10

MATTER
Module 1 Kinetic Molecular Theory

Most Essential Learning Competencies

Explains these relationships using the kinetic molecular theory (S9MT-IIIj-20)

What’s In

Quarter 4 – Module 1-4

Gas particles move in random, straight-line motion. Gas particles possess a greater
kinetic energy than the particles of a liquid or solid. The greater kinetic energy is due to gases
existing at higher temperatures than liquids or solids. As temperature increases, particles move
faster and, thus, have greater kinetic energy. Gas particles have mass, pressure, volume and
temperature

The behavior of the gas molecules can be explained by the Kinetic Molecular Theory.
This states that:

A. Gases are composed of molecules.

The distances from molecule to another molecule are far greater than the
molecules’ dimensions, as shown in the picture below. These molecules can be
considered as spherical bodies which possess negligible mass and volume.
 https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/236-matter-in-our-world

B. Gas molecules are always in constant random motion in a straight line. The
molecules collide elastically with container walls and one another.

https://www.quora.com/Are-gas-molecules-in-constant-random-motion

The picture shows that the molecules of gases move in constant random
and collide with each other and in the walls of the container. Collisions among
molecules are perfectly elastic. Energy may transfer from one molecule to
another molecule as the result of collision, but the total energy of all the
molecules in the system remains the same or constant.

C. There are no attractive or repulsive forces between gas molecules.

D. Movement of gas molecules is affected by temperature. The average kinetic of

the molecules is directly related to the Kelvin temperature of gas

vdocuments.mx_science-10-learners-material-unit-4.pdf

Gas is a phase of matter. It has no definite shape and size and can be compressed
easily.

Some of the properties of gases include mass, volume, temperature, and pressure.

 The mass or the amount of gas can be express in moles or in grams. The mass
of gases is negligible.

 The volume of a gas is the space occupied by the gases. Gases have the
tendency to occupy all the spaces of the container that they are confined. As
described by the Kinetic Molecular Theory, gases have neither attractive or
repulsive force of attraction, thus, they are arranged as far as possible from each
other. The common units used in expressing the volume of a gas are liter (L) and
milliliter (mL).

 The temperature of a gas is the measure of the hotness or coldness of an object.

It is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules. It can be
measured in Celsius or Kelvin. Kelvin is the absolute scale.

 The pressure of a confined gas is the average effect of the forces of the colliding
molecules. It can be express in unit atmosphere (atm), torr, psi, cmHg or mmHg. It
can be quantified using this equation:
 F
P=
A

where: P= pressure, F = force, and A= area

There are scientists - chemists and physicists at the same who were able to to give the
relationship between these properties of gases – the volume and pressure, volume and
temperature at a constant number of moles or its mass.

Robert Boyle, a chemist, and physicist at the same time able to observe the volume-
pressure relationship. In his works he found out that the volume of gases is inversely
proportional to pressure at a constant temperature. He called this as Boyle’s Law. It explained
that the gases spread in the medium, the volume increases if the pressure is decreased and
vice versa (the particles are displaced from each other and move easily) if the gas is
compressed, causing the volume to shrink.

Some practical application or instances where Boyle’s Law is evident are as follows:
1. Syringe
It is a medical device used to inject or withdraw fluid. It consists of a hollow cylinder
called a barrel and a sliding plunger attached to it. The working principle of a syringe
is like a reciprocating pump. When the plunger is pushed, the volume of fluid/ gas
barrel reduces, thus, increases the pressure on the fluid/ gas pressure in the plunger.
In the same way when the plunger is pulled, it increases the volume of the fluid/gas in
the barrel, thus decreases the pressure in the fluid/ gas.
2. Human Lungs
The lungs is a vital organ of the body and plays an important role in respiratory
system. During the inhalation process, the lungs expand (increases in volume) as the
pressure exerted was reduced, while in exhalation process, the lungs relaxes and
decreases in volume as the pressure increases momentarily.
Jacques Charles, a French scientist, mathematician, and balloonist observed the
relationship of volume and temperature. He found out that the gas expands when heated. He
concluded that the volume of the gases is directly proportional to the temperature at a constant

Module 2 Boyle’s and Charles’ Law

Most Essential Learning Competencies

Investigate the relationship between:
1. volume and pressure at a constant temperature of a gas;
2. volume and temperature at a constant pressure of gas (S9MT-IIj-20)

What’s In

pressure. He called this as Charles’ Law.

Some real-life applications and instances of this law are as follows:

1. Helium Balloon
A balloon at its normal shape and size, crumbles when place in a chilly place or cold
places and expands whenever there is an increase in temperature around it.

2. Bakery

Gas laws relate the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas. Boyle’s law—named
for Robert Boyle—states that at constant temperature T, the pressure P of a gas varies
inversely with its volume V, or PV = k, where k is a constant. Charles’ law—named for Jacques
Charles (1746–1823)—states that at constant pressure P, the volume V of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute (Kelvin) temperature T, or V/T = k.

The relationship between the volume and pressure of gases at constant temperature
was first stated by Robert Boyle during the 16 th century. He performed an experiment wherein
he trapped a fixed amount of air in the J-tube, he changed the pressure and controlled the
temperature and then, he observed its effect to the volume of the air inside the J-tube. He found
out that as the pressure is increased, the volume is decreased. He finally concluded that the
volume of a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at constant
temperature.

Gas particles have a very weak intermolecular force of attraction; hence, they move as
far as possible from each other. They have the tendency to occupy all the spaces they are
contained in. If the pressure is increased, the volume will be decreased forcing the gas particles
to move closer to one another.

The Boyle’s Law equations expressed:

Where:
at constant T and n V = volume P = pressure
T = temperature and
n = amount of the gas.

The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, if temperature and amount
of a gas are held constant.

At constant temperature, the volume occupied by a fixed amount of gas is directly

proportional to the reciprocal of pressure (1/P)

The graph shows the relationship of pressure to its volume where temperature is kept

constant.

According to Boyle’s Law, PV= k therefore:

V1 P1 = k

V2P2 = k

Then V1 P2 = V 2 P2
 The volume-temperature relationship in gases (k = V/T) was determined by and named
after Jacques Charles. In his experiment, Jacques Charles trapped a sample of gas in a cylinder
with a movable piston in water bath at different temperatures. Jacques Charles found out that
different gases decreased their volume by factors 1/273 per °C of cooling. With this rate of
reduction, if gas will be cooled up to -273 °C, it will have zero volume! Interesting isn’t it?
Charles’ Law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a fixed amount of gas is directly
proportional to the Kelvin (K) temperature.

Mathematically, Charles’ Law can be expressed as:

Where: V = volume and

T = temperature expressed in Kelvin citation

In calculating unknown variables in Gas Laws, consider the following symbols

unit used and the symbol of the unit used.
https://chemistrygod.com/boyle-law

Quantity Symbol Unit used Symbol

No. of Moles n mole mol

Volume V Litre L

Pressure P atmosphere atm

Temperature T Kelvin K

Universal Gas Litre-Atmosphere/ Mole- L.atm/mol.K

R
Constant Kelvin

Module 3 Biomolecules

Most Essential Learning Competencies

Recognize the major categories of biomolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids. (S10MT-IVc-d-22)

What’s In

Biomolecules are organic compounds made by living things. They are also called
macromolecules. There are four major biomolecules present which are carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids. Both carbohydrates and lipids contain the elements carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. Proteins and nucleic acids; however, contain nitrogen.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are one of the main sources of energy for living organisms. They are the
sugars, starches fibers commonly found in grains, vegetables, and milk products that we
consume daily. They consist of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen.
 There are 3 classifications for carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and
Polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are simple carbohydrates which serve as repeating units of complex

carbohydrates. Examples of monosaccharides are glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), galactose, and fructose.
Glucose is commonly known as blood sugar. Galactose is the sugar found in dairy products,
fruits, and vegetables. Fructose is a primary sugar found in honey and corn syrup.

Disaccharides consist of two

monosaccharides bonded together.
Monosaccharides bond together
through chemical reactions: These
include sucrose (C12H22O11), maltose, and
lactose. Sucrose is also known as table
sugar. Maltose is found in germinating
seeds such as barley. Lactose is
commonly called as milk sugar.
Polysaccharides are polymers
which are large and have complex
structures. Examples of polysaccharides
are starch (C6H10O5), cellulose, and glycogen. Starch is a soft, white tasteless powder found in
bread, potatoes, and pasta. Cellulose is an indigestible carbohydrate found in fruits, vegetables,
beans, and nuts. Glycogen is stored in the liver and serves as reservoir of readily available
glucose.

Lipids
Another biomolecule that is a source of energy are lipids. Lipids are also found in
hormones and cell membrane components. They consist of triglycerides which contain fatty
acids. Commonly they are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents. Similar with
carbohydrates, lipids also contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. Common examples of lipids
are Lauric (CH3(CH2)10COOH), Myristic (CH3(CH2)12COOH), and Stearic (CH3(CH2)16COOH).

Proteins
Proteins are polymers which contain long sequences of amino acids. Amino acids
consist of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and sometimes Sulfur. There are 20 essential
amino acids present: Glycine (C₂H₅NO₂), Alanine (C3H7NO2), Valine (C5H11NO2), Leucine
(C6H13NO2), Isoleucine (C6H13NO2), Phenylalanine
Two types of Lipids (C9H11NO2), Tryptophan (C11H12N2O2), Proline
Image was taken from
https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-difference
(C5H9NO2), Serine (C3H7NO3), Threonine (C4H9NO3),
-between-a-saturated-and-unsaturated-fat Tyrosine (C9H11NO3), Aspartic Acid (C4H7NO4),
Glutamic Acid (C5H9NO4), Asparagine
( C4H8N2O3), Glutamine (C5H10N2O3), Lysine
( Image was taken from C6H14N2O2), Arginine (C6H14N4O2), Histidine
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/432486370460494409/
( C6H9N3O2), Cysteine (C3H7NO2S) and
Methionine (C5H11NO2S). Proteins perform
varied functions in the body. These include structural components (Keratin), carrying oxygen in
the blood (Hemoglobin), and acting as chemical reactors (Enzymes).

Chemical formula for Glycine

Image was taken from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycine

Nucleic Acids
 Nucleic acids were discovered in 1869 by
Swiss biochemist Friedrich Miescher. Nucleic acids
are long chainlike molecules composed of a series of
nearly identical building blocks called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogen-containing
aromatic base attached to a pentose (five-
carbon) sugar, which is in turn attached to
a phosphate group. They are naturally
occurring chemical compound that are capable of
being broken down to yield phosphoric acid, sugars,
and a mixture of organic bases (purines and
pyrimidines). They are responsible for coding genetic
traits by controlling the production of proteins. There
are two types of nucleotides: deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Deoxyribonucleic acid stores genetic information
and directs the development of living organisms. It is
the master blueprint for life and constitutes the genetic
material in all free-living organisms and most viruses.
Ribonucleic acid, on the other hand, transfers the
genetic information stored in the DNA and directs the synthesis of proteins.

Molecular Structure of DNA

Image was taken from
https://www.colourbox.com/vector/
dna-molecule-structure-vector-
35770619
Each nucleic acid contains four of five possible nitrogen
containing bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).
Deoxyribonucleic acid contains Adenine (C10H12O5N5P), Thymine (C10H13O7N2P), Guanine
(C10H12O6N5P) and Cytosine (C9H12O6N3P). Ribonucleic acid also contains the same nucleotide
bases [Adenine (C10H12O6N5P), Guanine (C10H12O7N5P) and Cytosine (C9H12O7N3P)] except for
Uracil (C9H11O8N2P). A and G are categorized as purines, and C, T, and U are
called pyrimidines. All nucleic acids contain the bases A, C, and G; T, however, is found only in
DNA, while U is found in RNA.
 Module 4 Biomolecules in Food

Most Essential Learning Competencies

Recognize the major categories of biomolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids. (S10MT-IVc-d-22)

What’s In

Biomolecule is any of the countless chemicals created by cells and living organisms.
Biomolecules come in a variety of sizes and shapes, and they serve a wide range of functions.
Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins are the four primary categories of
biomolecules. While there are occasional exceptions, these four molecules constitute the
majority of living organisms and each plays an important function in controlling the body's
chemistry.

Proteins
Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Proteins are divided into
two types: fibrous proteins (e.g., keratin and collagen),
which are insoluble in water and serve as the body's
main structural components, and globular proteins
(e.g., hemoglobin and albumin), which are soluble in
water and serve as proteins' other non-structural
functions.
Structure of Proteins https://www.flickr.com/photos/
Proteins have four levels of structures: 30478819@N08/50889476642
primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

The primary structure of proteins is distinguished by the kind of amino acids that

Structure of Proteins.https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-
amino-acids/a/orders-of-protein-structure

comprise the chain, the order in which the amino acids are grouped, and the length of the chain.
Protein secondary structures are formed by coiling the protein chain into a –helix structure,
forming b sheets, or twisting into random configurations. These structures are the consequence
of R-group interactions, H-bonding, or the development of –S-S- bonds between chains.
Because protein molecules are so lengthy, they naturally coil, fold, or twist. The resultant form is
unique for each polypeptide in a specific medium at a certain pH. The tertiary structure depicts
the shape of the coiled chain in its natural state when it is folded or hydrated. The quaternary
protein structure is made up of numerous distinct peptides that are clustered together to form a
certain shape. A multitude of bonding interactions, including as hydrogen bonding, salt bridges,
and disulfide bonds, keep the different chains together. (Adapted: Practical Work for Teacher
Trainers, High School Chemistry volume 2, UP-NISMED)
Functions of Proteins
Proteins performs various functions that are essential to life. These proteins may
function as structure, storage, catalysis, and many more. The following are some bodily
functions of proteins:
1. Proteins are the building blocks of our bones, skin, hair, and nails. Protein such as collagen
and keratin are the fundamental structural units of animals that provide shape to animal
cells.

2. Hemoglobin, an example of protein which is found in the blood, is involved in molecular

transport in our body.

3. Some proteins also serve as storage. Iron is stored in the liver by ferritin, a blood cell
protein.
4. Many hormones, such as insulin, are proteins. Insulin aids in the absorption of glucose from
the blood and inhibits the body from utilizing fat as an energy source.

5. Enzymes are proteins that accelerate all of the processes that occur in organisms.

6. The body produces its own proteinaceous antibodies to combat antigens and fight diseases.

7. Protein molecules found in human muscles are vital in muscular contraction and relaxation.

Test for Biomolecules (Adapted from Grade 10 Science Learner’s Material)

A. Iodine Test for Starch
Lugol’s iodine solution or tincture of iodine changes from yellow to blue or black
in the presence of starch.

B. Benedict’s Test for Reducing Sugar

Benedict’s solution changes from blue to green (very small amount of reducing
sugar), to yellow (higher amount of reducing sugar) to orange or brick red (highest
amount of reducing sugar). The change in color is due to the formation of the brick red
precipitate copper (I) oxide.

C. Ethanol Emulsion Test for Fats and Oils

Lipid is not present if the solution remains colorless since no emulsion is formed.
A layer of cloudy white suspension forms at the top of the solution indicates that lipid is
present.

D. Biuret Test for Protein

Biuret is clear or light blue in the absence of protein and pink or blue-violet in the
presence of protein.

Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids are long polymer chains made up of simpler molecules called monomers.
Nucleic acids are classified into two types: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic
acid). DNA, which is found mostly in cell nuclei, includes genetic information that codes for
amino acid sequences in proteins. RNA is present throughout the cell and is responsible for
protein production.
Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids. They are composed of a five-carbon
sugar (pentose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing ring-shaped base.

A single nucleotide.

https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-2-molecular-biology/26-structure-of-dna-and-rna/
nucleotides.html

DNA structure is double helix, which means it is a two-stranded structure. On the other
hand, RNA has a single strand.

Basic structure of DNA and RNA.

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-basic-structure-
of-DNA-and-RNA-DNA-is-double-stranded-whereas-RNA-
is_fig7_303244584
 DNA replication is the process of creating an exact copy of the original DNA. The
outcome is two new DNA molecules with the identical base pair sequence as the original double
helix. Both DNA and RNA molecules control protein synthesis in cells. Proteins are responsible
for visible characteristics such as eyes color, complexion, etc.
Biomolecules Present on Food Labels

Food provides the body with the nutrients it needs to survive. Many of these critical
nutrients are biomolecules, or large molecules, necessary for life. These biomolecules
(polymers) are built from different combinations of smaller organic molecules (monomers).

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has a tool to help you make informed food
choices that can have positive effects on your health and wellness. It is called the Nutrition
Facts label and you can find it on packaged foods and beverages.

https://www.fda.gov/food/new-nutrition-facts-label/using-nutrition-facts-label-older-adults

Biomolecule, any of numerous substances that are produced by cells and living
organisms. Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of
functions.

The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and
proteins. While there are some special cases to be found, these four molecules make up the
bulk of living bodies, and each plays an essential role in regulating the body's chemistry.

Carbohydrates
-are the starches and sugars that
bodies use for energy. Brains, for
example, consume large amounts of
glucose with consumption rising in
areas of the brain that are the most
active. Example of Carbohydrates
includes glucose or fructose
(Monosaccharide), Sucrose
(Disaccharide) & Starch, glycogen, https://www.pinterest.nz/pin/717550153100881043/
cellulose (Polysaccharide).

Lipids
-help the body store the energy it
needs in the form of fats and oils. Wax,
of the type secreted by honeybees, is
another form of lipid. Example of Lipids
includes meat fat, chocolate, coconut
oil, butter, cheese (Saturated fats),
Avocados, peanut oil (Unsaturated
fats) and Vegetable oils
(Polyunsaturated fats). Lipids include a https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/444378688206139378/
diverse group of compounds that are
largely nonpolar in nature. This is
because they are hydrocarbons that
include mostly nonpolar carbon–
carbon or carbon–hydrogen bonds.
Non-polar molecules are hydrophobic
(“water fearing”), or insoluble in water.
Lipids perform many different functions
in a cell. Cells store energy for long-
term use in the form of fats. Lipids also
provide insulation from the
environment for plants and animals.

Proteins
-are one of the most abundant organic
molecules in living systems and have
the most diverse range of functions of
all biomolecules. They are the
workhorses of the body's machinery.
Proteins carry out specific functions
inside cells, and they act as enzymes
to catalyze reactions all over the body. https://www.nutrientsreview.com/proteins
Amylase, lactase and pepsin are all
proteins used in digestion, for
example. Proteins are typically large
molecules that can be built up from
chains of amino acids called
polypeptides. Common sources of
proteins include meat, beans and nuts.

Nucleic acids
-are central to the function of living
cells. Arranged in a linear sequence
within DNA, they code for the structure
and function of the body's proteins.
Nucleic acids also form RNA, which
acts to transmit DNA-based
instructions to the cellular machinery.

https://www.technologynetworks.com/genomics/lists/
what-are-the-key-differences-between-dna-and-rna-296719