamins
and minerals. You can substitute cauliflower with green leafy vegetables like
spinach and methi leaves. The ghee spread on the hot chapatti provided fats.
Curd provided proteins. This with only two food items you can provide a
balanced meal. The meal was not expensive.

Let us see what Hema ate for breakfast – milk, an egg sandwich and a small
slice of papaya. Egg and milk provided proteins, bread gave her
carbohydrates, papaya was rich in vitamins and minerals, and butter used in
the sandwich provided the fat. Therefore, Hema also ate a balanced meal.

In contrast, Sunita had plain paranthas with pickle for lunch. Her meal
mainly included carbohydrates and fat. A little amount of other nutrients
would have been provided by these food items but there is no major source of
vitamins, minerals or proteins in the meal.
It is important to ensure that each meal the child eats is a balanced one. As
regards the amount of food that should be given to the child, usually her
appetite is the best guide. However, some children have a poor appetite. In
such cases, they will not get a balanced diet. Therefore, you have to be
careful about their diet. The three main meals of breakfast, lunch and dinner
must be given to the toddler. But since she cannot eat large quantities at one
time, you must give her small meals in between these meals. This means that
it is better to give the child smaller amounts of food more frequently rather
than giving her fewer meals with more to eat at each meal. Therefore, besides
giving her the three main meals, the toddler should be given nutritious snacks
at mid morning (between breakfast and lunch) and at tea time (between lunch
and dinner). At these times you can give her some fruits/ sandwiches/biscuits.
You can make nutritious ladoos (a sweet) in the following way.
Roast some wheat flour, besan and groundnuts in a little bit of oil. Make a
thick sugar syrup using jaggery. Mix this solution in the roasted flour, besan
and groundnuts and make ladoos. You can store these ladoos, giving the
child one or two every day.
During toddlerhood the requirement for proteins and energy is high since the
child’s growth is rapid and her activity level is high. Proteins are needed for
body building and carbohydrates and fats provide energy. Take care to see
that there are adequate amounts of these nutrients in the toddler’s diet. In
addition the child’s diet may lack vitamin A, iron and calcium and special
120 care should be taken to see that they get these in adequate amounts.
6.9.2 Immunization Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
During Infancy and
In the last block you read about the immunization schedule that should be Toddlerhood
followed for infants. The immunization must continue during toddlerhood.
Between 16 and 24 months of age the toddler must be given booster doses of
DPT and OPV; and 2nd dose of measles. The 2nd dose of Vitamin A has to be
given along with DPT/OPV booster and then one dose every 6 months upto
the age of 5 years.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1) In column I are listed the nutrients required for the healthy functioning of
the body. Column II lists food items. Match the food items with the
nutrients they provide.

COLUMN I COLUMN II
i) Carbohydrates a) Milk, Curd, Pulses, Fish, Egg
ii) Proteins b) Butter, Oil
iii) Vitamins and Minerals c) Chapati, Rice, Jowar, Bajra
iv) Fats d) Mango, Apple, Spinach, Cabbage

2) Below are described two meals, one that was given to Ravi and the other
to Mala for lunch. Who do you think got a more balanced meal?
a) Mala’s Lunch — spinach chapati (made by kneading spinach leaves
in the dough) with keema curry.
b) Ravi’s Lunch — Rice and Channa curry (Bengal gram) with papad.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

6.10 SUMMING UP
In this Unit, you read about physical, motor and sensory development of the
child during first two years of her life. By the time the child is one month old,
she has adapted to her environment and rapid development takes place in all
areas. The infant gains in height and weight. At the end of one year the child
weighs 8-9 kgs and gains 10-12 inches in height. The development of the
brain is rapid and this period is crucial for development of the nervous
system. The brain weight also increases and reaches 80% of the adult brain
weight by the age of two years. It has been found that after birth, the
development of brain occurs mainly due to increase in number of glial cells
in the brain, development of the neurons, formation of more synaptic
connections between the neurons and pruning of the neurons.
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Sensory Development
At birth, the baby’s head is big in proportion to the rest of her body. Over the
first year this proportion also changes. The legs and torso grow in size, the
bones harden and the muscles develop. These developments help the infant to
acquire motor skills.

During the first year the infant learns to control the movements of her head,
arms, legs and acquires various motor skills. She learns to roll over on her
back, sit, crawl, stand and then walk. She also learns to coordinate the
movement of her head and eyes and thus grasps things, carries them to her
mouth, transfers them from one hand to another and gradually learns to pick
and manipulate small objects.

During the first year, the infant’s sensory abilities also develop. She is able to
differentiate between various objects and identify emotions on the mother’s
face. The ability to judge the direction of sound also improves. She learns to
discriminate between various sounds which will help her to learn language.
The development of physical, motor and sensory abilities is crucial for
development in other areas.

Physical growth is, to a large extent, determined by maturation. At the same

time, opportunities to practice motor skills are also important. The care giver
has an important role, she must plan and conduct activities to promote
sensory and motor development.

Infants should be immunized regularly and their growth should be

periodically checked using growth charts. Complementary food should begin
when the child is six months old. Breast-feeding should preferably continue
till the child is 2 years old.

6.11 GLOSSORY
Pivoting: To turn on one point or in one place. As used in the text it means
that the infant tries to move by turning on her buttocks.
Sensory Capabilities: Sensory refers to anything related to the senses. In the
text, sensory capabilities means the ability to see, hear, feel, smell and taste.
Smothered: Suffocate; to be covered in such a way that it is difficult to
breathe; choke.
Swipe at: To hit hard with a sweeping blow. In the text the term refers to the
infant’s attempt to reach out for objects. Since she is unable to coordinate
eye-hand movements to pick up objects, she swings her arms randomly while
trying to pick the objects. In other words, she swipes at them.
To rake at: A rake is a fork-like tool used for gardening. When we say that
the infant can rake at small objects we mean that she tries to scrape or gather
or collect small objects by curling her fingers stiffly like a rake.
Voluntary: The term ‘voluntary’ is used when someone performs an action
or does something willingly. We have talked about the rooting reflex in a
neonate, i.e., she will suck on anything that is placed near her mouth or
cheek. After a while the infant will suck only when she wants. When this
happens we say that sucking has become voluntary.
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6.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
EXERCISES During Infancy and
Toddlerhood

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) a) Glial Cells
b) Ossification
c) Fontanelle
d) Milk Teeth
e) Cerebrum
2) a) Agree. At birth, the head of the baby is one fourth of the total body
length and legs only one third. The proportion of legs increases to
1/2 of the total body length by the age of 2 years. On the other
hand, the proportion of a child’s head decreases from 1/4th of the
entire body at birth to 1/5th at the age of 2 years (and to 1/8th by
adulthood).
b) Agree. Babies have a soft spot called ‘Fontanelle’ on the top of the
skull and should be protected because the bones here have not fused
together yet. These bones fuse somewhere between 9 to 12 months
of age and only then a hard skull cap is formed.
c) Disagree. The first two years are very important for the growth of
the central nervous system.
d) Agree. This is because the left hemisphere receives sensory
information from the right side of our body and therefore controls
the right side of our body.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) a) GROSS MOTOR SKILLS
i) 2) around six months
ii) 3) by 7-9 months
iii) 1) by three months
iv) 4) by 13-15 months
b) FINE MOTOR SKILLS
i) 4) 8 months
ii) 2) 5-6 months
iii) 3) 3 months
iv) 1) 4 months
c) SENSORY ABILITIES
i) 3) by six months
ii) 2) by three months
iii) 1) in the first week

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2) You can describe the gross motor skills as walking, jumping, running
and climbing stairs. The fine motor skills could be grasping, scribbling,
handedness etc.
3) The physical developments that aid in the acquisition of motor skills are:
- the toddler’s body becomes more proportionate, she is able to balance
better which allows walking, running and jumping
- maturation of the brain
- muscles increase in weight and thickness
- bones harden and increase in number

4)

CLIMB STAIRS
Gross Motor Skills
Increasing complexity

JUMP

PULL A TOY
WHILE
WALING

15 18 20 25 30 33 36
0
WALK
Age in months

5) Physical, motor and sensory development influence development in all

other areas. The child’s range of activity increases, she explores more
and learns more. This cognitive development is fostered. She is able to
interact with people and forms relationships with them. As her skills
increase and she does more things, she develops positive feelings about
herself. Thus social and emotional development is fostered.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Physical and motor development are, to a large extent, determined by
maturation. Maturation determines the pattern of development.
Environment influences development by providing opportunities to
practise motor skills. We can thus say that heredity and environment
interact to influence development of physical and motor skills.
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2) a) True, Physical Motor and
Sensory Development
b) True, During Infancy and
Toddlerhood
c) False. First dose of OPV 1, Penta 1 and IPV should be given at 6
weeks of age.
d) True

3) CHILD (A): The child growth curve is upwards and in green area which
means the child is healthy but since the curve moves beyond the green
area, the child has become overweight and she needs to be engaged in
physical activity.
CHILD (B): This child’s weight when plotted from 1 month onwards
moved upwards and from yellow to green coloured areas which means
that the child was slightly malnourished but eventually gained weight
and is healthy now. However the last plotted point is just outside the
green area and the child’s weight gain needs to be tracked else the child
will become overweight.
CHILD (C): In this case the child’s growth curve is upwards and shows
that the child is gaining weight but still is in the orange area which
means severe malnourishment. Also the child is not gaining weight
evenly and so needs to be referred to the doctor.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1) i (c), ii (a), iii (d), iv (b)
2) Mala’s lunch was balanced as it contained food items from all the four
categories.
Mala’s Lunch:

Spinach Chapati — carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals

Keema Curry — proteins, fats

Ravi’s meal was not balanced since he did not get sufficient vitamins and
minerals due to lack of vegetables/fruits. He may have got some vitamins
from vegetable like tomato in the Channa curry (Bengal gram) but this is
not enough.

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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development UNIT 7 PHYSICAL AND MOTOR
DEVELOPMENT DURING
PRESCHOOL YEARS

Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Physical Growth
7.2.1 Height and Weight
7.2.2 Skeletal Growth
7.2.3 Development of Muscles
7.2.4 Changes in Body Proportions
7.2.5 Development of Brain
7.2.6 Development of the Eyes
7.2.7 Other Physiological Changes
7.3 Development of Motor Skills
7.3.1 Gross Motor Skills
7.3.2 Fine Motor Skills
7.4 Fostering Physical and Motor Development
7.4.1 Immunization and Health Care

7.4.2 Nutrition

7.4.3 Opportunities to Practise Motor Skills

7.5 Summing Up
7.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
7.7 Some Recipes

7.1 INTRODUCTION
You have read in the earlier Units that by the time children are three years
old, they can walk, throw and catch a ball and use their hands for eating. You
will read in this Unit, how the stiff, uncertain movements of the toddler
become more graceful and confident during preschool years and learn how
the child develops control over body movements and becomes self-sufficient
in many tasks. During the two to six year period, children become more
competent in a number of ways. Preschoolers are ready to explore the larger
environment. They are curious and want to find out more about things.
Preschool age children are a bundle of activities. They are always on the
move — dancing, running, jumping and wanting new challenges to test
themselves. All this play and activity develops muscles and senses and
improves coordination. Gross and fine motor skills refine further during this
period. By six years of age, the child is thinner, taller, stronger, and has better
coordination as compared to a two year old. The six year old will be able to
pedal a tricycle and begin to learn to ride a bicycle, catch a ball or climb a
ladder but do all this more easily. She is self-sufficient in many tasks.
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Objectives Physical and Motor
Development During
After studying this Unit, you should be able to: Preschool Years

• describe the physical changes that take place in the child’s body during
the preschool years, i.e. increase in height and weight, change in body
proportions and development of internal organs;
• state the development of the brain during preschool years;
• identify the gross and fine motor skills acquired by preschoolers and
describe their development;
• understand the need for immunization and state the schedule to be
followed during preschool years;
• discuss the nutritional requirements of the preschool child; and
• emphasize the role of practice in furthering motor skills.

7.2 PHYSICAL GROWTH

This section details the physical growth during preschool years. You will
read about changing body proportions, skeletal growth, development of
muscles, brain, eyes and other physiological changes in this section.

Preschoolers test themselves by trying out challenging tasks and in this way develop
greater coordination and physical skills
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
7.2.1 Height and Weight
You know that height and weight are used as indicators of physical growth. A
steady gain in height and weight usually indicates good physical growth. The
rate of physical growth is slower during the preschool years as compared to
infancy and toddlerhood. However, preschool children show a steady gain in
height and weight. They gain two to three inches, that is, five to seven-and-a-
half centimeters in height every year. At the same time, the weight increases
by about two kilograms every year. Let us look at Table 7.1a and 7.1b which
gives us ideal weight and height of children from the age of three years
onwards. If you look carefully, you will also see the cut-offs below which the
preschoolers will be called underweight and stunted. Remember, you have
seen similar tables for infants and toddlers in previous Units.
Table 7.1a: Reference Weights for Identifying Underweight Preschoolers
What should be the Weight of Children from Three to Six years?
Boy Girl
Age If less than this Ideal Weight If less than this Ideal Weight
(Months) then it is (Kg) then it is (Kg)
underweight underweight
36 11.3 14.3 10.8 13.9
39 11.6 14.8 11.2 14.4
42 12 15.3 11.6 15
45 12.4 15.8 12 15.5
48 12.7 16.3 12.3 16.1
51 13.1 16.8 12.7 16.6
54 13.4 17.3 13 17.2
57 13.7 17.8 13.4 17.7
60 14.1 18.3 13.7 18.2
72 20.5 20.2

Table 7.1b: Reference Heights for Identifying Stunting in Preschoolers

What should be the Height of Children from Three to Six years?
Boy Girl
Age If less than this Ideal Height If less than this Ideal Height
(Months) then child is (cm) then child is (cm)
stunted stunted
36 88.7 96.1 87.4 95.1
39 90.3 98 89.2 97.1
42 91.9 99.9 90.9 99
45 93.5 101.6 92.5 100.9
48 94.9 103.3 94.1 102.7
51 96.4 105 95.6 104.5
54 97.8 106.7 97.1 106.2
57 99.3 108.3 98.5 107.6
60 100.7 110 99.9 109.4
72 116.0 115.1
Source: Training Module 8 of Poshan Abhiyaan Scheme; Ministry of Women and Child
Development, Government of India, 2018 (based on WHO Child Growth Standards, 2006-
2007); https://icds-wcd.nic.in/nnm/NNM-Web-Contents/LEFT-MENU/ILA/Modules/NNm-
ILAmodule-08-Assessment_Growth.pdf

Let us consider the weight of a girl Aakriti, who is 3 years 3 months old. Her
weight is 11 kg. If we compare her weight to the ideal weight of girls who are
128
39 month old, we can see that her weight is much lower than the ideal weight Physical and Motor
Development During
for her age (which is 14.4 kg). The cut off for underweight category for her Preschool Years
age is 11.2 kg, and her weight is below this weight (as it is 11 kg). This
clearly shows that the child is underweight. Similarly height of children can
help us to figure out if the children are stunted in growth or not. Early
diagnosis can lead to action and prevent long term harmful impact on the
overall health of the child.

Height and weight are the main indicators of physical growth. A steady gain
in height and weight usually indicates good physical growth. During preschool
years, along with the changes in height and weight, there are changes in the
muscle tissue, adipose tissue, internal organs and various systems of the body.
Let us read about these changes in the following Sub-sections.

Regular recording of the child’s weight is an easy and reliable way of monitoring the
child’s growth

7.2.2 Skeletal Growth

You know that the bones of the infant are soft. You also read that along with
growth, they begin to harden during the years of infancy and toddlerhood. This
process of hardening and growth of the bones continues during the preschool
years. However, the preschoolers’ bones are still softer than those of the adult;
they do not break easily and when damaged, mend more rapidly, compared to
the mature bones of the adult. The bones of the arms, legs and trunk grow
rapidly. By the age of six years, the legs of the preschooler account for half of
her body length. The ratio is the same as the ratio of the adult body.

7.2.3 Development of Muscles

Around the age of four years, the muscles of the child also grow rapidly. This
growth in muscles accounts for more than half of the increase in weight. As
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
the muscle fiber thickens and becomes stronger, the body movements become
more efficient. Consequently, the child is able to participate in more physical
activities and games.

7.2.4 Changes in Body Proportions

The growth of muscles, along with the steady increase in height, brings about
a change in body proportions. You would recall that infants and toddlers
have a round abdomen and a short, chubby appearance. The preschooler, on
the other hand, looks more slender. This is because during the preschool
years, the layer of fatty tissue all over the body becomes thinner, the muscles
around the abdomen become firm, the baby-like round stomach flattens, the
torso (upper body) lengthens and widens and the child’s arms and legs also
become longer. By the age of six years, the legs of the preschooler account
for half of her body length. Hence, the child now looks slender and long
legged with a flat stomach. The child’s body proportions are now similar to
that of an adult body.

7.2.5 Development of Brain

The brain continues to develop. At birth, the brain is nearly 30 per cent of its
adult weight; by age 2, it reaches 70 per cent and at 6 years, 90 per cent. As
you have read in the previous Units, from birth to age five, a child’s brain
develops more rapidly than at any other time in life. Due to this rapid rate of
brain development, these early years are critical for acquiring variety of
abilities in all domains of development. You have also read in earlier Unit
that brain development during the first three years after birth mainly occurs
due to myelinization of neurons, elongation of dendrites of neurons and
formation of more and more synaptic connections between the neurons, as
the child experiences the environment around her. However during these
early years, the brain is immature and it forms several synaptic connections to
record all the information it experiences. As a result, it records unnecessary
information and also records the same information at more than one place. It
does not have the maturity to organize the information recorded. However,
after the age of three years, the brain of the child begins to realize that in an
attempt to collect all the information experienced through the senses, it has
stored information at more than one place or stored unimportant information
as well, resulting in dense sets of synapses. At this point, it begins to
remove/cut the excessive and unimportant synapses in an attempt to be
more organized and eliminate what is not necessary. This process is called
‘pruning’. This process continues in adult years as well and the brain
continues to become more and more organized with age in accordance with
the type of experiences.

As a result of brain maturity, the control over all movements becomes better
and the body systems of the child (aged of 3-6 years) function more smoothly
and efficiently. For example, let us consider the child’s ability to control her
bladder. Children who wet the bed at two and three years of age are usually
able to remain dry by the time they are five or six years old. The child needs
fewer hours of sleep than earlier. Her immunity to infections and diseases
also increases.
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The change in body proportions along with the improvement in muscle Physical and Motor
Development During
tone and strength, skeletal development and maturation of the nervous Preschool Years
system (brain) discussed above cause the child’s balance and posture to
improve. This helps the preschool child to become steadier on her feet. Her
movements become graceful and well coordinated.

7.2.6 Development of the Eyes

You have read in previous Units that the child’s eyes are immature at birth.
As a consequence, during the first few months after birth, her vision is
blurred (she does not see objects clearly) and colour vision is also poor. By
the age of one year, the child’s vision develops and the child is able to see
nearby and far off objects clearly and also distinguish between different
colours. The child’s visual apparatus continues to mature gradually during the
early years after her birth. Preschool children however, tend to be farsighted
as the eyes are still developing. This means that they are able to see far
objects more clearly than near ones. It is only when the child is about eight
years old that the eyes are fully developed. The implication of this fact is that
the reading material for preschoolers should be large and in bold print.

7.2.7 Other Physiological Changes

In addition to the changes described above, many other physiological changes
also occur during the preschool years. As the expansion and contraction of
lungs become better controlled, the child’s breathing becomes slower and
deeper. The heart also beats more slowly and steadily. As a result of better
breathing and better blood circulation, the child has more strength and
stamina for physical activities.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Read the sentences below and fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
a) The growth rate during preschool years, as compared to infancy and
toddlerhood is …………………………………
b) With improved balance, the walk of a preschooler becomes ………
……………………………………….
c) More than half the weight gained by preschoolers is due to the
development of ……………………………….
d) Better balance and posture during preschool years is a result of
change in ………………………………………, improvement in
muscle tone and strength and maturation of the ……………………
and ………………. systems.
e) The weight of a six year old’s brain is…………………. per cent of
the adult brain.
f) During the preschool years, the round abdomen of the child becomes
……………………….
g) The process of removing the excessive and unimportant synapses in
an attempt to be more organized and eliminate what is not necessary
is called ………………
h) Two main indicators of physical growth are............. and ………… .
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2) Data of 4 children (weight or height) as recorded is shared with you. Use
the Tables 17.1a and 17.1b to comment on the health status of these four
children.
• Child 1: Age: 4 years; Gender: Male; Weight: 16 Kg
• Child 2: Age: 4 years 3 months; Gender: Female; Weight: 12.5 Kg
• Child 3: Age: 3 years 6 months; Gender: Male; Height: 91 cm
• Child 4: Age: 3 years 9 months; Gender: Female; Height: 100 cm
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

7.3 DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR SKILLS

The preschool years are marked by great advances in strength, speed and
coordination. She participates in many more physical activities and also
interacts more frequently with other children. Her body is flexible and this
enables her to learn many more skills. She spends a lot of time practicing and
refining them, despite falling and stumbling many times. She jumps from
stools and runs across open stretches. Her growing physical and motor
abilities also give her greater independence and she uses these abilities to
explore the environment and to do things on her own. The preschool child
enjoys trying out what she can do, she tests her abilities and develops self-
confidence as she masters a particular skill. She likes to have a sense of
mastery in eating quickly, in running and in climbing to the top of the stairs.
The development of motor skills, as the development in any other area,
depends upon the maturation of the central nervous system. But once the
child is ready to perform a certain skill, she should be encouraged and given
opportunities to practice. If the child is not ready to pick up a skill, do not
force her to learn. Sometimes the child’s progress may be affected by illness
or accident. Also, as children are eager to try out many things at this age, they
may not be able to keep pace with all of them at once. As they learn one skill,
they may slow down in the learning of others. But this is not a matter of
serious concern. All of us, and particularly children, have a natural drive for
mastery and competence that keeps us trying. Small delays now will be made
up later.

7.3.1 Gross Motor Skills

We will now look at some of the gross motor skills achieved by children
between three and six years of age. The development of large muscles results
in increased mastery over a number of activities like running, jumping,
climbing up and down the stairs. Let us read the details.
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Walking Physical and Motor
Development During
Preschool Years
By two and a half years of age, most children start trying variations in
walking. Most three year olds are able to walk backwards.

Climbing up and down stairs

Between the second and the third year, the child can climb stairs by
alternating her feet, while holding on to something. However, the child still
places both feet on the same step while descending. In addition, she requires
the support of the railing for climbing down. Gradually, with practice,
children do not need to hold the railing. They use their feet alternately, even
while coming down the stairs. This skill of ascending and descending
stairs, in a manner similar to that of an adult, is achieved by the time children
are four years old. From walking up and down the stairs without holding on
to the railing, they proceed to running up and down. They may even try to
jump over a step while going up, and later, while coming down. No longer
satisfied by being able to use the stairs independently, they attempt many
other variations. They hold on to the railing as they stand on the outside of
the stairs and try to climb up the stairs using the edges of the steps.

Running
Most children between three and four years can run. At this age, as they
strive for better control, they seek delight in running with sudden starts and
stops and turn corners rapidly as they do so. By five years, they are able to
control their speed and direction. They can now start and stop smoothly. The
length of their strides increases. Preschoolers seem to prefer to run instead of
walking from one place to another. This is evident as they race each other and
go up and down the stairs, weaving through crowded places and dodging
obstacles.

Preschoolers delight in running and have better control over their movements
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Jumping
Children learn to jump in a coordinated and graceful manner only after they
have gained the strength and balance to leave the ground with both feet at the
same time. The three year olds jump stiffly without bending their legs at the
knees. This jumping pattern becomes more smooth during the preschool
years as they learn to crouch and use their arms to thrust themselves up while
jumping. Their landing is better balanced as they are able to bend their knees.
From simply stepping off low platforms they are now able to jump off the
low platform with both feet together. As their skill increases, they find higher
platforms to jump off — a chair, a bed, a wooden crate, a large steel trunk —
constantly challenging themselves to see how far they can go. By the age of
six years, children can also jump over an obstacle, for example, over flower-
beds or puddles. They can jump across a distance of about 15 inches i.e.
about 35 cms.

The preschool child jumps in a coordinated manner – Notice how the child uses her
arms to thrust herself while jumping and bends her knees for smooth landing

Hopping
Closely linked to jumping is the ability to hop. Three years old can hop one
to three times on one foot, but they are likely to lose their balance and fall. To
balance themselves, they move their arms a lot as they hop. Five year olds
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can hop ten or more steps on one foot consecutively. But it is only by the age Physical and Motor
Development During
of six years that they can hop equally well on either foot. Games like Preschool Years
hopscotch and hop and chase and those with a skipping rope are popular
around six years and help the child in developing balance and locomotor
skills. As the gross motor skills develop, the child acquires greater
control, coordination and balance.

Throwing and Catching a Ball

The following discussion shows how after acquiring the basic skill of
throwing a ball, the child needs to practice to refine it further.

Ball play is one of the most popular play activities in all phases of childhood.
But the manner in which it is played differs from younger preschoolers to
older preschoolers and children in the middle childhood years. As you know,
the child of two or three years is not able to throw a ball with aim and mostly
drops it in front of her. Practice helps in developing the skill. Preschoolers
steadily improve their ability to throw a ball. Between the ages of three-and-
a-half and five years, children learn to rotate their body slightly to the right as
they prepare to throw the ball and then rotate their body to the left while
making the throw. At this stage, the child’s feet are planted firmly on the
ground. At age four, though children cannot throw a ball with much strength
or accuracy, they can swing their arms freely without an exaggerated
movement of the torso. Further refinement is achieved when the child is
given more opportunities to practice this throwing technique. By six years,
she will slide one foot forward on the same side of the body as the throwing
arm. Only after the child is six-and-a-half or older is she able to throw the
ball in a more coordinated manner. She shifts her weight to the side on which
she is holding the ball. Then as she throws the ball she shifts her weight to
the opposite foot and throws the ball using the movement of both the arm and
the wrist.
To catch a moving object is difficult since children must be able to judge the
position of the object accurately, follow its movements with their eyes and
then place their hands to catch and hold it. The technique for ball-catching
used by a preschooler reveals a definite improvement over that used by the
two year old child. Between the ages of four and five years, the child learns
to catch and hold the ball away from the body. The five year old keeps her
eyes on the ball as it approaches. She extends her arms with elbows bent and
held loosely at her side and prepares to catch the ball. By six years of age,
children are skillful enough to be able to catch the ball by coordinating the
movement of their hands, while they keep their eyes on the approaching ball.
Tricycles and Riding Toys
Tricycles and other riding toys, toys with wheels that can be pushed and
building toys which allow a lot of possibilities are fun after the age of three
and are enjoyed by preschoolers.

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Many three-year-olds can ride a tricycle

Nearly all children develop their motor abilities in the same sequence as
described above, but the age at which they acquire these skills varies
considerably. Most of the basic motor skills like running, jumping and
climbing are achieved by the age of five or six years. During the preschool
years, children practise these skills and develop a wide range of new abilities.
You will find many six year olds climbing up the incline of a slide instead of
using the steps at the other end, or running down the slide instead of sitting
and sliding down. Children often deliberately choose a more complicated
way of doing something just to give themselves an extra challenge. For
example, while walking they will leave a smooth path and deliberately walk
on an uneven surface, or climb over an obstacle on the way, to confirm that
they have mastered balancing during walking. Toys that children can ride are
fun after the age of three.

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Walking, running, jumping, climbing stairs and hopping are basic skills that Physical and Motor
Development During
develop naturally during the early childhood years. However, some skills Preschool Years
need to be learnt specifically and practiced. For example, riding a bicycle,
turning cartwheel, climbing a tree, swimming etc.

7.3.2 Fine Motor Skills

As the small muscles of hands and fingers develop, the child acquires many
more fine motor abilities. The child’s efforts to learn about the world involve
the manipulation of materials. As the movements of their hands and fingers
become coordinated, they become adept in manipulating and handling
objects.

Scribbling and Drawing

In Unit 6, you have read that the toddler begins to make marks on paper using
crayons or pencil. This is called scribbling. As you have read in the previous
Unit, children start scribbling during their second year. The development of
fine motor control can be seen in the child’s scribbling. Since fine motor
control is not fully developed during toddlerhood, the children use the entire
movement of the arm and the shoulder to make these marks. In the beginning
they hold the crayon tightly in their palm and make straight lines by back and
forth movement of their whole arm that run across the paper. The child is not
able to control the arm movement. Around the age of three, at the beginning
of the preschool years, the child develops greater control over the muscles of
her finger and wrist. So now the child uses the wrist movement to make
marks on paper. The development of fine motor control can be seen in the
way a child holds the chalk or a pencil. The older preschooler holds the
crayon like an adult, using the forefinger and thumb to grasp it close to its
writing end as compared to a younger preschooler who uses the whole hand
for holding the crayon.
The ability to draw vertical lines seems to precede that of drawing horizontal
lines.

The scribbles now are not allowed to run off the paper – a sign of increased
eye-hand co-ordination and muscular control. The child experiments with
different types of scribbles and varies the amount of pressure she exerts on
the crayon.

The child also show a progression in their scribbling. Closed forms such as
circles, semi-circular patterns and loops are only possible for the child of
three years of age or above. Crosses, squares, triangles and diamonds follow
in sequential order. The scribbling paves path for drawing. The drawings of
a four-year-old comprise recognizable forms although one cannot decide
what they are. By five years of age, the child’s drawings are quite
distinguishable as people, animals or trees. Typically, the preschooler’s first
representation of a human figure is drawn with a circle for a head and two
vertical lines for legs. Heads of figures drawn are disproportionately large,
and people tend to be larger than background objects. Six year olds include
greater detail in their drawings and the figures begin to take on realistic
proportions.
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By four years of age, the child’s drawings are recognizable to adults

The important achievement with respect to scribbling that takes place during
the preschool years is that the child discovers a connection between the
marks, her thoughts and the world around her.

While the two year old delights in the sheer physical activity of moving a
crayon around and producing marks on paper, for the preschooler these are
no longer simply marks on paper but begin to have a meaning for the child,
even though we adults do not understand what they represent. She realizes
that the marks can represent her thoughts, what she is seeing or speaking.
Thus scribbling is a form of writing.
Scribbling and drawing gives the growing child a sense of achievement. It is
one of the first accomplishments in producing something. Some children who
have been taught may write some alphabets and numbers or draw squares and
triangles. But these figures are not precise and the children find it difficult to
write them. They should not be forced to do so.

We tend to think that the child’s scribble as accidently drawn meaningless

lines. This is not true though. These scribbles and drawings have a certain
meaning for the child.

Thus, the young child’s scribbling and drawing are a developmental

milestone not only in terms of child’s fine motor skills development, but
these are also the foundation for learning to read and write. You will read
more about the emergence of reading and writing during childhood in Units
27, 28 and 29.

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 Physical and Motor
Given below is one such example which shows the growth of children’s writing attempts
Development During
during this period. Preschool Years

The child’s drawing represents the child’s thoughts

In this sample, the child drew straight and curved lines and circular patterns. With the
teacher’s support, as she asked him questions about what he had drawn, he narrated an
interesting story around it. This shows that the child had a clear idea in his mind which
he wanted to represent on paper. He has written his name in the top left-hand corner
which is legible (readable). Thus, these lines and shapes drawn by the child are his
writing.

Hand Dominance
When the child draw or writes or does anything using her hands, you may
notice that she prefers using one hand more frequently than the other. As you
have read in the previous Unit, by the age of two years, most children prefer
one hand over the other. You may recall that this ‘hand dominance’ is firmly
established by five to six years of age. Most people are ‘right handed’ i.e.
they prefer to use right hand for most activities. However, some children
prefer using their left hand more. Studies indicate that being ‘left handed’
causes no harm to the child and therefore child should not be forced to
become right- handed, if she has a preference for the left hand.

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Physical, Motor and
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Cutting with Scissors

Children can safely use child-friendly scissors which have a blunt end-point and plastic
covering on blades

The development of fine motor skills is also reflected in the way preschoolers
manipulate materials. At three years of age, using a pair of scissors can be
frustrating for the child, but by four years, the child can cut paper using a pair
of scissors. Five year olds are able to cut along a straight line with scissors.
By the time they are six years old, they can follow a line to cut out squares
from thick paper. This would be difficult for them if the paper is thin or limp
as it would bend easily. When children discover that they can cut things and
paste them together in new combinations or convert raw materials into a
design, they have found a new field of creative play.

Other Fine Motor Activities

Improved eye-hand coordination permits preschoolers to successfully lace
a wire or thick string through holes punched on a board, roll and flick
marbles and string beads more accurately than toddlers. It becomes possible
for them to put together jigsaw puzzles with four or five pieces. Paper-folding
skills improve to the extent that six year olds are able to fold and crease a
sheet of paper vertically, horizontally and diagonally. In Course 2 you will
read more about the kind of activities that can be planned for children during
preschool years as a result of further development of motor skills.

With the development of fine motor skills, children are able to perform
activities like the following:

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 Physical and Motor
Development During
Preschool Years

Passing the thread through holes made in cards

Colouring

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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development

Painting

Clay moulding

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 Physical and Motor
Development During
Preschool Years

Paper tearing and pasting

Self-Help Skills
The preschool years are the time when children become increasingly
proficient in the area of self-help skills, i.e. they learn to look after their own
needs. By the time they are five to six years old, many are able to bathe, dress
and feed themselves. Washing themselves, putting on and buttoning clothes
and combing and tying up hair are some things they will insist on doing by
themselves at this age, though they may take time to complete the tasks. They
can wear simple clothes on their own, by zipping and unzipping large zippers
and fastening and unfastening large buttons themselves. Preschoolers can tie
their shoe laces by the age of 6 years.
While eating, a three year old child is able to eat with her hand. If the family
uses cutlery, she can hold a spoon in her hand and use it to take the food to
her mouth. By the age of 4 years, the child is also able to use a fork.
The advances in gross and fine motor control not only give preschoolers
greater independence, but also allow them to help in activities within and
outside the home. In rural areas, it is not an uncommon sight to find a five or
six year old girl helping her mother in fetching fuel, washing utensils and
clothes and cleaning the house. She not only bathes and dresses herself, but
also looks after her younger siblings. She may also be helping her family on
the farm by picking vegetables or fruits.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
The following example describes the activities of a preschool child, Rahul.
Which of his activities involve gross motor skills and which ones involve fine
motor skills? Write in the appropriate columns given further.
Six year old Rahul is getting ready to go to school. As he puts on his shirt, his
mother says, “You’re going to have lots of fun in the school today. The
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
school bus is about to come.” She comes forward to help him with the
buttons of the shirt but he turns away and buttons his shirt carefully,
checking that each button is going into the right hole. He pulls on his shorts
and then his socks and shoes. His mother ties the laces of one shoe as Rahul
attempts the other one himself. Tying shoe laces is a tricky job but he has
learnt to loop the two ends over each other and pull them together to make a
bow. After washing his hands, he picks up the slice of bread in one hand and
eats slowly, refusing all offers of help from his mother to feed him. She tells
him to hurry up while he gulps his milk holding the glass in both hands. She
brings his bag and opens the front door to take him down to the rickshaw
stop. Rahul takes his bag from her, slips his arms through the straps and
pushes the bag up to his back. His mother follows him as he runs down the
stairs from his house, jumping off the last step and landing firmly on both
feet. He rushes across the garden, jumps over a puddle and runs down the
pavement. Seeing his other friends who are standing and waiting for the
rickshaw, he slows down turns and waves to his mother and skips the rest of
the way to his friends.
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS FINE MOTOR SKILLS
……………………………… ………………………………………..
……………………………… …………………………………………
……………………………… …………………………………………

7.4 FOSTERING PHYSICAL AND MOTOR

DEVELOPMENT
You have already read in Blocks 1 and 2 that heredity and environmental
factors interact to influence all areas of development. You know that children
need a healthy and stimulating environment for optimal development. If an
effort is made to keep children healthy and provide them with nutritious food,
they are more likely to proceed smoothly through the various stages of
development.

Good health and nutrition are key factors in ensuring optimal growth and
development. If the physical abilities of children are to reach their full
potential, it is equally important that we ensure that children get opportunities
to practise their skills. Let us look at each of these factors one by one.

7.4.1 lmmunization and Health Care

Preschool children often suffer from common illnesses such as cold,
respiratory illnesses, tonsil infection and skin allergies. Disease such as
chicken pox, mumps and measles are a part of the experience of the growing
years. Immunizing children at a proper time is an effective method of
preventing them against such vaccine preventable diseases.

You have already read about immunization during infancy and toddlerhood.
These doses need to be followed up with booster doses in preschool years.
The caregiver needs to ensure that between five and six years of age, the
child is given the following vaccinations.
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Five to six years - DPT – Booster 2 Physical and Motor
Development During
Three to five years - Vitamin A doses every six month Preschool Years

7.4.2 Nutrition
It is possible that one may be getting too little or too much of nutrients from
one’s diet. If this situation continues for a period of time it can lead to
malnutrition. This can lead to poor physical development. The term
malnutrition means either under-nutrition or over-nutrition. Under-nutrition
is the case when the person is getting too little of nutrients from the diet and
over-nutrition is when the person is getting excessive nutrients from the diet.
Malnutrition during the early years may have a permanent effect on some
parts of the brain and nervous system. It also affects the child’s growth rate
and motor coordination. Further, malnourished children are usually not very
active and this affects the development of motor and cognitive skills.

Balanced Diet
A balanced and nutritious diet should be given to the child. You know from
Unit 12 that a balanced, diet is one that includes all the nutrients in the
quantities required by the body. You have read about the five categories of
nutrients namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. Each
meal for the preschooler should, as far as possible, include foods from all
these categories. Because the activity level of children is high, they need
plenty of energy foods. And because of rapid physical growth, the need for
protein is also high. Therefore, food items that are rich sources of energy and
protein should be given. Sources of energy and protein have already been
mentioned in Unit 12. You have read in Block 3 that children in early
childhood years need adequate amounts of iron, vitamin A and calcium.
During the growing years, the body’s requirements of these nutrients is
considerable. Some foods that are rich in iron, vitamin A and calcium, all
important for growth and development, are listed below:

IRON : Green leafy vegetables, whole cereals and pulses, jaggery

VITAMIN A : Yellow and orange coloured fruits and vegetables such as
papaya, mango, pumpkin, carrot and green leafy vegetables
CALCIUM : Milk and milk products such as butter, ghee, cheese, paneer

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Timings and Quantity of Meals and Snacks
Along with ensuring that the preschooler gets nutritious meals that meet her
needs, it is also important to know the timings of meals and snacks. You
know from reading the earlier Unit that the child cannot eat too much at one
time and frequent meals should be given. The most important point is that
there should be regularity in the pattern that is followed. You must remember
that the gap between the meals should not be too short or too long. In a day
one can serve the preschooler about 2 glasses of milk, three main meals
and snacks rich in energy, protein, calcium, vitamin A and iron in
between the main meals.
In the main meals of breakfast, lunch and dinner the child can have the same
food as the family. The mother should ensure that the child does not miss
breakfast for any reason. Research studies have shown that a complete,
nutritious breakfast helps the child to be physically active and to concentrate
well.

As regards the snacks, the following points may be kept in mind.

• The snacks should be such that only a small quantity provides a high
amount of nutrients. If you give a large quantity of snacks, it will spoil
the child’s appetite for the main meal and the child will not be able to eat
a full meal.
• In addition, the snacks should be easy to prepare and tasty to eat.
• The snack can be made so that the child can eat it with her hands.
Biscuits, sandwiches, laddoos and chikki made from roasted nuts are
nutritious snacks enjoyed by most children. You can make chikki using
the recipe given in Annexure I at the end of the Unit. This snack is crisp
and hard to bite.
• Some children may prefer soft foods. For an alternative you can make
nutritious vegetable cutlets or sandwiches, which the children will enjoy.
Try making the nutritious sandwich given in Section 7.7

Appearance of Food
All of us like to eat food that is good to look at, i.e. which is colourful and
attractive. This becomes especially important in the case of a preschooler.
Young children are very active and interested in exploring their environment
and their attention is easily distracted from food. Giving them cutlets,
biscuits, sandwiches and other snacks of different shapes would be a good
idea. You have read in the last Unit how you could make green puris. Would
you like to try making a square puri that is green in colour? You can
sometimes also try to involve the children in the activity of preparing a
simple dish. Children when involved in this task will develop an interest in
food.

Child’s Likes and Dislikes

When you are planning meals and snacks for preschoolers, you will also need
to keep some points about their likes and dislikes in mind. Preschoolers may
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have strong likes and dislike. Most of the children, you will find, do not like Physical and Motor
Development During
green leafy vegetables and milk. Do not force them to eat anything. As was Preschool Years
mentioned earlier, you can change the form of the food and serve it. Also,
give a gap of some time and try again. The child may accept the food the
second time. When you are introducing foods, give only one new food at a
time and in small quantities. Children are also influenced by what they see
and hear around them. The caregivers should not mention their own likes and
dislikes in front of children. At the same time sharing the meals with the
children is something that adults and children enjoy.
Other Aspects
The food given to the child should not be too hot or too cold. If it is too spicy
or very sweet or fried, it is not suitable for a young child because such foods
irritate her digestive tract.
The atmosphere while eating should he relaxed and enjoyable. The child
should not feel tense. This can happen if you restrict the child, reprimand her
too much or force her to eat a particular food that she does not like.
When we talk of nutrition for preschoolers, we should remember the fact that
it is in these formative years that the child learns many do’s and don’ts and
develops an interest in eating as a social activity. This interest of the child can
be captured and good eating habits can be taught, such as washing hands
before and after eating, not spilling and smearing food all over themselves,
and throwing wrappers and peels in the dustbin.

Let us now talk about another important aspect that influences development
of motor skills in children viz. opportunities to practise.

7.4.3 Opportunities to Practise Motor Skills

You have just read about the importance of good health and a nutritious diet
in enhancing physical and motor development. In addition to this, for the
development of motor skills, it is important that children get opportunities to
practise these skills. You will read in Blocks 5 and 6 about the activities that
can be organized for preschoolers to foster the development of motor skills.
However, one must remember that no two children develop at the same rate.
One may be highly skilled in an activity, while another may be unable to
perform as well. Therefore, comparisons between children must be
avoided. This would only make a child self-conscious and uncomfortable
about her failure to develop a particular skill. Children must be encouraged
to try out new activities but they should not be pushed beyond their
limits. It would be beneficial to be patient and allow them to develop at their
own pace.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) State whether the following statements are correct or incorrect. In the
space provided against each statement put a tick mark (√ ) for the correct
sentences and cross (X) for the incorrect.
a) Maturation will determine the age at which a child is ready to learn a
particular skill. ( )
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Physical, Motor and
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b) The preschool child can eat large quantities of food at a time and so
needs only three meals a day. ( )
c) The energy level of malnourished children is low. ( )
d) During the growing years, children do not need food rich in calcium,
iron and vitamin A. ( )
2) At what age should the vaccination DPT Booster Dose 2 should be given
to a preschool child?
……………………………………………………………………………
3) Described below is four-year-old Sunita’s lunch. Read it carefully and
comment whether it is a balanced and nutritious meal suitable for her
age.
Sunita’s lunch : Chapati made from besan and wheat flour, spinach
paneer vegetable, a slice of mango.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

7.5 SUMMING UP
In this Unit, you have read about the physical growth and motor development
that takes place during the preschool years. As compared to infancy the rate
of physical growth slows down in this period. However, the brain continues
to develop and reaches 90 per cent of its adult weight by the time the child is
six years old. As a result of brain maturity, the control over all movements
becomes better and the body systems of the child (aged of 3-6 years) function
more smoothly and efficiently.
The body proportions of the child also continue to change and she acquires
many new skills. The height of a preschooler increases by two to three inches
and her weight by two to two-and-a-half kilograms every year. Body
proportions change as her limbs grow rapidly. The loss of body fat results in
her looking more slender. Because of the change in body proportions, muscle
tone and strength, her balance improves. Her movements are well controlled
and this gives her a more steady gait while walking.
Preschoolers not only refine previously learnt motor skills but also acquire
many new ones.
Their physical and motor development gives them greater independence to
explore the world around them. They begin to run, jump, hop, climb and
catch and throw a ball efficiently by the time they are six years old. Along
with the development of gross motor skills, the preschool child becomes
adept at handling and manipulating materials. She develops various fine
motor skills scribbling, drawing, using scissors etc. Hand dominance is
148
established at this age. She also learns many self-help skills — she can bathe, Physical and Motor
Development During
dress and feed herself. These skills enable her to do tasks within and outside Preschool Years
the home.
If children are provided with opportunities to practise skills, you would be
able to enhance their physical and motor development.

7.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1 a) slower
b) steady
c) muscles
d) body proportions, nervous and skeletal
e) ninety
f) flat
g) pruning
h) height and weight
2) Child 1 is not underweight as the weight is above the cut off for the age
though below the ideal weight.
Child 2 is underweight as the weight is below cut off for the age.
Child 3 is stunted as height is below cut off for the age.
Child 4 is not stunted as height is above the cut off for the age though
below the ideal height.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
GROSS MOTOR SKILS FINE MOTOR SKILS
• Pulling on shorts, socks and shoes. • Buttoning shirt.
• Slipping bag on shoulder. • Tying laces.
• Running down the stairs, across the • Holding the slice of bread and
garden and down the pavement. the glass of milk.
• Jumping off last step; over puddle.
• Skipping towards his friends.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) a) Correct
b) Incorrect; A preschool child cannot eat much at one time and so
frequent meals should be given.
c) Correct
d) Incorrect; During the growing years children need foods rich in
calcium, iron and vitamin A.
2) Vaccination Age
DPT Booster 2 5-6 years

149
Physical, Motor and 3) Sunita got a balanced meal because there was a food item from all the
Sensory Development
five categories of nutrients namely carbohydrates (wheat flour), proteins
(besan, paneer), vitamins and minerals (mango, spinach), fats (oil used
for cooking vegetable). She also got iron (spinach), vitamin A (mango)
and calcium (paneer). She got energy from the fats and chapati.

7.7 SOME RECIPES

Groundnut Chikki
Take 30 grams of groundnuts. Roast the nuts and pound them coarsely. Heat
50 grams of jaggery in a frying pan over low heat until it melts completely.
Add the groundnuts, take the pan off the fire and mix well. Spread this on the
back of a greased tray and flatten it using a greased rolling pin till it is ¼ inch
thick. Mark into squares. When cool, remove from the tray and break into
pieces.
Nutritious Sandwich
Take boiled egg, coriander leaves and a little milk. Mash the egg and mix
with coriander leaves and milk to make a paste. Add salt and pepper to taste.
Spread this paste on bread to make sandwiches. You can cut these
sandwiches in a round shape to make them more interesting. If you don’t
want to use egg, you can substitute it with cheese, paneer (cottage cheese) or
a little cream. In place of coriander leaves you can use mint for variation.
This sandwich is rich in calcium, proteins, vitamin A, iron (if you have used
egg) and energy.

150
UNIT 8 PHYSICAL AND MOTOR Physical and Motor
Development During

DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE Middle Childhood

Years

CHILDHOOD YEARS

Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Physical Growth and Development
8.2.1 Changes in Height and Weight
8.2.2 Changes in Body Shape and Proportions
8.2.3 Skeletal and Muscular Growth
8.2.4 Development of the Teeth
8.2.5 Development of the Eyes
8.2.6 Development of the Brain
8.3 Motor Development
8.3.1 Gross Motor Development
8.3.2 Gender Differences in Development of Gross Motor Skills
8.3.3 Fine Motor Skills
8.3.4 Body Image
8.4 Influence of Physical Development on All Other Areas of Development
8.5 Summing up
8.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Middle childhood is the period between 6 years and 10 years. The period is
often called ‘School Age’ as most of the children are in school by this time.

You may recall from earlier Units that physical growth and development is
rapid during infancy and comparatively slower during early childhood years.
During middle childhood, physical growth and development continues slowly
but steadily. Then during adolescence, there is again a growth spurt, children
gain height and weight rapidly and attain sexual maturity (puberty) as well.
Hence, we can say that early and middle childhood years are periods of
relatively slow but steady growth, between the more rapid physical growth
periods of infancy and adolescence.
During middle childhood years, children’s muscular strength and motor
coordination increases as well. This results in the desire to indulge in
vigorous physical activities. Children strive to refine their gross motor skills
(such as running, jumping, hopping, balancing and throwing, catching,
kicking and dribbling ball) and fine motor skills (writing, drawing, painting)
which were established during early childhood years and also acquire new
gross and fine motor abilities to which they are exposed. In fact, they practice
a lot to acquire motor skills and to gain mastery.

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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
The above description was an overview of general trends in physical growth
and development during the years of middle childhood. In this Unit, we will
discuss in detail about the physical growth and development during 6-8 years.

Objectives
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

• describe the pattern of physical growth and development during middle

childhood years;
• state the refinement in gross and fine motor abilities that takes place
during this period as well as the acquisition of new motor abilities; and
• explain how the child develops her body image during these years.

8.2 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

8.2.1 Changes in Height and Weight
The average weight of a six year old boy is about 20.5 kilograms and that of a
girl is about 20.2 kilograms. The height of boys of this age, on an average, is
approximately 116.1 cms and that of girls 115.1 cms. Refer to Table 8.1 for
average increase in height and weight of children during middle childhood
years. You will notice that, in general, all children add 2-3 kg of weight and
about 5-6 cms of height each year.

Table 8.1: Average Weight and Height of Children during Middle Childhood Years

Age in Years Weight in Kgs Height in Cms

Boys Girls Boys Girls

6 years 20.5 20.2 116.0 115.1

7 years 22.9 22.4 121.7 120.8

8 years 25.4 25.0 127.3 126.6

Source: WHO Child Growth Standards, 2006-2007

There are wide individual differences, of course. Some six year olds can be
mistaken for 10 year olds and some 10 year olds can look much younger. All
children do not grow at the same rate. Some grow more in height and some in
weight producing different body types — fat, slender, stocky. It has been
observed that a child who is small or large in relation to his or her peers will
probably have the same position in adulthood.

You would have also noticed, in the above table, that boys are somewhat
taller and heavier than girls. This difference is seen till about ten years of age.
Thereafter, adolescent growth spurt begins in girls. From age 10-14 years,
girls increase in height and weight more rapidly than boys and gain sexual
maturity as well. Hence, girls look more physically mature than boys and
may even have more height and weight than boys during this period.
Thereafter, physical growth stops in girls but there is growth spurt in boys
from ages 14-18 years. Boys increase in height and weight more rapidly than
152
girls during this period and surpass girls in height and weight. They also gain Physical and Motor
Development During
sexual maturity during this period. Of course, there are individual variations. Middle Childhood
Years
8.2.2 Changes in Body Shape and Proportions
You have read that children begin to lose their baby fat during the preschool
years. A six year old child has a slender body structure, flat tummy and long
legs. Now, this baby fat gets further reduced during middle childhood years
which results in more changes in body shape and appearance and the child
looks quite different from the preschool age child. During middle childhood,
the trunk elongates, become slimmer due to loss of baby fat, the chest
broadens and flattens, and the neck becomes longer.
You may recall from reading of the previous units that after birth, the trunk
and limbs grow at a fast pace as compared to the head. Therefore, the
proportion of the head to the total body length decreases from 1/4th of the
total body length at birth to 1/5th of the total body length at the age of two
years and it further decreases to 1/6th of the total body length by the age of six
years. This trend continues in middle childhood years as well. The proportion
of the head to the total body length decreases further to 1/7th of the total body
length by the age of 12 years. On the other hand, the proportion of trunk and
limbs to the total body length increases. The proportion of the length of legs
to the total body length reaches adult like proportion (one half of the total
body length) by the age of six years itself (refer Fig. 6.1,Unit 6).
The growth of the legs is the most prominent feature during middle childhood
years. The legs grow fastest during the middle childhood years (faster than
the trunk). Parents would notice that their children grow out of their jeans
more rapidly and need larger shoes more frequently during middle childhood
years. Hence children appear long legged during middle childhood years.
Arms also grow longer during this period.
Due to rapid growth of arms and legs and steady decrease in body fat during
middle childhood years as described above, children appear thin and acquire
‘a gawky’ look – their appearance is described as ‘all arms and legs’.
Changes in body proportion and shape at this time are accompanied by
changes in facial configuration as well. As children lose their “baby fat,”
their faces tend to become slimmer and this adds to the lean appearance of
this age group.

8.2.3 Skeletal and Muscular Growth

During middle childhood years, the bones of the body lengthen and broaden
and muscles also grow in strength. However, ligaments are not firmly
attached to the bones. As a result, children have greatly flexible body
movements. They can practice several physical exercises or dance steps
(which adults cannot always do as their bodies are not as flexible).

8.2.4 Development of the Teeth

Children also begin to lose their baby teeth by age 6, which are then replaced
by the permanent teeth. The first teeth to go are the upper front teeth, giving
six year olds a ‘toothless smile’. From age 6-11 years, four permanent teeth
153
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
appear every year replacing baby teeth. Gradually, all twenty primary teeth
are replaced by the permanent teeth. The transition from temporary to
permanent teeth is usually completed by about 11 to 12 years of age. For
some time, the permanent teeth seem too big for the child’s mouth. Later,
with the growth of facial bones, specifically the jaw and chin, the child’s face
enlarges and mouth widens to accommodate the newly erupted permanent
teeth. Along with this, the forehead flattens, lips fill out, the nose becomes
larger. As a result, the face no longer looks ‘babyish’ and acquires a slim and
a more mature look.

8.2.5 Development of the Eyes

At 6 years of age the eyes have not yet reached their final size and shape.
Many children between 6 and 8 years of age are slightly farsighted. But this
condition usually corrects itself spontaneously between the ages of 8 and 10
when their eyes reach adult eye size and shape. One practical implication of
this finding is that their early reading materials should be printed in large
size.

8.2.6 Development of the Brain

As mentioned in the earlier section, development of the brain is fastest during
early childhood. At birth, the brain is about 25 per cent of its adult weight, at
six months it is about 50 per cent, at one year 60 per cent, by two years of age
70 per cent, and by the sixth year of age, the brain weighs 90 per cent of the
adult brain. During middle childhood years processes like myelinization of
neurons (which is most rapid in the frontal cortex of the brain), elongation of
dendrites and formation of more and more synaptic connections, along with
pruning of unimportant synaptic connections continue to occur in the brain
causing brain development. The brain becomes more organized due to these
processes.
The changes in the brain between 5 and 7 years permit the frontal lobes of the
brain to coordinate the activities of other parts of the brain in qualitatively
more complex ways. The synchronization (happening at the same time) of
electrical activity in different parts of the brain also increases significantly.
All this increases the child’s ability to control her attention, form explicit
plans and engage in self reflection. There is also increase in mobility and
control of body movement due to brain development during middle
childhood years.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Read the sentences below and fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
i) Middle childhood years are periods of relatively…………….
between the more rapid physical growth periods of infancy and
adolescence.
ii) During 6-8 years all children in general add ………. of weight and
about ……….of height each year.
iii) From age ………. girls increase in height and weight more rapidly
154
 than boys, while there is growth spurt in boys from ages Physical and Motor
Development During
………………… Middle Childhood
Years
iv) The ………………is most prominent feature during middle
childhood years.
v) The motor competency at this age can be judged by the criterion of
…………
2) Explain in brief the processes of brain development during middle
childhood years.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

8.3 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

You may recall from reading the previous Unit that during the preschool
years the child acquires various gross and fine motor skills. During middle
childhood, there is greater coordination, which helps the child to carry out
many gross and fine motor activities ranging from reading and writing to
playing vigorous outdoor games.

8.3.1 Gross Motor Development

Most of the basic gross motor skills like running, jumping, climbing and ball
play are achieved during early childhood years. Thereafter in the middle
childhood years, children refine these skills and develop a wide range of new
abilities. Due to increase in strength, the child gets interested in vigorous
physical activities. Climbing up the slide from the incline rather than using
the steps, running down the incline rather than sitting and sliding down are
some common sights. Children deliberately choose more complicated ways
of doing something just to give themselves that extra challenge. They also
want to demonstrate their competence (watch me ‘I can do it by myself’).
Although the boundaries of physical growth and development are determined
by heredity, the motor skills the child acquires depends on the opportunities
available to her in her environment. The sequence of development of motor
skills during middle childhood years depends on the child’s ability, and the
encouragement and the opportunity she receives.
Let us now read about the refinements that occur in gross motor abilities and
the new skills that the child acquires.
Running: Children are able to run with more speed during middle childhood
years than during early childhood years.
Skipping: The ability to skip using a rope improves during middle childhood
years.
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
Jumping: A good indicator of improved motor coordination and strength
during middle childhood years is jumping. One measure of this activity is
called vertical jumping: the child must stand with his or her hands raised
above the head and jump straight up. While at age 6, children are able to high
jump 4 inches; at age 12, children are able to high jump 12 inches.

Another gross motor skill is standing long jump in which children excel
during middle childhood years. Children are able to jump a distance of about
3 feet at age 6 and over 5 feet at age 12.
Balancing: Children are able to balance on one foot without looking down at
their feet. They are also able to walk on 2-inch-wide balance beams.

Jumping and Hopping: It is not until the children reach the age of six years
that they can jump and hop with enough precision to move from one square
to another drawn on the floor/ mat. Children show rapid improvement in this
skill from age 6 to 9, after which they appear to reach a plateau with respect
to hopping. A game like Hopscotch becomes popular during this period.

During middle childhood years children are eager to try out challenging activities such
as walking fast while balancing a lemon on a spoon held in the mouth or hopping to the
finishing line wearing a sack.

156
Ball Play is another common play activity of childhood in which children Physical and Motor
Development During
achieve mastery as they enter the middle childhood years. Children like to Middle Childhood
play ball from very early ages but after the age of six years children play ball Years
in many different ways. Throwing, catching, kicking and dribbling the ball
and batting are various forms of ball play in which children show increased
skill during middle childhood years.

Throwing
The distance of throw and accuracy are the indicators of maturity of this skill.
By the age of 6 most children can throw a small ball forcefully and with some
accuracy. With increasing age, however, children can throw a ball covering
longer distances. By age 10, children can throw twice as far as they did at age
6 and by the age of 12, they can throw three times as far.

Catching
As a general rule, catching is more difficult than throwing, and the child’s
skill depends in part on the size of the ball and speed with which it is thrown.
Children develop the ability to catch a ball with age. Between the ages of 6
and 8 children are not too accurate in estimating the path of the ball
(trajectory) thrown towards them. It was not until about the age of 10 that
they can correctly anticipate where the ball is likely to arrive and where they
should be placed to catch it.

Kicking
Kicking speed and accuracy improves with age during middle childhood
years. Boys are found to be better in this skill compared to girls.

Dribbling
The skill of dribbling the ball also improves with age. At age 6, children are
not able to dribble the ball efficiently. They may be able to bounce the ball
once or twice only before it falls to the ground. However, with practice and
improved motor coordination they are able to dribble the ball continuously
and quickly by age 8.

Batting
Batting skill also improves with age, increasing in speed and accuracy and
involving the whole body.

You may have noticed above that children develop skill in all these diverse
gross motor skills with age. This is due to their flexibility as well as enhanced
balance, quickness, accuracy and force of movement with age. Information
processing also increases with age. For example, reaction time improves
steadily during middle childhood years.

Reaction Time
Reaction Time (RT) is an important criterion for judging competency in
motor skills. Reaction Time is generally made up of several components. One
of these is Movement time — the time that passes between the beginning
157
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
and the end of the action. Another is the Decision Reaction time – the time
that passes between the signal or stimulus to action and the first movement.
Studies indicate that there is regular decrease in the child’s reaction time
with age and a 14 year old child responds almost twice as quickly to a
stimulus as compared to a 6 year old child. It has been found that younger
children often have difficulty with tasks that require immediate responses for
example in batting or dribbling. With increasing age however, children are
able to do these tasks with precision.

8.3.2 Gender Differences in Development of Gross Motor

Skills
Studies indicate that after the age of 7, boys generally exceed girls in the
height of their vertical jumps. In the standing broad jump, boys also tend to
surpass girls after 7 years of age. However, girls are superior to boys in
jumping and hopping on squares and also in skipping.

Data from various investigations of simple and complex gross motor tasks
suggest that boys (ages of 6 and 12 years) excel girls in tasks that require
more leg strength and power. Generally, boys surpass girls in the length of
their throw at all ages from 6 to 12 because of their greater strength.
Accuracy of throw and speed also improves with age, and boys typically
throw more accurately and speedily than girls. Boys are ahead of girls in their
kicking speed and accuracy as well. Boys also do better in batting a ball as
compared to girls. In catching the ball however, no boy-girl differences have
been found. Girls, on the other hand, seem better than the boys in jumping
and hopping tasks.

These differences probably reflect superiority of boys in leg power and

strength and the superiority of girls in visual-motor coordination. Another
reason for these gender differences can be that they more frequently engage
in such tasks. The superiority of boys in kicking and batting the ball may be
due, in some degree, to the fact that they play games requiring these skills
more frequently than girls. Similarly, girls play skipping and hopscotch more
frequently than boys and are better at these as compared to the boys.
However, many of these conventional gender differences are disappearing
with the increased popularity of sports activities among girls.

8.3.3 Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills develop steadily during middle childhood years. These
skills include scribbling, drawing, using scissors, paper pasting, colouring
and painting, which are evident during preschool years. These skills are
refined further during middle childhood years:

Writing: The development from scribbling to writing is indicative of gradual

development and strengthening of the small muscles of the wrist and fingers.
A more controlled scribbling appears between 4 and 7 years, when the child
can scribble in the desired direction such as diagonally or in a circle. During
this period they are able to draw things which they have seen. By 4-5 years of
age, children are able to write letters and numbers. Their writing however
158 tends to be quite large as they make use of their entire arm instead of just
using the wrist and fingers for writing. In learning English they learn to Physical and Motor
Development During
master writing upper case letters (capital letters) first as the horizontal and Middle Childhood
vertical lines of capital letters are easier to make than curves of small letters. Years
Thereafter, children learn to write lower case letters (i.e. small letters).
Gradually, children learn to write letters with uniform height and spacing and
their handwriting gradually improves. Due to these improvements children
are able to master cursive writing by Grade III. In the learning of an Indian
language, there are many differences. There are no capital letters and the
pronunciation does not change with the position in the word, as happens in
English.

Drawing: Children’s drawing also shows changes during school years. Five
to six year olds draw many two-dimensional geometrical shapes such as
circle, triangle, square and rectangle and may also make simple drawings of
fruits (like grapes, apple, mango etc.), trees, mountains, sun, fish, leaves,
flowers, butterflies, animals and birds, human faces and human figures. Their
drawings are sometimes animistic as they draw the sun and flowers with
faces. Gradually, children’s drawings become more realistic. The drawings
tend to become three-dimensional — they show depth and make distant
objects smaller than the ones which are close. Three dimensional figures also
become clearly evident in children’s drawings by the age of 9-10 years as
children draw objects diagonally or with converging lines.
Play: Increased fine motor coordination during school years is also evident in
children’s choice of play materials. They can be seen playing with yo-yos,
plastic blocks, building model airplanes, paper boats, paper fans and similar
play materials. Children also start playing musical instruments during the
school years which require fine motor control.

Children enjoy playing organized games with rules during middle childhood years.
In this picture children are playing ‘Kho-Kho’ a popular organized
outdoor game with rules
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
The development of the above mentioned gross and fine motor skills makes it
possible for children to engage in various organized games and sports with
other children. Some examples of these organized games with rules are
basketball, football, cricket, badminton. Children also invent various games
with rules. Games invented by children usually involve simple physical
skills. Rules made by children are also generally simple. These self- invented
games with their own rules are of interest to children. Children are able to try
out different ways of playing and cooperating/competing with each other.

8.3.4 Body Image

As children develop an idea of things and people around them, they also
begin to define themselves, and have a concept about their own selves. We
will read in detail about the development of the self concept in the Block 5 on
‘Social Development’. However, in this Unit, we will talk about one aspect of
the concept of the self – and that is, body image. Body image includes an
awareness of the body and its parts and also a self-evaluation whether one’s
physical appearance and motor skills are adequate in comparison with those
of one’s peers. Development of a body image is a part of the development of
body perception (i.e. awareness about one’s body and its parts) and this
process begins from infancy, as the child begins to recognize the parts of her
body, learns their names, begins to understand the concepts of far, near, left
or right in relation to her body (for example, whether the toy is far from her;
whether it is on the left). The period of middle childhood is important
because at this time the child begins to make judgments regarding her
physical appearance and to develop positive or negative feelings about
herself.
You may wonder how psychologists find out what children’s ideas are about
their body. Psychologists assess children’s body perception using a variety of
techniques, like asking the children to draw a human figure, or asking them to
complete the missing body parts in a figure or identifying their own and other
people’s right and left sides. Such assessment methods provide a fairly good
idea about children’s body perception.

To study what children think about their own physical appearance and their
gross and fine motor abilities, psychologists often use an ‘adjective or phrase
checklist’, which includes both positive and negative words. The child either
reads the list herself or it is read out aloud by someone else. After each
adjective or phrase, the child must say whether it is true for her or him or not.
In general, the results of such studies have shown that a child’s concept of her
physical appearance and her abilities depends to a large extent upon the
judgment others make of her. Let us read further to know how this happens.

Actually the society, family and peer groups have certain standards and
expectations regarding children’s appearance and gross and fine motor
abilities at this age. Consciously and unconsciously they compare the child
with respect to these standards and make their opinions known to the child.
The child develops positive or negative feelings about herself through this
feedback and evaluation. Further, the child too starts comparing her abilities
with those of her peers and with respect to these standards and becomes
160
conscious of herself. This self-appraisal affects her body image and self Physical and Motor
Development During
concept greatly. Middle Childhood
Years
For example, a child is expected, by this age, to be proficient in daily
activities like toileting, brushing, bathing, dressing, eating etc. or to be doing
these with minimal parental help. The child going to school is also expected
to read and write simple words/sentences, draw simple drawings, colour and
paint, use scissors efficiently, to play simple outdoor and indoor games
cooperatively with friends, or to play a musical instrument, dance or sing
songs. Children also strive to master these tasks during middle childhood
years. However, when a child is not able to perform a task, peers/adults may
ridicule or make negative comments about the child’s ability or the child may
evaluate herself negatively, even if no one says anything to the child directly.
This will affect the child’s self concept negatively. Of course, often when
children are not able to demonstrate a particular skill, they try to become
good at another, which helps to raise self confidence. For example, a child
who is unable to ride a bicycle may have a negative self-conception in this
area but may have a positive self-concept as a dancer.
Comments by adults/peers about the child’s physical appearance also affect
her body image and self-concept. For example, if the child does not have an
attractive physical appearance or is short of fat and is ridiculed by the
peers/adults for this, then it could affect her self concept and body image
negatively. On the other hand, if peers/adults praise the child for her physical
appearance or do not ridicule the child for her physical appearance and
encourage the child in personal grooming; the child develops positive body
image and self-concept.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Are there any gender differences in motor development between 6-8
years. Elaborate with relevant examples.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2) Explain the factors which influence children’s body image during middle
childhood years.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………… 161
Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development 8.4 INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
ON ALL OTHER AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT
Up till now, you have read about the development of physical, motor and
sensory abilities of children from birth up till 8 years. Now, in what ways do
physical, motor and sensory abilities help in overall development of the
child?
Firstly, with the increasing motor skills, rapid physical growth and
refinement of sense organs during infancy, the child’s range of activity
increases. She has greater freedom of movement and can do more things.
She can reach for objects, manipulate them in different ways and go to people
instead of waiting for them to come to her. The rapidly developing brain
helps her to understand and learn from the events around her. It is a common
sight to see a baby pick up a new toy and show it to her mother who may talk
to her about it. In this way the infant learns, forms ideas about objects around
her and attends to language. All these enhance her cognitive development
during infancy.
Later during early and middle childhood years, with the development of
various gross and fine motor skills, children are able to engage in various
physical activities. They are able to run, jump, hop, balance on one foot,
engage in various types of ball play etc. as far as gross motor activities are
concerned. With the refinement of fine motor skills, they are also able to
write legibly and draw simple drawings, do cutting and pasting, do origami
work, play with plastic blocks, fit puzzles etc. All these physical activities
enhance children’s cognitive abilities like paying attention to a task in hand,
problem solving abilities, information processing abilities etc. Also, their
health gets maintained as well.
Secondly, as children begin to master new skills, they develop positive
feelings about themselves. They develop the sense of self-worth i.e. the
feelings of being active and capable beings. They feel they can do many
things and control some events. For example, when the infant is able to
crawl, she knows that she can reach for an object at a distance from her, pick
it up and play with it. From these small events emerge the feelings of
confidence and independence. The foundation of self-concept is being laid.
Similarly, during early and middle childhood years, as children master
various gross and fine motor skills, their self confidence is enhanced.
Thirdly, the changing physical, motor and sensory skills of the child also
influence the way people respond to her and the nature of interaction
between them. Thus it influences the child’s social relationships. For
instance, with development of various gross and fine motor skills, children
can engage in various organized games with rules which help children learn
the necessary social skills of cooperating with each other while playing. They
also learn to compete with each other. All these things prepare children for
the competitive adult world. Hence, we can clearly see that children’s socio-
emotional development gets influenced.
Thus with the optimal physical growth and development, the holistic
162 development of children is possible.
8.5 SUMMING UP Physical and Motor
Development During
Middle Childhood
During middle childhood years (6-10 years), physical growth and Years

development continues slowly but steadily. The trunk elongates, becomes

slimmer due to loss of baby fat, the chest broadens and flattens, and the neck
becomes longer. The proportion of the head to the total body length decreases
further. The growth of the legs is most prominent feature during middle
childhood years. Children appear thin and acquire ‘a gawky’ look – their
appearance is described as ‘all arms and legs’.
During middle childhood years, the bones of the body lengthen and broaden
and muscles also grow in strength. However, ligaments are not firmly
attached to the bones. As a result, children have greatly flexible body
movements. Children’s muscular strength and motor coordination also
increases. As a result, children strive to refine their gross and fine motor
skills which were established during early childhood years and also acquire
new gross and fine motor to which they are exposed.
From age 6-11 years, gradually, all twenty primary teeth are replaced by the
permanent teeth. As far as brain development is concerned, processes like
myelinization of neurons (which is most rapid in the frontal cortex of the
brain), elongation of dendrites and formation of more and more synaptic
connections, along with pruning of unimportant synaptic connections
continue to occur. The brain becomes more organized due to these processes.
Due to improved motor coordination and strength during middle childhood
years, children show increased and refined abilities in gross motor skills like
running, skipping, jumping, hopping, balancing on one foot and in various
forms of ball play like throwing, catching, kicking and dribbling the ball and
batting. This is due to their flexibility as well as enhanced balance, quickness,
accuracy and force of movement with age. Information processing also
increases with age.
Fine motor skills such as scribbling, drawing, using scissors, paper pasting,
colouring and painting develop steadily and are refined during middle
childhood years.
Children also start playing musical instruments during the school years which
requires fine motor control.
The sequence of development of motor skills during middle childhood years
depends on the child’s ability, and the encouragement and the opportunities
available to her in her environment. Data from various investigations of
simple and complex gross motor tasks suggest that boys (ages of 6 and 12
years) excel girls in tasks that require more leg strength and power, while
girls are superior to boys in visual-motor coordination. However, many of
these conventional gender differences are disappearing with the increased
popularity of sports activities among girls.
The development of the above mentioned gross and fine motor skills makes it
possible for children to engage in various organized games and sports with
other children. Some examples of these organized games with rules are
basketball, football, cricket, badminton.
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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development
Reaction Time (RT) is an important criterion for judging competency in
motor skills. Studies indicate that there is regular decrease in the child’s
reaction time with age and a 14 year old child responds almost twice as
quickly to a stimulus as compared to a 6 year old child.

The period of middle childhood is important because at this time the child
begins to make judgments regarding her physical appearance and to develop
positive or negative feelings about herself. The child starts comparing her
abilities with those of her peers and with respect to the standards set by the
society and becomes conscious of herself. This self-appraisal affects her body
image and self concept greatly. Comments by adults/peers about the child’s
physical appearance also affect her body image and self-concept.
With the optimal physical growth and development, the development of other
areas is enabled.

8.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) i) slow but steady growth
ii) 2-3 kg , 5-6 cms
iii) 10-14 years , 14-18 years
iv) growth of the legs
v) Reaction Time (RT)

2) During middle childhood years processes like myelinization of neurons

(which is most rapid in the frontal cortex of the brain), elongation of
dendrites and formation of more and more synaptic connections, along
with pruning of unimportant synaptic connections continue to occur in
the brain causing brain development. The brain becomes more organized
due to these processes.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) There are gender differences in the growth patterns and also
development of motor skills. Understanding growth patterns it has been
observed that from age 10-14 years, girls increase in height and weight
more rapidly than boys and gain sexual maturity as well. Girls look more
physically mature than boys and may even have more height and weight
than boys during this period. Thereafter, physical growth stops in girls
but there is growth spurt in boys from ages 14-18 years. As far as motor
skills are concerned data from various investigations of simple and
complex gross motor tasks suggest that boys (ages of 6 and 12 years)
excel girls in tasks that require more leg strength and power. Generally,
boys surpass girls in the length of their throw at all ages from 6 to 12
because of their greater strength. Accuracy of throw and speed also
improves with age, and boys typically throw more accurately and
speedily than girls. Boys are ahead of girls in their kicking speed and
164
 accuracy as well. Girls, on the other hand, seem better than the boys in Physical and Motor
Development During
jumping and hopping tasks. Middle Childhood
Years
2) The factors which influence children’s body image during middle
childhood years are:

• The society, family and peer groups have certain standards and
expectations regarding children’s appearance and gross and fine
motor abilities at this age. Consciously and unconsciously they
compare the child with respect to these standards and make their
opinions known to the child. The child develops positive or negative
feelings about herself through this feedback and evaluation.

• The child also starts comparing her abilities with those of her peers
and with respect to these standards and becomes conscious of
herself. This self-appraisal affects her body image and self concept
greatly.

• Comments by adults/peers about the child’s physical appearance

also affect her body image and self-concept.

FURTHER READINGS FOR BLOCK 2

The following are some books that you will find useful for further reading
of topics discussed in Block 2.

1) Berk, L. (2017). Development through the Lifespan. (7th Ed). Boston:

Pearson.
2) Harris, A. C. (1993). Child Development. USA: West Publishing
Company.
3) Lally, M. and Valentine, S. (2019). Lifespan Development: A
Psychological Perspective. (2nd Ed). USA. Retrieved from
http://dept.clcillinois.edu/psy/LifespanDevelopment.pdf
4) Lefrancois, G. R. (1999). The Lifespan. (6th Ed). USA: Wadsworth Pub
Co.
5) Santrock, J. W. (2011). Child Development: An Introduction.(13th ed).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
6) Singh, A. (ed.). (2015). Foundations of Human Development: A LifeSpan
Approach. NewDelhi: Orient Blackswan Pvt Ltd.
7) Swaminathan, M. The First Three Years, Bangkok: UNESCO
PrincipalRegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific,1989.Onlinelink-
http://59.160.153.188/minaswaminathanarchives/sites/default/
files/First%20Three%20Years.pdf

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Physical, Motor and
Sensory Development

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