Chapter 6

How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy

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6.6 Cellular Respiration Occurs in Three
Main Stages

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6.6 Cellular Respiration Occurs in Three
Main Stages
• Stage 1: Glycolysis
üoccurs in the cytosol,
übegins cellular respiration, and
übreaks down glucose into two molecules of a three-
carbon compound called pyruvate.

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6.6 Cellular Respiration Occurs in Three
Main Stages
• Stage 2: Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle
ütake place in mitochondria,
ücomplete the breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide, and
üsupply the third stage of respiration with electrons.

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6.6 Cellular Respiration Occurs in Three
Main Stages
• Stage 3: Oxidative phosphorylation involves electron
transport and chemiosmosis.
üNADH and a related electron carrier, FADH2, shuttle
electrons to electron transport chains embedded in the
inner mitochondrial membrane.
üMost of the ATP produced by cellular respiration is
generated by oxidative phosphorylation.
üThe electrons are finally passed to oxygen, which
becomes reduced to H2O.

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6.7 Stage 1: Glycolysis Harvests Chemical
Energy by Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate
• ATP is used to prime a glucose molecule, which is split in two.
• Glucose is oxidized to two
molecules of pyruvate, yielding a
net of 2ATP and 2NADH.

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6.7 Stage 1: Glycolysis Harvests Chemical
Energy by Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate
• ATP is formed by substrate-level phosphorylation, in which
a phosphate group is transferred from an organic molecule
to ADP.

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6.8 Multiple Reactions in Glycolysis Split
Glucose into Two Molecules
• After nine chemical reactions of glycolysis 1 Glucose, 2 ADP,
and 2 NAD+ produce 2 Pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH.
• The sequential steps of glycolysis illustrate how, in a
metabolic pathway, each chemical step feeds into the next.
In other words, the product of one reaction serves as the
reactant for the next.
• Compounds that form between an initial reactant and a
final product are known as intermediates.
Initial Reactant à intermediate à final Product

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6.8 Multiple Reactions in Glycolysis Split
Glucose into Two Molecules
• The energy investment phase actually consumes energy.
üIn this phase, two molecules of ATP are used to add a
phosphate group to each glucose molecule,
üwhich is then split into two small sugars.
• Steps 1–4 consume energy.
• Steps 5–9 yield energy.

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 Hexokinase

Glucose 6-phosphate

Phosphoglucoisomerase
1. Glycolysis
Fructose 6-phosphate

Phosphofructokinase

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
Aldolase

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate(DHAP) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate(G3P)

1,3-bisphosphoglyerate

Phosphoglycerokinase

3-phosphoglycerate

Phosphoglyceromutase

1. Glycolysis 2-phosphoglycerate

enolase

phosphoenolpyruvate

Pyruvate kinase

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6.9 Stage 2: The Citric Acid Cycle Completes the
Energy-Yielding Oxidation of Organic Molecules
• The oxidation of pyruvate yields
üacetyl CoA, CO2, and NADH.
• For each turn of the citric acid cycle,
ütwo carbons from acetyl CoA are added,
ü2 CO2 are released, and
ü3 NADH and 1 FADH2 are produced.

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31
2. Pyruvate
Oxidation
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6.10 The Multiple Reactions of the Citric Acid
Cycle Finish Off the Dismantling of Glucose
• The six major steps of the citric acid cycle.

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2. Citric
Acid
Cycle

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Lehninher 35
Principle of Biochemistry 6th
6.11 Stage 3: Visualizing the Concept: Most ATP
Production Occurs by Oxidative Phosphorylation
• In mitochondria, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are
passed down the electron transport chain to O2, which picks
up H+ to form water.
• Energy released by these redox reactions is used to pump H+
into the intermembrane space.
• In chemiosmosis, the H+ gradient drives H+ back through the
enzyme complex ATP synthase in the inner membrane,
synthesizing ATP.

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 3. Oxidative
Phosphorylation

HarvardX,
Electron transport 37
chain
6.12 Scientists Have Discovered Heat-
Producing, Calorie-burning Brown Fat in Adults
• Mitochondria in brown fat can burn fuel and produce heat
without making ATP.
• Ion channels spanning the inner mitochondrial membrane
üallow H+ to flow freely across the membrane and
üdissipate the H+ gradient that the electron transport
chain produced, which does not allow ATP synthase to
make ATP.
üAll the energy from the burning of fuel molecules would
be released as heat.

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6.12 Scientists Have Discovered Heat-
Producing, Calorie-burning Brown Fat in Adults
• Until recently, brown fat in humans
was thought to disappear after
infancy.
• Recent research indicates that brown
fat may be present in most people
and when activated by cold, the
brown fat of lean individuals is more
active (burns more calories).

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6.13 Review: Each Molecule of Glucose
Yields Many Molecules of ATP
• Substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative
phosphorylation produce up to 32 ATP molecules for every
glucose molecule oxidized in cellular respiration.

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Fermentation:
Anaerobic Harvesting of Energy
14. Fermentation enables cells to
produce ATP without oxygen

15. Glycolysis evolved early in the

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6.14 Fermentation Enables Cells to Produce
ATP Without Oxygen
• Fermentation is a way of harvesting energy that does not
require oxygen.
• Under anaerobic conditions, muscle cells, yeasts, and
certain bacteria produce ATP by glycolysis.
• NAD+ is recycled from NADH as pyruvate is reduced to
ülactate (lactic acid fermentation) or
üalcohol and CO2 (alcohol fermentation).

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43
6.15 Glycolysis Evolved Early in the History
of Life on Earth
• Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cells of nearly all
organisms and is thought to have evolved in ancient
prokaryotes.

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Connection Between Metabolic Pathways

16. Cells use many kinds of organic

17. Organic molecules from food provide

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6.16 Cells Use Many Kinds of Organic
Molecules as Fuel for Cellular Respiration
• You obtain most of your calories as
ücarbohydrates (such as sucrose and other disaccharide
sugars and starch, a polysaccharide),
üfats, and
üproteins.
• A cell can use these three types of molecules to make ATP.

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6.17 Organic Molecules from Food Provide
Raw Materials for Biosynthesis
• Cells use intermediates from cellular respiration and ATP for
biosynthesis of other organic molecules.
• Metabolic pathways are often regulated by feedback
inhibition.

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Summary
• Photosynthesis vs Cellular respiration
• Breathing vs Cellular respiration
• Body use energy from ATP
• Cell capture energy from electrons falling from organic fuels
to oxygen (Redox reaction, NAD + , electron transport chain)
• Glycolysis à Pyruvate oxidation à Citric acid cycle à
Oxidative phosphorylation (4 ATP + 10 NADH,H+ + 2 FADH2 =
32 ATP)
• Fermentation (Lactic acid fermentation, alcohol
fermentation)
• Other organic molecules for cellular respiration
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 - -
NAD+ NADH,H+
1. Glycolysis Glucose Pyruvate
ADP ATP

- -
NAD+ NADH,H+
2. Pyruvate
Pyruvate Acetyl CoA
Oxidation
CoA CO2

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 - -
NAD+ NADH,H+
2. Citric - -
Acid FAD FADH2
Cycle Acetyl CoA CO2
ADP ATP

- -
NADH,H+ NAD+
- -
3. Oxidative FADH2 FAD
Phosphorylation ADP ATP
O2 H 2O

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