Translation Practices Explained

Translation Practices Explained is a series of coursebooks designed to help self-

learners and teachers of translation. Each volume focuses on a specific aspect of
professional translation practice, in many cases corresponding to actual courses
available in translator-training institutions. Special volumes are devoted to well
consolidated professional areas, such as legal translation or European Union
texts; to areas where labour-market demands are currently undergoing consid-
erable growth, such as screen translation in its different forms; and to specific
aspects of professional practices on which little teaching and learning material
is available, the case of editing and revising, or electronic tools. The authors
are practising translators or translator trainers in the fields concerned. Although
specialists, they explain their professional insights in a manner accessible to the
wider learning public.

These books start from the recognition that professional translation practices
require something more than elaborate abstraction or fixed methodologies. They
are located close to work on authentic texts, and encourage learners to proceed
inductively, solving problems as they arise from examples and case studies.

Each volume includes activities and exercises designed to help self-learners con-
solidate their knowledge; teachers may also find these useful for direct application
in class, or alternatively as the basis for the design and preparation of their own
material. Updated reading lists and website addresses will also help individual
learners gain further insight into the realities of professional practice.

Sara Laviosa
Sharon O’Brien
Kelly Washbourne
Series Editors
Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing

Frederic Chaume
First published 2012 by St. Jerome Publishing

Published 2014 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© Frederic Chaume 2012

‘Ghostbusters’, (Written by Ray Parker, Jr.)

(c) 1984 Raydiola Music/EMI Golden Torch Music (ASCAP)
All rights reserved. International copyright secured. Used by permission.
“GHOSTBUSTERS (MAIN TITLE/ CUES)” WORDS AND MUSIC BY RAY
PARKER JR © 1984, REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION OF IQ MUSIC & EMI
MUSIC PUBLISHING LTD, LONDON W8 5SW

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
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instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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ISBN 13: 978-1-905763-91-7 (pbk)

ISSN 1470-966X (Translation Practices Explained)

Typeset by
Delta Typesetters, Cairo, Egypt

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library
and interpreting. 2. Mass media and language. 3. Dubbing of motion
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Chaume, Frederic.
1.Audiovisual
Translatingtranslation : dubbing / Frederic Chaume.
p. cm. -- (Translation practices explained)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-905763-91-7 (pbk. : alk. paper)
pictures. 4. Discourse analysis. I. Title.
P306.2.C53 2012
418’.02--dc23
2012020114
To Federico and María Elia
Contents

► Acknowledgements xi

► How to use this book and DVD xiii

The rationale of Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing xiii

The structure of Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing xvi
The Book xvi
The DVD xviii

1. ►Translation for dubbing 1

1.0 Preliminary discussion 1

1.1 Definition 1
1.2 Dubbing as a type of Audiovisual Translation 2
1.3 The global dubbing map 6
1.3.1 Europe 6
1.3.2 Asia 7
1.3.3 America 9
1.3.4 Africa 10
1.3.5 Oceania 10
1.4 History of dubbing 10
1.5 Quality standards 14
1.5.1 Acceptable lip-sync 15
1.5.2 Credible and realistic dialogue lines 15
1.5.3 Coherence between images and words 16
1.5.4 A loyal translation 17
1.5.5 Clear sound quality 18
1.5.6 Acting 19
1.6 Exercises 20

2. ►The professional environment 22

2.0 Preliminary discussion 22

2.1 The market 23
2.1.1 How to get a foot in the market 24
2.2 Rates and visibility 26
2.3 The dubbing process and professionals 29
2.3.1 The industrial process 29
2.3.2 The professionals 32
2.4 The translator’s task 37
2.5 Globalization and localization 39
 2.6 Training 43
2.7 Exercises 44

3. ►Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 46

3.0 Preliminary discussion 46

3.1 Dubbing vs. subtitling in the global world 46
3.2. Text segmentation: Takes or loops 47
3.2.1 Text segmentation in Spain 48
3.2.2 Text segmentation in France 50
3.2.3 Text segmentation in Germany 52
3.2.4 Text segmentation in Italy 53
3.2.5 Text segmentation in Poland 55
3.2.6 Text segmentation in Argentina 57
3.2.7 Text segmentation in the United States of America 57
3.3 Dubbing symbols 58
3.3.1 Dubbing symbols in Spain 59
3.3.2 Dubbing symbols in France 60
3.3.3 Dubbing symbols in Italy 60
3.3.4 Dubbing symbols in Germany 61
3.3.5 Dubbing symbols in Poland 61
3.4 Final remarks 63
3.5 Exercises 64

4. ► Synchronization or lip-sync: Read my lips 66

4.0 Preliminary discussion 66

4.1 Synchronization: A key factor in dubbing 66
4.1.1 Denomination 67
4.1.2 Definition 67
4.1.3 Types of synchronization 68
4.1.4 What synchronization is not 69
4.2 Kinesic synchrony 70
4.3 Isochrony 72
4.4 Lip-sync 73
4.5 Further discussion 75
4.5.1 Considerations on genres and text types 75
4.5.2 Considerations on language contact 76
4.5.3 Considerations on the translation brief 77
4.5.4 Considerations on the viewer 77
4.5.5 Factors relevant to synchronization 78
4.6 Exercises 78
5. ► The language of dubbing: A matter of compromise 81

5.0 Preliminary discussion 81

5.1 In search of oral discourse 81
5.1.1 A balance between planned and spontaneous speech 81
5.1.2 The notion of prefabricated orality 82
5.2 The language of dubbing: Linguistic and translation issues 83
5.3 An analytical model for the study of prefabricated orality 88
5.4 A usual case study: Calques 92
5.5 Exercises 94

6. ► The specific nature of AVT: Acoustic and visual dimensions 100

6.0 Preliminary discussion 100

6.1 The acoustic dimension 100
6.1.1 Translating paralinguistic features 101
6.1.2 Translating songs 103
6.1.3 Special effects and the soundtrack: Implications for
translation 106
6.1.4 Off- and On-screen sound 108
6.2 The visual dimension 110
6.2.1 The language of images: Icons, indices and symbols 110
6.2.2 The style of images: Photography and colour 112
6.2.3 Types of shots and their incidence on translation
operations 113
6.2.4 Body language: Proxemics, kinesics and mouth
articulation 115
6.2.5 The language we watch: Text on screen 117
6.2.6 Editing: Implications for translation 117
6.3 Exercises 119

7. ► Translation Issues 120

7.0 Preliminary discussion 120

7.1 An initial look at original scripts 121
7.1.1 Dialogue lists 121
7.1.2 Dubbing bibles 127
7.2 Translating film titles 129
7.2.1 Why are film titles translated? 129
7.2.2 Retranslations and premieres 129
7.2.3 Translation techniques 130
7.3 Translating multilingual movies 131
7.4 Translating language variation 133
7.4.1 Style 133
 7.4.2 Dialects (user-related language varieties) 136
7.4.2.1 Geographical dialects 136
7.4.2.2 Temporal dialects 138
7.4.2.3 Standard/non-standard dialects 139
7.4.2.4 Social dialects or jargons 139
7.4.2.5 Idiolects 142
7.4.3 Registers (use-related language varieties) 143
7.5 Translating cultural and intertextual references 145
7.5.1 Cultural references 145
7.5.2 Intertextual references 147
7.6 Translating humour 148
7.7 Translating ideology 151
7.7.1 Censorship 151
7.7.2 Normalization 152
7.7.3 Gender issues 153
7.7.4 Patronage 154
7.8 Exercises 154

8. ► Research in dubbing 158

8.0 Preliminary discussion 158

8.1 State of the art 158
8.2 A descriptive and semiotic model of analysis of dubbed texts 161
8.2.1 Rationale 161
8.2.2 AVT models of analysis 162
8.2.3 An integrated model of analysis 165
8.2.3.1 The external level of the model 166
8.2.3.2 The internal level of the model (I): General
translation problems 170
8.2.3.3 The internal level of the model (II): Specific
problems of AVT 171
8.3 Exercises 177

9. ► A glossary of terms used in dubbing and AVT 180

10. ► References 189

10.1 Bibliography 189

10.2 Filmography 201

Index 204
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the many people who have as-
sisted and supported me in the writing and editing of this book and DVD, either
by generously supplying material for inclusion in the publication, or by providing
me with expert help, advice and useful contacts. For this I am indebted to many
colleagues in academia and in the dubbing profession worldwide, as well as to
filmmakers, production and distribution companies, film festivals, professional
associations, graphic designers, and students.
I am extremely grateful to Mona Baker for inviting me to write the present
contribution to the Translation Practices Explained series; to Dorothy Kelly, the
former series editor, who always believed in this book, for her constant support
and encouragement; and to Sara Laviosa, Sharon O’Brien and Kelly Washbourne,
current series editors, for their detailed reading of the manuscript and useful
comments on it.
For their invaluable help with the book, and their immense generosity with
the DVD: Jorge Díaz Cintas (Imperial College London) – to whom I owe much
more than this – and Aline Remael (Universiteit Antwerpen). Special thanks are
due to Microsoft Ibérica S.R.L (Microsoft Online Customer Service) for allowing
me to incorporate an easy guide to dubbing with Windows Movie Maker, to
Miguel Bernal-Merino (Roehampton University) for the idea of the easy guide
and the first draft of it, and also to Bram Mylemans, from the Hoger Instituut
voor Vertalers en Tolken at Antwerp, for designing the DVD.
For giving me permission to use clips from their films: Eric Contel & Felip
Girbau of Paycom Multimedia (for Charade, Father’s Little Dividend, Night of
the Living Dead, The Snows of Kilimanjaro, and The Stranger), Penni Cotton
(coordinator of European Picture Book Collection), Robbe De Hert (director of
Lijmen), Jean-Luc Ducasse of Alta Producción (for Aislados), Valentí Figueres &
Helena Sánchez Bel of Los sueños de la hormiga roja (for Hotel, Los accionistas
del arte, and Movimientos migratorios), Frédéric Fonteyne (director of Une lliai-
son pornographique and Max & Bobo), Firdaus Kharas (director and producer of
The Three Amigos), Sean Mendez of riceNpeas (for Bang! Bang! In Da Manor),
Geneviève Mersch (director of J’ai toujours voulu être une sainte), Thierry Michel
(director of Mobutu, roi du Zaïre), Abe Osheroff (director of Art in the Struggle
for Freedom), Luc Pien (director of La Sicilia), Christine Pireaux and Films La
Passerelle (for Mobutu, roi du Zaïre), Adrian Smith (director of Blue Star Camp),
Sylvie van Ruymbeke and Artémis Productions (for J’ai toujours voulu être une
sainte, Une liaison pornographique, and Max & Bobo). For giving me permission
to use the lyrics of the Ghostbusters’ song to Lisa Thomas (Lisa Thomas Music
Services, LLC) and Leah Webb (Emi Golden Torch Music).
For providing me with assorted material such as takes in many languages,
illustrations, texts, websites and good dubbing examples: Rocío Baños (Imperial
College London), Andrea Caccia, Cécile Carpentier (Chinkel, Paris), Anna Celińska,
Estefanía G. Casset, Beatriz Cerezo (Universitat Jaume I), Carla Chiavaroli, Chie
xii Frederic Chaume

Fujii, Ximo Granell (Universitat Jaume I), Irene de Higes (Universitat Jaume I),
Justyna Kotelecka, Xavier Marchand (JBI, Los Angeles), José Luis Martí Ferriol
(Universitat Jaume I), Anna Marzà (Universitat Jaume I), Roberto Mayoral (Uni-
versidad de Granada), Renata Młiczac (Imperial College), Matthias Münterfering
(Deutsche Synchron, Berlin), Beata Rebosz, Àngela Torralba, Glòria Torralba
(Universitat Jaume I), and Paula Tizzano.
For providing useful advice and practical help: Marta Chapado (ISTRAD), Jordi
Chaume (Universitat de València), Lucile Desblache (Roehampton University),
Jorge Díaz Cintas (Imperial College London), Irene de Higes Andino (Universitat
Jaume I), Ximo Granell (Universitat Jaume I), María Hernández Giménez, José
Luis Martí Ferriol (Universitat Jaume I), Juan José Martínez Sierra (Universitat
de València), Roberto Mayoral (Universidad de Granada), Vanessa Meseguer
Houriche, Adriana Tortoriello (Imperial College London), Aline Remael (Univer-
siteit Antwerpen).
For their support and constant encouragement, to my colleagues from the
TRAMA group at Universitat Jaume I: Beatriz Cerezo Merchán, Ximo Granell,
Irene de Higes Andino, Anna Marzà, José Luis Martí Ferriol, Juan José Martínez
Sierra, Ana Prats, Glòria Torralba, from whom I have been learning all these
years. Warm thanks also to colleagues in my university department, particularly
to Josep Marco.
For awakening my interest in audiovisual translation and believing in its po-
tential as a fascinating field of research, as early as the late 1980s, to Amparo
Hurtado (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona). For his constant support and wise
advice throughout my whole academic career, to Roberto Mayoral (Universidad
de Granada).
For her invaluable help and detailed linguistic revision of the manuscript, to
Mary Savage.
Finally, I want to thank my family and friends for putting up with my response
“No, I can’t just now” for such a long time, most of all to Cristina, Marc, Alex and
Eric for their immense patience.
How to Use this Book and DVD

The rationale of Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing

This book is a companion to Jorge Díaz Cintas and Aline Remael (2007) Audiovisual
Translation: Subtitling, published in this same series. As such, it follows the same
methodology, includes the same DVD and presents a very similar structure.
This multimedia project, like Díaz Cintas and Remael’s, is addressed to trans-
lation trainers, students, researchers, professionals, and all those interested in
the practice and theory of dubbing. It consists of a book and an accompanying
DVD, and is fundamentally interactive in its approach.
The publication can be used as a textbook by teachers as well as individuals
wishing to master the fundamentals of dubbing on their own, and it offers a
wealth of examples and different approaches to recurring dubbing issues that
are of interest to professionals in the field. In addition, Audiovisual Translation:
Dubbing raises a number of fundamental research questions and looks at some of
the unresolved challenges of this very specific form of translation, thus pursuing
the same goals as its companion.
The fact that the book has been written in English shows that its author
intends it to have a global reach. Writing for an international audience means
that a degree of generalization is inevitable, since dubbing traditions vary from
country to country and even from company to company. Contrary to what hap-
pens in subtitling, where “the degree of variation is relative and practices that
were once fundamentally different are often beginning to converge” (Díaz Cintas
and Remael 2007:1), dubbing is resistant to globalization and still refuses to hom-
ogenize its processes. This may be due to its consideration as an art form (i.e.
unlike subtitling, dubbing professionals would subscribe to the idea that they
are taking part in an artistic – rather than linguistic, translational or technological
– process, although in my view subtitling is also much more than a mere craft).
Local traditions persist, as do differences related to the medium or dissemina-
tion, i.e. cinema, television, or DVD. In other words, producing a textbook that
claims universality is certainly an ambitious undertaking.
However, due to a number of factors also listed by Díaz Cintas and Remael, all
of which are in one way or another related to historical reasons, to the two-sided
coin of globalization and glocalization, and to technological developments, some
repeated practices and routines can also be seen in the field of dubbing. More-
over, most differences in dubbing practice do not really affect the fundamentals
of dubbing. Students who have acquired an insight into these fundamentals and
the specific challenges of dubbing practice will be able to apply this knowledge
and these skills in any context. For example, once students have learnt what a
take is, they will be able to segment the translation into takes according to local
conventions, in line with the client’s preferences or the translation brief. What is
important is to know what takes are, what lip-sync is, and what a translation for
xiv Frederic Chaume

dubbing should sound like, and then be able to adapt to local layout or dubbing
symbol traditions. Because, in one way or another, translations for dubbing will
have to be segmented into takes (in the same way that translations for subtitling
have to be segmented into subtitles), they will be lip-synced and will emulate
oral discourse.
This is one of the fundamental objectives of this book. And this is also what
makes this book different. The future for AVT professionals is to learn more than
just how to translate. The book covers five different tasks performed by up to
three different agents in the dubbing process:

(a) translation
(b) take segmentation
(c) insertion of dubbing symbols
(d) lip-sync
(e) dialogue writing and the emulation of natural discourse

Sometimes the translator performs all five tasks. In other cases, the transla-
tor just submits a rough translation and a dialogue writer does the rest. And on
other occasions, a different agent – the dubbing assistant – performs the more
technical tasks (segmentation into takes, insertion of symbols and lip-sync) and
the dialogue writer just focuses on making the translation sound natural, creating
oral, true-to-life, credible dialogue lines from the rough translation. But, unlike
in some translation courses that only focus on translation issues, in the author’s
opinion the AVT market of the future will demand professionals who can per-
form as many of these tasks as possible. This book has therefore been written
to help train professionals capable of doing all these five tasks, thus contributing
to a complete education in the field of dubbing. Not only will this bring greater
financial stability to translators (as will be seen in Chapter 2), but also the final
product will be more consistent, more respectful towards the original text, and
subject to greater control.
The book does not deal with the other two tasks in the dubbing process: act-
ing and the sound technician’s or engineer’s contribution to the final product. In
the first case, the interpreting or acting falls to the voice talents and the dubbing
director, and requires its own specific training; as such, it falls outside the remit
of this translation series. Voice talents generally come from a drama school
background and the skills they need are totally different from those required
to carry out a professional translation. Similarly, a sound engineer also needs a
very different set of skills and competences from that required by a translator.
Sound engineers learn their profession in vocational colleges or by pursuing
Communication and Media Studies degrees and they are specialists in the use
of sound recording, mixing and reproduction equipment. Their field draws on
many artistic and vocational areas, including electronics, acoustics, and music.
With the advent of the digital age, sound engineers increasingly need to be well
versed in software and hardware integration, which ranges from sound and im-
age synchronization, to analogue to digital transfers. These skills fall beyond the
How to use this book and DVD xv

scope of this book, although they may be a necessary requirement for profes-
sional translators at some time in the future.
Dubbing has many detractors wherever it is found. Most of them claim that
the audience misses out by not hearing the original actors’ interpretation. Oth-
ers claim that dubbing favours censorship and subjective translation solutions
that the audience is unable to detect and assess. However, this book does not
go into the futile dubbing versus subtitling debate. In the author’s opinion, the
best option is dubbing and subtitling... and subtitling for the deaf and the hard-
of-hearing, and audiodescription for the blind and the partially-sighted, and
voice-over, and respeaking and as many audiovisual translation modes as possible
and necessary. We are moving out of the mass-media age into the individual-
media age, and no ‘Big Brother’ can decide what everybody should or should
not watch and how they should watch it. Dubbing is an international practice,
since at least cartoons for younger children are inevitably dubbed. And more-
over, dubbing is gaining ground in some traditionally subtitling countries, in the
same way that some traditionally dubbing countries have opened their doors to
subtitling. Furthermore, relative newcomers in the market do not merely adopt
existing practices: their choice of AVT and its implementation are determined
by their own needs, especially since the market for AVT, including dubbing, is
expanding well beyond Europe.
Although written in English, this project provides examples and exercises
in a limited number of other languages (Catalan, French, German, Italian, Pol-
ish, Portuguese, and Spanish). The source language of most of the examples is
English, simply because in the field of audiovisual translation English is probably
the most widely translated language in the world. It is not possible to write a
general coursebook on translation unless the source language remains constant.
The direction of translation is therefore assumed to be from English into a var-
iety of target languages. Translation trainers are, of course, welcome to adapt
all the exercises to the language pair they work with in class, since most of the
exercises and clips included can be used as the basis for the creation of other
pedagogical material in other languages, which means that the potential for
practice is virtually unlimited.
The location of the exercises and other materials on the DVD is always indi-
cated as follows:

7.8.11 Go to DVD > Chapter 7 > Exercises > Exercise 7.8.11 > Prayer > Clip

This means that exercise 11, or the material needed for this exercise, in sec-
tion 8 of chapter 7 can be found on the DVD under ‘Chapter 7’, in the section
entitled ‘Exercises’. See below for more information on the structure and map
of the DVD.
However, in the Internet era it would be inconceivable not to use clips and
scripts that are available on the web. References are therefore made to clips and
dialogue excerpts on the web, with clear indications about how or where to find
xvi Frederic Chaume

them. Although websites can change and disappear sometimes, fortunately clips
can be found on many different sites.
Finally, the icon is placed at the end of exercises that can be done in pairs
or in groups, to help teachers organize their work in the classroom. Exercises
without the icon should be done individually.

The structure of Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing

The Book

The book’s eight chapters offer a graded approach with exercises, discussion
points and suggestions for research. The chapters in themselves and the book
as a whole move gradually step by step, covering all major aspects of dubbing
and the dubbing profession. Like Díaz Cintas and Remael’s book on subtitling,
each chapter starts with a “Preliminary discussion” that aims to stimulate criti-
cal thinking, provides a basis for a warm-up session in class, lends a focus to the
chapter, and presents an interactive introduction to the subject matter. These
warm-up exercises may be done either at the beginning of the chapter or left
until the end when students will know more about the topics with which it deals.
They can also simply be read aloud to elicit critical thinking at the beginning of
the chapter. Teachers and self-taught students can choose how to use them in
each case.
As in the case of the companion volume, all the chapters are subdivided into
sections that break down the issues covered into their key components. They
also contain numerous annotated examples taken from dubbed films and TV
programmes. All chapters end with graded exercises. The exercises test the users’
comprehension of the material covered, help them assimilate the information,
offer suggestions for further research and invite students to compare the issues
discussed with the situation in their own part of the world. These exercises offer
real dubbing practice, starting with some of the basic skills involved, and gradually
require the users to combine linguistic as well as technical and artistic-related
skills. The various activities clearly state whether or not they involve material
included on the DVD and where exactly on the DVD it can be found.
Chapter 1 offers a definition of dubbing, differentiates dubbing from other
types of translation, locates dubbing in the universe of audiovisual translation,
discusses the role of dubbing all over the world, provides a brief history of this
audiovisual translation mode and presents a list of quality standards based on
various parameters. Exercises in this chapter explore the role of dubbing in dif-
ferent parts of the world and the volume of dubbing in the world of audiovisual
translation.
Chapter 2 deals with the dubbing translator’s professional environments,
taking into account that these may differ globally and are continually changing.
Subtopics are: the market and some ideas about how to get a foothold, rates and
visibility, the dubbing process, the various professionals involved in the process,
How to use this book and DVD xvii

the influence of globalization and localization, and the role of training in the
profession. Exercises focus on looking for potential clients, making estimates
and finding out more about the industrial dubbing process.
Chapter 3 explains takes or loops, which are the dubbing units, i.e. how the
target translation is segmented into chunks of dialogue lines, the same way as
subtitles are the translation units in subtitling. This chapter also includes vari-
ous lists of dubbing symbols, which are used to read dialogues aloud, according
to different national practices. It contains the first hands-on exercises offering
examples of dos and don’ts.
Chapter 4 focuses on one of the major issues in dubbing: synchronization. It
deals with the three kinds of synchronization performed in professional settings:
lip-sync, kinesic synchrony and isochrony. The author’s instructions on how to
achieve a good synchronization are based on norms and guidelines currently ap-
plied today that are gaining increasing support in professional circles. Exercises
involve selecting a clip or film, watching a scene, listening to the on-screen dia-
logue, and then producing a translation, reading it aloud, and checking whether
the translation fits the screen actors’ mouth movements. These exercises can
also be done using any software application that allows the original soundtrack
to be erased and substituted for a track that students can record in class or at
home using free or professional software. The book includes, with Microsoft’s
permission, an easy guide to using Windows Movie Maker (see Annex 1), a soft-
ware application developed by Microsoft that is included as part of the Windows
software installed on many personal computers today. Windows Movie Maker
allows the student to do dubbing or voice-over on a personal computer, with
just a microphone and any video player.
Chapter 5 is more linguistic-oriented, dealing with the language model of
dubbed products. Due attention is devoted to this kind of language, called dub-
bese, and to the balance between elaborated and spontaneous speech. The
notion of prefabricated orality is introduced in this chapter, and an analytical
model for the study of dubbese is presented. Exercises show how the language
of dubbing is prepared, planned, and designed, and some ideas for research
projects are proposed. The best way to approach the exercises is again explained
and illustrated with concrete examples.
Chapter 6 is devoted to the specific problems of translation for dubbing, i.e. to
the translation problems posed by the interaction of all the meaning codes that
interplay in an audiovisual text. Students learn how to disentangle the meaning
and function of each of these codes, and the possible effect of all signs, linguistic
and non-linguistic, on translation operations. It provides a semiotic approach
to audiovisual texts, accompanied by exercises dealing with all the visual and
acoustic codes at play in translation for dubbing.
Chapter 7 includes practical information about the use and structure of
screenplays and the specificities of film dialogue. It presents samples of dialogue
lists and dubbing bibles, and also explores their advantages and disadvantages.
More specific translation issues are dealt with, some of which will be familiar to
translators of other text types, but which involve extra challenges in dubbing:
xviii Frederic Chaume

film titles, multilingual movies, linguistic variation (style, dialects and registers),
culture-bound items, intertexts, humour and ideology. The chapter ends with a
list of exercises that tackle all these issues.
Chapter 8, the final one, is addressed particularly to students who are writing
or preparing to write a final BA or MA dissertation, or even a PhD thesis������ . The
exercises in this chapter are set out as pilot projects and offer ideas that may
be further developed in BA final dissertations, or extended for the purposes of
MA and PhD theses.
The book concludes with a glossary of terms used both in the dubbing profes-
sion and in academic settings and a list of bibliographical and film references.

The DVD

The DVD is a simplified version of the one included in the book Audiovisual
Translation: Subtitling, written by Jorge Díaz Cintas and Aline Remael in 2007
and published in this same series.
The DVD launches automatically and is subdivided into sections. It is struc-
tured as follows:
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 7
Extra scenes
Extra scenes in Dutch
Extra scenes in English
Extra scenes in French
Extra scenes in Italian
Extra scenes in Spanish
Appendices
Appendix 1 – An easy guide to doing voice-over and dubbing with
Windows Movie Maker 2.6 ©
Appendix 2 – Contratto collettivo nazionale di lavoro del settore dop
piaggio (National Work Agreement on the Dubbing
Sector in Italy)
Appendix 3 – Dubbing websites
Appendix 4 – Dubbing companies
Acknowledgements

No universal software application is available to do translation for dubbing.

Most translators work in a Word document and send it to the company, which
will later segment the translation into takes using proprietary software. Others
segment the takes manually at home or at the dubbing company. Students can
follow one of the many layouts shown in Chapter 3 for their translations, depend-
ing on the target language into which they will be translating.
Dialogue writers and dubbing assistants usually check whether a translation
fits in an on-screen character’s mouth or not, by simply reading it aloud simulta-
How to use this book and DVD xix

neously when the character is uttering his or her dialogues. This is why Windows
Movie Maker is recommended in this book; students can use this software to
cancel the original soundtrack of the clip and record their translation, matching
target dialogue lines with original mouth articulation movements as they go. This
software application allows students to establish whether their translation is valid
for dubbing purposes. Instructions on how to work with Windows Movie Maker
are provided in Annex 1, and instructions on how to use it to do the exercises
can be found in the textbook itself. The extra filmic material in several languages
consists of digitized scenes and dialogue transcripts that can be used with the
exercises or just for practice. This material is not directly linked to any of the
chapters and requires combined dubbing skills. The excerpts are taken from films
and documentaries shot in Dutch, English, French, Italian, and Spanish, giving the
user the opportunity to work with other languages besides English.
Finally, the DVD also features three practical appendices with information
about Windows Movie Maker, the legal status of dubbing in Italy, useful websites
and a list of dubbing companies.
1. Translation for dubbing

1.0 Preliminary discussion

(a) Do you see dubbing as a question of translation or adaptation? What

are the reasons for your opinion?
(b) Make a list of situations in which dubbed audiovisual texts are con-
sumed in your country. How are cartoons translated in your country?
(c) Does dubbing giv givee you a sense of access
access���� of immediacy
immediacy���� or does it
feel like a barrier?
(d) Do you associate dubbing with oppressive and totalitarian regimes?
Or do you rather consider it to be a question of choice and audience
preferences?
(e) Do you prefer dubbing or subtitling�� or do you have no preference?
Give reasons for your choice.
(f) Have you noticed a shift from subtitling to dubbing – or vice versa – in
your country?

Dubbing is one of the major modes of screen or audiovisual translation carried

out all over the world. This first chapter proposes a definition, presents a dis-
cussion on where dubbing fits into the field of audiovisual translation, gives an
overview of dubbing in different parts of the world, and, finally, an outline of
some acknowledged quality standards in this audiovisual translation mode.

1.1. Definition

Dubbing is a type of Audiovisual Translation (AVT) (see §1.2) mainly used in

Europe (Germany, Italy, France, Spain, Austria, Switzerland, Hungary, the Czech
Republic, Slovakia, Turkey, etc.), the Americas (Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, Colom-
bia, etc., although mostly on TV), some Asian countries (China, Japan, Korea) and
some North African countries. Technically, it consists of replacing the original track
of a film’s (or any audiovisual text) source language dialogues with another track
on which translated dialogues have been recorded in the target language. The
remaining tracks are left untouched (the soundtrack – including both music and
special effects – and the images). The term revoicing is also sometimes used as
a synonym for dubbing, but revoicing also includes intralingual postsynchroniza-
tion, i.e., when the original film dialogues are subsequently recorded in a studio
in the same language to prevent noise and interference when filming on loca-
tion. However, when revoicing is used as a synonym for dubbing or interlingual
postsynchronization, the term includes all revoicing types (dubbing itself, partial
dubbing, narration or voice-over, etc.).
Dubbing is one of the oldest modes of audiovisual translation. Its origins can
be traced back to the late 1920s, when the need first arose to transfer the new
 Frederic Chaume

sound films to other languages and countries. Multilingual movies (see §1.4)
were initially introduced as a solution�� but were later abandoned because of the
high production costs involved�� and their unpopularity with foreign audiences
who wanted to see the original actors and actresses on screen rather than their
local counterparts. Subtitling also fell out of favour in some countries due to
factors such as low literacy levels�� linguistic chauvinism and reluctance to learn
new languages in countries where major languages were spoken�� or where there
was a solid financial basis to meet the high costs of dubbing.
The circumstances were therefore ripe for sound engineers to invent and
improve a kind of revoicing known as dubbing. Although the first dubbings
were technically poor and met with a very icy reception�� dubbing voices – voice
talents – gradually became more credible�� lip-syncing improved and translators
and dialogue writers began to produce convincing scripts. These scripts ideally
had to meet all the demands of the different synchronization types (see §4.1.1��
§4.1.2 and §4.1.3)�� but still created the illusion of original dialogues (for an ex-
tensive review of the history of dubbing and audiovisual translation see Izard
1992 and 2001; Ivarsson 2002; Díaz Cintas 2003; Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007;
and Chaume 2004a and 2010).
Almost a century later�� dubbing is more widespread than ever: cartoons
for younger children are dubbed all over the world; even countries that have
historically resisted dubbing like Portugal�� Denmark and Norway are beginning
to dub some teen TV series and films (teen pics) (Chorão 2012; Tveit 2009); in
Russia�� dubbing is gradually replacing the once predominant voice-over mode��
South American soap operas are also now dubbed in Greece�� and some Turkish
and South American soap operas are dubbed in the Maghreb. Dubbing has also
moved into other complex audiovisual translation modes: in videogame localiza-
tion�� especially in blockbusters�� dialogues are usually dubbed; some commercials
are dubbed even in traditional subtitling countries; fandubbing is becoming
internationally popular; DVDs may include dubbings into traditional subtitling
languages; dubbing is also used to teach foreign languages�� and so forth. It seems
that in the new world of à-la-carte services�� audiences can now actively choose
their preferred audiovisual mode�� product and platform�� whenever they want.

1.2 Dubbing as a type of Audiovisual Translation

Audiovisual Translation is an academic concept that is slowly penetrating both

the old and new sound and image post-production markets�� where the term
– not the audiovisual transfer practices themselves – was previously unknown.
The same term is now used in most European languages�� especially since the turn
of the new century: traducción audiovisual, traduction audiovisuelle, traduzione
audiovisiva, audiovisuelles Übersetzen�� etc. This reflects a clear acceptance of
the term�� at least in academic circles�� after years of tentative provisional terms
such as cinematographic translation�� film translation�� translation for TV�� screen
translation�� subordinated translation�� media translation�� or multimedia transla-
Translation for dubbing 

tion (see Chaume 2004a�� for an extensive review of the evolution of this concept).
It is a generic term�� as opposed to written and oral translation; in other words�� it
does not fall into the same set as legal translation�� scientific translation�� medical
translation�� literary translation�� and the like�� since audiovisual texts can cover any
of the subjects dealt with by the different specialized translation fields.
AVT is an academic umbrella term that covers both well-established and
ground-breaking linguistic and semiotic transfers of audiovisual texts (K Kretschmer��
2011).. Some related professional practi ticces such as adverti tissing translati
tioon��
comic translation or videogame localization have recently joined this large set
of audiovisual transfer modes and have been incorporated into the multimedia
translation world.
Dubbing is just one way to translate audiovisual texts. Subtitling is the other
major audiovisual translation mode and it is used in many more countries all
over the world (see Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007�� the most comprehensive
volume on subtitling to date). New kinds of subtitling�� like surtitling (or super-
titling) for the opera and theatre�� and respeaking through speech recognition
(see the ground-breaking volume by Romero Fresco 2011) are penetrating the
new audiovisual translation market. Subtitles’ oldest relatives�� however�� were
intertitles�� or title cards (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007:26)�� which�� according to
these authors�� were a piece of filmed�� printed text that appeared between the
scenes of silent movies.
Revoicing modes include experiments in partial dubbing�� used to dub the
leading characters of a film (normally a male voice for a male character�� and a
female voice for a female or child character�� although sometimes a child’s voice
was used to dub child characters)�� whereas the remaining secondary characters
were voiced-over (Hendrickx 1984). Voice-over is another type of revoicing��
where the original source language track of an audiovisual text is overlapped with
another track on which translated dialogues in the target language are recorded��
such that both tracks can be heard simultaneously. Normally the translation is
heard a few seconds after the original voices�� which are heard at a much lower
volume. Voice-over is the most common mode of AVT used to revoice docu-
mentaries�� interviews�� advertorials – advertisements in the form of an editorial
– and infomercials in western countries. In some other countries�� especially in
Eastern Europe�� it is also used to revoice fiction films and TV series. Voice-over
is also called Gavrilov dubbing in Russia�� named after one of the most famous
Russian dubbers; it is also known as single-voice translation�� especially in Po-
land (jednogłosówka�� but also szeptanka or whispering and wersja lektorska,
wersja z lektorem�� i.e.�� version with reader)�� where only one voice (called the
lektor�� or reader) is used for all the characters in a film. It is also used in Bul-
garia and Mongolia. Voice-over is not necessarily a kind of revoicing. It is also
“the voice communicating unseen on an audio track used in radio�� television��
film�� multimedia�� or the business world” (Wright and Lallo 2009)�� but this is a
broader definition of the term�� related to the voice talents’ industry. Narration
is simply a kind of voice-over�� where the translation has been summarized.
Free-commentary is a variation of voice-over and dubbing�� where a comedian
 Frederic Chaume

manipulates the translation for humoristic purposes and adds jokes or funny
comments�� either dubbed or voiced-over. This mode includes the popular Gob-
lin translations, which araree Russian par
parodies
odies of awkwar
wkward d transla
translations
tions presen
presentted
in the Russian film market�� where characters speak quite differently from their
original counterparts – for example�� in the translation of The Lord of the Rings
(Peter Jackson 2001�� 2002 and 2003) trilogy. Simultaneous interpreting in film
festivals is another AVT mode�� although it is much less common nowadays due
to the new technological advances that allow translations to be made available
quickly. For an extensive review of AVT types�� see Luyken et al. 1991; Gambier
2000; Díaz Cintas 2003; Chaume 2004a; Bartoll 2008 – who suggests up to
thirteen AVT types�� although his classification is somewhat controversial – and
Hernández Bartolomé and Mendiluce 2005�� who propose seventeen types.
Fortunately�� accessibility has also been embraced by the field of AVT�� and sub-
titling for the deaf and the hard of hearing (SDH)�� audiodescription for the blind
and the partially sighted (AD)�� audiosubtitling (the reading aloud of subtitles and
of the audiodescribed script for blind audiences)�� and sign language translation are
now gradually being integrated into our daily consumption of audiovisual texts.
Access to the Internet has brought us more democratic choices in the way we
consume audiovisual texts. The availability of new technologies has turned ama-
teur dubbing and subtitling into a reality. Fansubbing (sometimes subbing) is the
domestic subtitling by fans of TV series�� films or cartoons (especially anime) before
they are released in the fan’s country (see Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007:26). A
parallel definition can be given of fandubbing (usually spelt fundubbing�� espe-
cially when the dubbing is done for humoristic purposes)�� domestic dubbings of
trailers and cartoons that have not yet reached the fans’ country.
In spite of the illegal status of this activity�� fans download clips and use
computer dubbing programs (Windows Movie Maker�� DubIt�� Divace Lite and
Divace Solo�� Video Rewrite�� VirtualDub�� Pinnacle Systems�� etc. – see Martí Ferriol
2009 –�� many of which are freely available on the Internet) to erase the original
soundtrack and record their alternative soundtrack using their own voices and a
microphone. They translate the dialogues and record them�� matching the transla-
tion with the screen actors’ mouths. The results are far from professional�� since
just one person interprets all the characters and voices�� and the soundtrack is
lost altogether (special effects and songs)�� but they are not intended to be profes-
sional. Fandubs are made by fans for fans – and�� sometimes�� for fun with comical
effects – in an attempt to overcome the linguistic barriers of the original texts and
to popularize products with a limited distribution in the target language.
Finally�� new devices and new genres demand new complex modes of audio-
visual translation�� usually a combination of pre-existing formats (i.e. dubbing +
subtitling�� etc.). Dubbing and subtitling are gradually being incorporated into
videogame localization�� although with notable differences from conventional
dubbing and subtitling (Granell�� 2010). Commercials and infomercials may also
be dubbed and subtitled. Webtoons are usually dubbed�� whereas webinars
– workshops or lectures delivered over the web – and instructional videos tend
to be voiced-over. However�� all these new genres can be partially dubbed and
partially subtitled�� or dubbed and subtitled at the same time. Comic books and
Translation for dubbing 

scanlations (Ferrer 2005) share many features of AVT, the most notable being
that they are both considered to be subordinated translation (Mayoral et al.
1988), or a translation that has to be rendered by respecting meanings primarily
conveyed by images – for example, the translation has to fit into the space of
the comic’s original balloons.
In summary, all these ways of translating audiovisual texts can be classified
into two broad categories: revoicing and subtitling, i.e., either the text is some-
how revoiced, or it is somehow subtitled. The following tables summarize AVT
modes according to this idea:

Revoicing Subtitling
1. Dubbing 1. Conventional subtitling
2. Partial dubbing 2. Intertitling
3. Voice-over (including narration) 3. Respeaking (live subtitling)
4. Free commentary (including Goblin 4. Surtitling
translation)
5. Simultaneous (and consecutive) 5. Subtitling for the deaf and the hard-
interpreting of-hearing
6. Audiodescription for the blind and the 6. Fansubbing
partially sighted
7. Audiosubtitling
8. Fandubbing (including fundubbing)

Figure 1.1. Audiovisual translation types

Videogames
Instructional videos and webinars
Commercials and infomercials
Webtoons
Comic books and scanlations
(the list is intentionally left open to new genres)

Figure 1.2. New audiovisual genres using a combination of traditional

AVT types

Some other modes are described in the literature�� but they are not strictly
AVT types. For example�� multilingual broadcasting�� per se�� cannot be considered
a new AVT type�� since it does not refer to a new mode�� but to the broadcasting
of an audiovisual text in many different translated modes (dubbed�� subtitled��
subtitled for the deaf�� etc.). Neither can the translation of film scripts be consid-
ered an AVT type per se�� since the translating process is not audiovisual (neither
the source text [ST] nor the target text [TT] are audiovisual).
 Frederic Chaume

1.3. The global dubbing map

1.3.1 Europe

To date, the AVT literature has established a rather simplistic distinction between
dubbing and subtitling countries. This classification (available on the web, for
example at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubbing_%28filmmaking%29) distin-
guishes dubbing countries (for instance, France) from subtitling countries (like
Norway), based on the way films and TV series are most commonly watched.
The European map is usually divided into four sections:

 Dubbing countries: Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Czech Re-

public, Slovakia, Spain, Turkey, and Ukraine.
 Subtitling countries: Albania, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland,
Greece, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Romania,
Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden, United Kingdom, among many others.
 Voice-over countries: Poland (TV), Russia, Bulgaria, Latvia and Lithuania.
 Dubbing and subtitling countries (countries that use both AVT modes):
Belgium (dubbing in Wallonia and subtitling in Flanders), or Bulgaria (TV
series are dubbed, whereas films are usually subtitled, and some other
programmes are voiced-over by at least four actors).

However, this classification is somewhat outdated. On the one hand, it is bi-

ased and based on clichés, and on the other hand, technology and new audiences
have changed the landscape entirely. The following facts refute these clichés:

1. Cartoons – especially those for younger children – are dubbed all over
the world, even in subtitling countries. Most countries therefore either
do their own dubbing or they buy dubbings in their language (or even in
a pivot or relay language, e.g., French dubbings are consumed in North-
African countries).
2. In so-called dubbing countries, many cinema houses show subtitled
films on a daily basis. In many large cities, the same film can be seen
in both its subtitled and dubbed versions, and other films, especially
art films, are simply subtitled. For example, in Valencia, a Spanish city
of barely one million inhabitants, in a random week (28 November to
4 December, 2008), 63 different films were shown in cinemas and film
clubs, of which 31 were subtitled (49.2%), 22 were dubbed (34.9%) and
10 were Spanish productions or co-productions (15.87%). Is Spain still
a dubbing country? It is true that dubbed films bring the money into
the box-office, and that the same dubbed film can be seen in many
cinemas, unlike subtitled films. And it is also true that a quick glance
at the TV listings seems to suggest that it still is a dubbing country. But
these figures show that dubbing countries are also watching a signifi-
cant amount of subtitled cinema.
Translation for dubbing 

3. In so-called subtitling countries, dubbing is beginning to find its place.

In Greece, some Mexican TV series such as Rubí, La Usurpadora, and
American teen series such as Hannah Montana and The Suite Life of
Zack & Cody are dubbed, as are some Turkish soap operas. In Portugal,
paradoxically, there are many more dubbed than subtitled programmes
on TV (Chorão 2012). In Norway and Denmark, dubbing is tentatively
being used for teen pics (Tveit 2009).
4. In so-called voice-over countries, times are also changing. Whereas
Russia seems to be turning to dubbing, Poland is giving way to sub-
titling but also opinion polls seem to favour dubbing (Chmiel 2010),
while both retain voice-over in translated TV programmes.
5. Some TV channels, such as MTV, are voicing-over some teen pro-
grammes in dubbing countries as an experiment to introduce voice-over
into fiction programmes and also as a way to significantly reduce the
high costs involved in dubbing. Breaking the canon (fiction is dubbed
on TV in western dubbing countries) can constitute either a commercial
failure, or an innovative, fashionable trend.
6. The DVD has also notably changed this landscape. DVDs and Blu-rays of-
fer audiences the possibility to choose how they watch a film. Options
include dubbed and/or subtitled versions, into one or various languag-
es, or even dubbed into one language and subtitled into another. The
world is moving towards audiovisual tailor-made services. In the near
future, it seems we will all be able to choose how, when, and where we
watch a film (or any audiovisual text), as well as select our language and
audiovisual translation preferences.
7. Digital broadcasting also enables audiovisual texts to be used in many
different ways. Like DVDs, digital broadcasting allows the spectator
to choose from various linguistic options in both audio and subtitling
menus.

The AVT landscape is no longer black and white. The distinction between
dubbing and subtitling countries has become blurred. Former dubbing countries
now have significant subtitling industries and have witnessed the growth of their
voice-over market. In turn, audiences in former subtitling countries are becom-
ing more used to dubbing, and former voice-over countries are moving towards
dubbing and subtitling. The important question for audiences is that the single
option of either dubbing or subtitling or voice-over should give way to a variety
of audiovisual texts that might be dubbed, subtitled, voiced-over, subtitled for
the deaf, or audiodescribed for the blind. The more options we have, the better
for the consolidation of a freer, multilingual, and diverse audience.

1.3.2 Asia

Asian countries with major languages and great economic potential also dub.
China dubs into Mandarin Chinese, and Thailand, Japan and Korea also dub into
their own languages. However, it is difficult to distinguish between dubbing and
 Frederic Chaume

subtitling countries�� since the audiovisual landscape is rather more complex.

Korea is a subtitling country�� but dubbing is also a fact on TV (Lee 2009:30).
China has a long tradition of dubbing foreign films into Mandarin Chinese
from 1949 (Qian 2009:13)�� a tradition which�� as in Europe�� started in the late
1920s and early 1930s. Popular TV series from the United States�� Brazil�� Mexico
and Japan have been dubbed since the 1970s. The cast of voice talents and dub-
bing directors and assistants is acknowledged in the credits of a dubbed film.
Companies rush to get the dubbing done so that the film can be released quickly
before the pirate versions are ready. In the last few decades�� however�� cinemas
have also begun showing subtitled versions�� especially in the bigger cities on the
east and south coasts. In Hong Kong�� foreign TV programmes other than those
in English and Mandarin are dubbed into Cantonese. Japanese programmes��
including anime�� are also dubbed into Cantonese. English and Chinese Manda-
rin programmes are generally shown in their original language with subtitles.
In Singapore�� TV programmes are shown in all four official languages: English��
Mandarin Chinese�� Malay and Tamil. Korean and Japanese dramas�� and also
Chinese programmes shot in other Chinese languages�� may also be dubbed into
Mandarin and English.
In Japan�� the dubbing industry began in the 1950s. Foreign television pro-
grammes and movies were the first to be dubbed into Japanese for TV. Nowadays��
audiences can choose between dubbed or subtitled versions on DVDs and
Blu-rays. Films may even have more than one dubbing�� depending on which TV
station will air the programme.
In Indonesia and Malaysia�� only South American soap operas are dubbed
into Indonesian and Malay�� respectively�� although a recent subtitling trend has
emerged in Malaysia. Korean and Japanese films are dubbed into Mandarin
with Malay subtitles on TV�� whereas Cantonese�� Mandarin�� Tamil and Hindi
programmes are broadcast with Malay subtitles. Cartoons and anime are also
dubbed as in the rest of the world. In Indonesia�� unlike Malaysia�� English cartoons
are usually dubbed�� except on some cable TV channels. Feature animations may
be either dubbed or subtitled�� depending on the TV channel.
In Thailand�� foreign TV programmes are dubbed into Thai�� although in the
past the original soundtrack was often simultaneously broadcast on the radio.
Nowadays cable TV stations broadcast foreign films with subtitles. Cinemas tend
to offer both the subtitled version and the dubbed version of English-language
movies�� whereas in Bangkok�� most foreign films are subtitled only�� and Thai films
are sometimes subtitled into English for an international audience. In Vietnam��
foreign-language films and programmes on television are also dubbed into
Vietnamese.
In the Philippines�� Japanese anime may be dubbed into either Filipino or
English. Korean�� Mexican�� and Chinese TV soap operas�� known as Koreanovelas��
Mexicanovelas�� and Chinovelas�� respectively�� are also dubbed into Filipino (Tauro
2009). As English is also an official language in the Philippines�� programmes in
English are usually not dubbed�� with the exception of some cartoons.
In India and Pakistan�� Hollywood films are dubbed into Hindi and Urdu��
Translation for dubbing 

respectively, and into languages such as Tamil and Telugu, although the English
language originals are shown in the metropolitan areas. Nevertheless, cartoons
and animation TV series are also dubbed from English into Hindi, like Teletub-
bies or Noddy (Katan 2010:12). Although Hollywood films only take a thin slice
of the Indian film market at present, the big US studios are working harder than
ever to gain more market share. Their latest strategy is to dub not only into
Hindi, but also to release films dubbed in regional languages. Spider-Man 3, for
example, was also dubbed into Bhojpuri, a language spoken in northern India.
Indian cartoons, which are originally made in Hindi, are often now dubbed into
regional languages as well. In Pakistan, film companies produce Punjabi films and
re-record them in Urdu. This product, known as a double version film, is often
found in countries with two or more official languages.

1.3.3 The Americas

In America, a distinction has to be made between the United States of America,

Canada, and all the other countries. The USA has an important dubbing industry,
but it is all geared to export, as it is a subtitling country in terms of domestic con-
sumption; a few British films shot in regional accents are dubbed into American
English, such as Trainspotting (Danny Boyle 1996) or Kes (Ken Loach 1969), but
these, together with some Japanese horror films, are the exception. Another
variation is the redubbing of some British children’s shows – such as Bob the
Builder (Keith Chapman 1998) – with American voice talents, and indeed Japanese
anime, which may be both dubbed and subtitled into English on DVDs. Films
are dubbed for export to dubbing countries. In Canada, subtitling predominates
in the English-speaking regions, whereas Quebec follows the French dubbing
tradition. In French-speaking Canada, cinemas also show films that have been
dubbed into French in Europe, whereas dubbings made in Quebec are not com-
mon in France: films dubbed in Canada are usually redubbed in France for the
domestic market.
Mexico is a subtitling country, with a long, deep-rooted tradition in the dub-
bing industry. Cartoons and foreign programmes on broadcast TV are dubbed,
and many dubbings are made for the DVD industry, especially for export. In Brazil,
foreign programmes are always dubbed into Brazilian Portuguese on broadcast
TV, with only a few exceptions. Films shown in cinemas are generally offered in
both subtitled and dubbed versions, although subtitling is the preferred format
for adult audiences, while dubbing is favoured for children’s films. Pay TV com-
monly offers both dubbed and subtitled movies, but subtitling predominates.
All films released on DVD usually feature both dubbing and subtitling. South
American countries generally tend to follow this trend and watch dubbed films
and TV series on television, while films are subtitled for the big screen. The same
film can therefore be seen with subtitles in a cinema and dubbed on TV. The two
AVT modes exist side by side without any conflict.
10 Frederic Chaume

1.3.4 Africa

Africa is a subtitling continent. However, some signs of change can now be seen.
North African countries have traditionally watched French dubbings of Western
films, especially Hollywood productions, usually imported directly from French
film distributors.������������������������������������������
They
�����������������������������������������
also dub cartoons. Since the 1980s, ������������������
dubbed series and
movies for children in Modern Standard Arabic have become a popular choice
among most TV channels, cinemas and VHS/DVD stores. Dubbed films are gen-
erally shown in Arab countries with a strong tradition of dubbing (mainly Syria,
Lebanon and Jordan), but interestingly, some TV soap operas are now also being
dubbed, and meeting with huge success in terms of TV viewer numbers. Not only
have South American soap operas been dubbed into Modern Standard Arabic, but
popular Turkish TV soap operas have also gained very high audience ratings.

1.3.5 Oceania

With the exception of cartoons, dubbing is practically unknown across the vast
English-speaking continent of Oceania. New Zealand, however, has recently
launched its Maori Television Service, which has dubbed animated films, such
as Watership Down, into Maori. Likewise, some TV ads produced in foreign
countries are dubbed, even in cases where the original is from another English-
speaking country.

1.4. History of dubbing

The history of dubbing necessarily runs parallel to the history of cinema. However,
although the literature on the history of cinema is extensive, very little has been
written on the history of dubbing and AVT in general. From a historical analysis
perspective, interest for the translation researcher begins with the introduction
of written language on screen in silent movies to accompany the iconic repre-
sentation of images.
It is at this point that translation becomes essential to the full understand-
ing of filmic narration. The silent movies’ potential as a kind of universal visual
Esperanto faded long before the advent of the talkies, since from their inception
intertitles were inserted between film scenes, written in the language of the film
producers. These intertitles helped to develop the plot. Given the astounding
popularity of cinema, film directors were obsessed with reaching larger and
more widespread audiences, and consequently they needed to shorten plot
developments, accelerate the events, and tell more in a shorter time, since
filming every movement of the screen actors was indeed a tedious activity in
those early days.
For these reasons, written texts appeared shortly after the birth of cinema
as a complement to the visual narration. Written language helped audiences
understand the temporal, spatial and narrative ellipses that were necessary to
Translation for dubbing 11

condense the story into a few minutes. Initially�� the use of language was strictly
limited to just a few intertitles�� which�� significantly�� were called ‘subtitles’ at that
time�� and later renamed intertitles with the advent of the talkies. Intertitles were
translated in different ways (see Chaume 2010 for a detailed review)�� the first
form of AVT that we know.
One of the ways intertitles were translated was through ‘simultaneous in-
terpreting’ in the cinema itself. This was usually done by the pianist – generally
a man – or another man working alongside the pianist�� although the resulting
oral translation was not always what we would consider as orthodox transla-
tion today. These translations went beyond the bounds of linguistic and cultural
transfer into the realm of dramatic art�� since what these men actually did was to
interpret the film�� add new information�� make use of stagey intonation and even
pre-empt the plot. This phenomenon can also be observed in Japan and�� later�� in
Thailand. The benshi were Japanese performers who provided live narration for
silent films – Japanese or otherwise – who stood at the side of the screen and
introduced and related the story to the audience. Borrowing from the theatre��
the benshi often spoke for the characters on-screen and played multiple roles
(Viviani 2011:69-70). This tradition was also adopted in Taiwan and Korea and
may be at the root of Russian voice-over.
When the talkies (sound films) came onto the scene�� it prompted one of AVT’s
most popular formats: dubbing. The first full-length sound film is often claimed to
be The Jazz Singer (Al Johnson 1927)�� shown on 6 October 1927�� in New York City��
with a mixture of intertitles and some spoken dialogues. Although there had been
previous attempts to incorporate sound into movies�� The Jazz Singer opened up a
new era in the history of cinema�� and subsequently�� in the history of AVT. In 1928��
Warner released the first full talkie�� The Lights of New York (Bryan Foy 1928).
The transition to sound film was met with fierce hostility from the cinema
industry. Actors were not prepared to act with sound�� since they had been trained
to exaggerate their performances to compensate for their lack of a voice. Film
directors thought sound would destroy cinema as an artistic representation�� as
posited in the now-famous historic manifesto published by Eisenstein�� Alexandrov
and Pudovkin in the review Close Up�� in October 1928�� entitled The Sound Film: A
Statement from USSR. These renowned film directors warned that sound would
put an end to the era of universal Esperanto that the iconographic language of
silent movies represented. Other film producers�� such as Louis B. Mayer (Metro
Goldwyn Mayer)�� did not take such a hard-line stance against the talkies�� but
were so convinced that cinema’s huge popularity would ensure the acceptance
of English as the universal language�� that the first Metro films were exported
without any subtitles or dubbing. This naive ethnocentric utopia was�� however��
soon swept away by the realization that translation was an essential reality. As
early as 1923�� David W. Griffith noted that only 5% of the world’s population
then spoke English and rhetorically wondered why he had to lose 95% of his
potential audience.
The first large-scale attempt to translate audiovisual texts consisted of
producing versions of North American films subtitled into German�� French and
12 Frederic Chaume

Spanish. However, the major issue facing the film industry was that at that time
– the early 1930s – millions of cinema-goers could not read. The Scandinavian
countries and the Netherlands quickly accepted the subtitling mode, given their
high levels of literacy, and also the low cost of subtitles compared to dubbing.
In 1928, two engineers from Paramount Pictures managed to record a synchro-
nized dialogue matching the lips of onscreen characters in the film Beggars of
Life (William A. Wellman 1928), and months later in their first all-talker, Inter-
ference (Roy Pomeroy 1928). The commercial potential of this new AVT mode
was immediately recognized. In 1929, Radio Pictures dubbed the film Rio Rita
(Luther Reed 1929) into German, French and Spanish. Metro Goldwyn Mayer,
United Artists, Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox immediately followed
suit with their productions.
The noticeably low quality of the first dubbings, together with artistic and
aesthetic objections to the separation of face and voice, led to a strong adverse
reaction to these first attempts. The advent of sound in films made audiences
question the credibility and verisimilitude of cinema, its potential as a creative
art and its relationship with the public. Incipient dubbings into Spanish were
even more shocking since the language used for the dubbing was the so-called
neutral Spanish, an artificial dialect that combined features from the major Span-
ish dialects, particularly American localisms. Neutral Spanish was promoted as a
way of producing a version for the entire Spanish-speaking world that would not
favour one dialect over another and thus prevent rejection by some regions. In
Spain, The Disney classics were still dubbed into this artificial dialect until as late
as the 1980s. The Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America are considered as
one single territory for distribution of programmes in the TV market; this is why
foreign programmes are still dubbed into a Neutral Spanish in this area.
At this time, a new production system came onto the scene, known as mul-
tilingual movies or double versions. This system consisted of shooting a film in
various languages at a time, either simultaneously or very shortly afterwards.
The same film director tended to work on all the versions, although this was not
always the case. Different actors were used, except in certain famous cases, such
as the now-classic films starring Stanley Laurel and Oliver Hardy, or Buster Keaton.
These actors enthusiastically learned their translated dialogues by heart and
recited them with a distinctive accent that made their films even more comical.
Their success was such that, years after, in dubbings of later Laurel and Hardy
films – longer films with much more dialogue – voice talents in some dubbing
countries made every effort to imitate their English accents.
Blaze o’ Glory (George Crone & Renaud Hoffman 1929) provides a good ex-
ample of a multilingual movie, in which actors repeated each single word and
engineers replicated every movement of the original camera. Within the space of
a year, most producers had assembled a production team in the major dubbing
languages. In order to reduce the costs of this process, multilingual movies were
transferred to Joinville, north of Paris, in 1931. However, audiences in dubbing
countries were more inclined to watch dubbed North American films starring
famous Hollywood names, rather than the multilingual versions that used the
services of second-class actors and actresses.
Translation for dubbing 13

Technical advances quickly helped consolidate this new AVT mode. Edwin
Hopking invented post-synchronization to dub actors and actresses whose voices
were considered an obstacle to their reaching international artist status. Jakob
Karol applied this technique to substitute original dialogues with others recorded
in the target language.���������������������������������������������������������
��������������������������������������������������������
Dubbing companies began translating and recording films
in foreign languages, and with the advent of various soundtracks in the same film,
dubbing became an easy and convenient way to export films abroad. Dubbed
voices were recorded onto a new track, which was later synchronized with the
track containing the images and the music and effects track (known as the ‘M
& E’ track). The universal promise of cinema, heralded by the silent movies and
later forgotten with the advent of sound, was revitalized with dubbing.
Dubbing, both as a technological invention and as an AVT mode, therefore
predated the totalitarian regimes of the 1930s. In countries that have suffered,
or continue to suffer, under a totalitarian regime, dubbing is still undeservedly
tainted with fascist associations.���������������������������������������������
The
��������������������������������������������
reasons for this must be traced back to
Italian and German National Socialism, later copied in Japan and Spain. First
Mussolini, and then Hitler, understood that the huge number of North American
films shown in Italian and German cinemas represented a major threat to their
national identities, since the screening of these films was accompanied by the
penetration of their language, culture and way of thinking. In 1930, Mussolini
issued a decree of language protection, which was later extended in 1933 (5 Oc-
tober). Fascist governments, like the Spanish and the German regimes, greeted
this measure with enthusiasm and adopted it in their own countries some years
later (Germany, the Reich Film Law, 1934, and the Enabling Act, 1936; Spain,
Act of 23 April 1941). These laws restricted the number of films that could be
shown in these countries and enforced the dubbing of all foreign films into their
respective target languages (Katan 2010:11).
Until the mid 1940s, all foreign films were dubbed in Spain, Germany, France
and Italy. Dubbing a film turned it into a national domesticated product. The eco-
nomic potential of these countries enabled them to choose this more expensive
AVT mode. These factors should be taken into account in the frequently futile
debate over the pros and cons of dubbing and subtitling, generally simplified to
subjective and pseudo-intellectual arguments.
Without minimizing the fascist agenda in consolidating dubbing in some
of these countries – dictators considered dubbing to be the ideal mechanism
of keeping evil ideologies outside their borders, which wouldn’t be the case in
subtitling – we cannot ignore the fact that dubbing predates these regimes,
that the population in most of these countries had low levels of literacy, that
these countries had a dominant language, and that they had the economic
power to meet the cost of dubbing. Dubbing became firmly established in these
countries for these reasons and factors. Obviously, dubbing was not the only
way films could be translated. The former Soviet countries opted for voice-over
of fiction audiovisual texts; countries like Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark,
Greece, Portugal, the Netherlands, the Flemish part of Belgium, or the former
Yugoslavian countries, chose subtitling as a cheaper and easier way to translate
audiovisual texts.
14 Frederic Chaume

Nowadays, digital technology has fortunately helped to push aside the de-
bate surrounding these AVT modes. Digital technology means work can be done
faster and more precisely than before. As well as speeding up the process, it has
reduced costs, by providing multiple recording tracks and software applications
to manipulate recorded voices and sounds. It also allows simple sound or pro-
nunciation defects to be easily corrected. But above all, it means that dubbings,
subtitlings, voice-overs, accessible versions and new AVT types of the same film
can be produced in many languages, so that spectators decide how and when
they want to watch the film. Digital technology represents a major step forward
for audiences, turning mass media into tailor-made personal media.

1.5. Quality standards

Texts are subject to certain rules or genre conventions within a specific culture
and time. In any text, the absence of an expected element may be received by
the reader as a negative mechanism. The lack of synchronization in dubbed films
or TV series in a tradition in which synchrony is normative or regulated, for in-
stance, may turn a product into a commercial failure. Lotman (1982:125) refers to
this concept with the term ‘minus-mechanism’, although particularly in relation
to literary texts – for example, the absence of rhyme in a genre where it would
conventionally be present. In the same way, the macro-genre of audiovisual
texts also has a specific canon. Translated audiovisual genres (films, television
series, cartoons or documentaries) should follow certain specific conventions that
help audiences to recognize them, and watch them in a particular way, thereby
maximizing their success.
A break with convention or canon and the absence of predictable elements
do not necessarily lead to a breakdown in communication (see the example of
MTV in §1.3.1); they may represent an innovation in the genre, which might be
successful or fail completely, depending on the historical conditions affecting the
audience. However, these departures have certain limits that we will attempt to
define in this section.
From the perspective of synchrony, we will now examine the predominant
elements of dubbed fictional works in the audiovisual landscape at the begin-
ning of the 21st century.
Certain questions may be posed from the receiver’s point of view: What does
the audience expect from a dubbed audiovisual product? What type of dischrony
(Fodor 1976:80) or lack of synchrony is most negatively evaluated and less tol-
erated by the audience (minus-mechanisms)? What will the viewer overlook?
What is the biggest hurdle to accurate audience reception of the message? The
answers to these questions will inform the translator of the prevailing norms in
audiovisual translation and in dubbing particularly, and even condition his or
her priorities when producing a translation. Once the norms in a given target
culture and at a given moment in time have been identified, they must then be
compared to prescriptive quality standards – as defined by corporations, profes-
Translation for dubbing 15

sionals, and guidelines – to verify whether they meet those quality standards, or
simply conform to roughly consolidated historical conventions.
In the field of subtitling, Díaz Cintas (2003) devoted the whole of his excel-
lent comprehensive manual on subtitling to a proposal for quality standards
in this field of audiovisual translation, taking as his starting point respect for
an ideal receiver. The European Association for Studies in Screen Translation
(ESIST) has also been working extensively on proposals for a normative set of
quality standards for subtitling, one of which was approved in 1998. Díaz Cintas
and Remael (2007) compile a set of possible quality standards including those
set by the ESIST.
Against this background, this section offers some ideas as an initial tentative
proposal for quality standards in dubbing. However, it is not easy to reach a
consensus on a list of quality standards, since they will inevitably be subjective.
A particular dubbing may work well for some and be a failure for others. No
empirical evidence has shown what a good dubbing is. Might it just be that one
man’s meat is another man’s poison? If we are to set a list of quality standards
without empirical evidence, we must adopt the perspective of an ideal viewer, an
abstraction that simplifies our proposal, although future research should focus
on different viewer groups, as suggested by Mayoral (2001) when he refers to
the factors that an audience design should take into account: its heterogeneity,
the passing of time, etc.
What we can come to some agreement about, nonetheless, is a set of stan-
dards that must be carefully followed in dubbing, certain priorities that must be
taken into account in a standard dubbing with the concept of the ideal receiver
in mind. These priorities can be grouped into the following broad areas.

1.5.1 Acceptable lip-sync

Observance of the onscreen actors’ mouth articulation (lip-sync, see § 4.4) and
body movements (kinesic synchrony, see § 4.2), and especially the duration of
the original actor’s utterances (isochrony, see § 4.3) is considered a cornerstone
of dubbing; in other words, compliance with synchronization norms is mandatory
(see Chapter 4). We might therefore say that the thresholds of acceptability are
crossed when the length of the translation does not match the duration of the
dialogue lines uttered by the screen actor or actress, and in close-ups, extreme
close-ups and detailed lip shots, when lip-sync is not respected; or when the
meaning of the translation and the meaning of the screen actors’ and actresses’
body movements are in disharmony. However, other lip and kinesic synchronies
do not break this tacit agreement, despite Fodor’s insistence in his pioneering
1976 study. In Chapter 4, this issue will be dealt with extensively.

1.5.2 Credible and realistic dialogue lines

The writing of credible and realistic dialogues, in line with the oral registers of
the target language, involves going slightly beyond the correct expression of
16 Frederic Chaume

the source content in the target language, something which is also a desirable
general objective in any translation (such as, for example, avoiding structural and
lexical calques in the translation). Translation oscillates between two poles: its
adequacy in relation to the source text and its acceptability in the target culture
(see § 3.2). In the case of translation for dubbing, another key to good dubbing
quality is to ensure that the target language sounds realistic, credible, and plau-
sible; i.e., it does not take us away from the storyline. Put another way, it must
be acceptable according to the canonical standards (norms) of an audiovisual
text translated into the target language. The second threat to the breakdown of
so-called suspension of disbelief (i.e., the willingness of the audience to overlook
the limitations of the medium) must be overcome by achieving an oral register
that can be defined as false spontaneous, prefabricated speech (see Chapter 5
for an extensive discussion on this topic). This is not only an issue in dubbing
and subtitling; in film production one of the most widespread criticisms of some
films is the artificiality of their dialogues.
Nonetheless, it is quite true that until recent decades academics and linguists
had neglected oral register. Perhaps for this reason, television companies have
found themselves in a situation where they are publishing guidelines for transla-
tors, but also for newsreaders and scriptwriters. These guidelines or style sheets
deal with how to achieve an acceptable non-spontaneous oral register and to
ensure that previously scripted written language sounds as though it had not in
fact been written.

1.5.3 Coherence between images and words

The third quality standard can be stated as follows: there should be coherence
between what is heard and what is seen, i.e., between words and images, and
likewise, between the internal coherence of the plot, on the one hand, and
dialogue cohesion, on the other.
It goes without saying that the target text should be coherent not only from
the semantic, but also from the iconographic��,������������
or
�����������
visual, ���������������������������
point of view. By maintain-
ing the network of underlying conceptual relations in discourse, we can guarantee
both fidelity to the content of the source text, and an overall understanding of
the target text. Dubbed dialogues may be incoherent not only from a linguistic
or semantic perspective, but also from an iconic viewpoint. It is surprising to see
how even today, there are still international projects, such as the MUSA Project of
the 1990s, which set out to translate film dialogues using automatic translation
software. These dialogues are previously transcribed using a voice recognition
system. The programme’s creators acknowledge, without a hint of embarrass-
ment, that the automatic translation programme does not take the image into
account, and translates the transcribed dialogues without any concern for the
relations of coherence and cohesion between dialogue and image.
Remael (2000), Díaz Cintas (2003), and Chaume (2004b) present numerous
illustrations of how this coherence is threatened by the constraints at work in
dubbing and subtitling. The translator takes the image into account not only as
Translation for dubbing 17

an analogous component that constrains the translation process, but also as an

aid to resolving these restrictions (Martínez Sierra 2008, 2009a).
Adapting to the target language and culture involves a process of producing
a target text that is cohesive not only linguistically, but also semiotically, i.e. with
respect to all sign systems that articulate the text (Chaume 2001). Reduction in
subtitling and synchronization in dubbing may force the translator to compromise
the degree of cohesion in the target text. Hatim and Mason (1997:78-96) note
that in audiovisual translation interpersonal meaning is usually lost: pragmatic
features conveyed in pronouns of address, question tags, phatic elements and
hesitations, which show politeness, most of them semantically empty, are lost
in translation. In the same way, constraints on dubbing and subtitling at times
involve sacrificing the grammatical correctness of target text dialogues, which
may sound somewhat strange to the receiver. Dubbing directors often insist that
the target text should be well written and easily understood, without complica-
tions or ambiguities. This norm is so strong that this can happen even when the
ST dialogue is purposely – artistically – ambiguous. To a certain extent, we are
dealing with the same norm of explicitation put forward by Goris in his study
(1993): an attempt to make the target text even more cohesive than the source
text, by removing ambiguity and explaining any obscure or difficult-to-understand
fragments in the source text.

1.5.4 A loyal translation

The fourth standard is loyalty or fidelity to the source text (a concept challenged
in some academic circles today), understood as fidelity to content, form, func-
tion, source text effect, or all or any one of the aforementioned, depending on
the job in hand. The concept of fidelity has a long tradition in translation theory
(Hurtado 1990; Munday 2001). However, it would appear that the shift in interest
from the source text to the target culture as a reference point in translation as-
sessment has meant that the notion of fidelity has lost ground in the theoretical
panorama of the discipline, or rather, it is understood as fidelity to the norms
governing the target system. Whatever the meaning we want to give it, what
remains clear is that broadly speaking, the viewer expects to see the same film
that the audience sees in the source language; in other words, that the true story
be told in terms of content, and on most occasions, of form, function and effect
– and with no censorship. Today’s audiences will not tolerate phenomena such
as political, religious or sexual censorship, which were, lamentably, almost par for
the course during Europe’s fascist dictatorships. There are still some countries,
though, like China, where films containing violence, pornography or religious
propaganda are not imported (Qian 2009:17).
Interestingly, thresholds of acceptability can once again be noticed in certain
settings which would be considered intolerable in others. While the spectator
would not consent to changes in the plot and content of an audiovisual work (as
with the astounding case of Mogambo, censored beyond recognition in Spain
fifty years ago, but fortunately now retranslated), changes in other areas would
be tolerated. These include:
18 Frederic Chaume

a) acceptance of linguistic censorship and self-censorship – practised to

a greater or lesser extent by most television stations and dubbing and
subtitling companies�� as well as by translators themselves
b) mismatched registers – translations that�� because of the inclusion of
lexical and structural calques from the source language�� sound nowhere
near idiomatic; these are particularly overbearing in productions aimed
at the adolescent market
c) the astonishing changes to some film titles
d) and even the semiotic distortions caused by the use in the translation
of certain characteristic features of the target culture (over adaptation)
in a typically foreign atmosphere and place.

It therefore remains to define which thresholds of acceptability audiences

tolerate�� and which they reject. Here perhaps�� the reviled concept of audiovisual
genre has its raison d’être and will be seen as a useful parameter in defining this
threshold: certain audiovisual genres allow what would never be acceptable in
others – over adaptation can be found in cartoons more frequently than in art
films�� lip-sync can be overlooked in cartoons but not so often in films (De Rosa
2010:8)�� etc.

1.5.5 Clear sound quality

Other factors fall outside the control of the translator�� the dialogue writer and even
the dubbing director. The recording and mixing of the translated dialogues put
down by the dubbing actors and actresses also seek to achieve a realistic effect
and to fulfil the technical and acoustic conventions that characterize the activity
of dubbing�� which has become conventional over the years. This means that:

 dialogues from the original version must never be heard�� not even in
the case of a specific paralinguistic feature�� such as a cough (when this
happens�� the spectator notices and is distracted from the film); in a
voice-over�� however�� we do expect to hear the source text�� although
this should never be louder than the target version;
 dialogues are recorded in soundproof studios (as with the source text
dialogues�� in a process known as editing or post-synchronization)�� so
their acoustic quality is extremely good �� which enables the dialogues
to be appropriately received; notably�� there is always an absence of
noise and interferences in the final recording�� so that the sound that
reaches the viewer is as clear as possible;
 the volume of the voices is also higher than in normal speech�� to facili-
tate greater comprehension�� i.e.�� there is always a fairly high volume
and clear voices with tight articulation;
 certain sound effects such as reverberation are used in cases in which
the characters have their backs to the camera or are at a distance�� to
create the effect of a slight echo�� etc.

All of these factors are designed to create a realistic effect and complement
the standards for good translation and good dialogue writing put forward in §
Translation for dubbing 19

1.5.1�� 1.5.2�� 1.5.3 and 1.5.4. The translator can do very little to help in this field��
although�� if s/he works on the text synchrony and dialogue writing�� symbols or
comments can be added that will help the engineer to apply the right sound ef-
fects at the right moment (see Chapter 4 for lists of different national dubbing
symbols).
The viewer has been conditioned to accept that s/he is watching a film and
that in general�� s/he will be listening to voices in stereo and with a clarity alien
to real-life situations. Even when characters walk off towards the horizon�� we
can still hear their voices perfectly and understand what they say. We may be
shown a completely dark room�� for instance�� but the cinematographic illusion
has reached the point where�� to a great extent�� it is accepted that we are able
to distinguish the facial features of the characters in the room�� and even see
their gestures. When we go into the cinema�� we know that what we are going
to see is not exactly real�� but rather the language of film�� with its grammatical
rules and its own particular logic (the aforementioned suspension of disbelief).
Clear sound quality is part of it. In any case�� these norms depend on the sound
engineer (see Chapter 2) and are outside the translator’s remit�� although as
conventions�� they constitute a further standard of quality in what is understood
as good dubbing.

1.5.6 Acting

The final standard includes the performance and dramatization of the dialogues,
which is also beyond the control of the translator and the dialogue writer, al-
though the dubbing director and the voice talents have their respective parts to
play. By convention, dubbing actors and actresses – voice talents – are required
to perform in such a way that they sound neither faked (overacted) nor mo-
notonous (underacted). Overacting is without a doubt one of the factors that
also cause the viewer to cross this tolerance threshold we refer to in this sec-
tion. Voice talents, in their enthusiasm to dramatize the target text dialogues,
or perhaps also because of their origins and training in the theatre, sometimes
emphasize intonations and pronunciations to such an extent that if we hear a
conversation from any big screen or television film, without knowing where the
sound is coming from, we immediately know that they are cinema or television
dialogues, and not real conversation. Whitman-Linsen explains:

[...] role interpretations are overdone, over dramatic, overladen with emo-
tion. The voices sound phony and theatrical and out of keeping with body
expression. Everyday conversations are enacted as if they were dealing
with tragic deaths of family members and the outbreak of atomic wars.
People just do not speak like dubbers seem to imagine they do. Whether
aimed at over- or underacting, the criticism is often justified (Whitman-
Linsen 1992:47, my emphasis).

Some dubbing countries tend more towards overacting, which is particu-

larly evident in home-produced series. Whatever the case, the dramatization of
20 Frederic Chaume

the dialogues is not part of the translators’ remit�� although they may make an
adequate performance more easily achievable by ensuring the oral register is
realistic in the dialogues.
There are other theoreticians who agree with the points expressed by
Whitman-Linsen above. Ávila (1997) highlights that the viewer expects the
dubbed translation to keep to the original (I believe this to be even more patent
in the case of subtitling�� especially amongst viewers who are familiar with the
source language; see the discussion on the concept of vulnerable translation in
Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007:55-58)�� that the same voices should not be over-
used within the same production and across multiple films�� and that good use
should be made of technical resources – which�� as previously mentioned�� fall
outside the translator’s brief.
The absence of these conventions�� because they are predictable and conven-
tionalized�� jeopardizes the accurate transmission of the message�� in terms of both
information and aesthetics. Indeed�� the ultimate aim of dubbing is to create a
believable final product that seems real�� that tricks us as viewers into thinking
we are witnessing a credible story�� with easily recognized characters and realistic
voices. As voices in the industry state: “Good dubbing today looks like the story
was recorded in the language you hear” (Wright and Lallo 2009:219).

1.6. Exercises

1.6.1 Find out what percentage of dubbed/subtitled films are shown in

the cinemas where you live, or in your nearest big city. First, check the
entertainment guide on the web to see how many films are shown in
your city in a random week. Count how many of them are dubbed or
subtitled, and how many are domestic productions or co-productions.
Then calculate the percentage of translated films, either dubbed or
subtitled, showing in that week. Consider what might account for the
percentage.

1.6.2 Find a fandub on the Internet. What are your impressions? What
features do you notice? List them and compare them with professional
dubbings. To what audiovisual genre does the fandub belong? Why do
you think this particular fandub was done?

1.6.3 Below is a quotation from Whitman-Linsen (1992:13). What do

you think of this opinion?

The dubbing industry is notorious for kowtowing to economic expedi-

encies, a wont painfully apparent in the often mediocre results of their
work. Quite simply: the faster a film can be dubbed, the cheaper it is.
Contenting themselves with low standards of excellence seems a small
price to pay for high profits.
Translation for dubbing 21

1.6.4 Now read the following quotation from Caillé (1960:108). What are
your thoughts about it? Why is the opinion of dubbing so low? Should
we always blame the translator?

Le mot art, employé à propos du doublage, fera grincer des dents à

ses innombrables détracteurs. Le doublage souffre de ses origines em-
piriques. Il souffre encore d’être, à tous les échelons, à tous les stades,
entre les mains de gens qui n’ont ni la formation, ni le goût nécessaires
pour juger de la qualité d’un texte ou tout simplement pour écrire dans
une langue correcte. Les critiques cinématographiques en sont restées
à leurs premières impressions du temps où les films doublés étaient en
général exécrables au tout point de vue. Depuis, ils ne vont plus voir
que les versions originales, se contentant de répéter avec les snobs ou
gens sincères, ‘Je n’irai jamais voir un doublage’.

1.6.5 Now read these two quotations below. Which opinion do you fa-
vour? Why? Are they still valid today?

(a) When viewers are accustomed to one adaptation method they seem
not to worry about the disadvantages that go with the method. In ad-
dition, they seem to dislike the other method. Dutch viewers will be
annoyed by all the shortcomings of dubbing when they watch dubbed
programmes, whereas German viewers will demonstrate the same type
of aversion when watching subtitled programmes. The effect of habitua-
tion should also be taken into account in the interpretation of the results
of studies which explicitly compare subtitling and dubbing. (Koolstra et
al. 2002:347).

(b) Aujourd’hui, l’Europe est trop souvent divisée entre pays du doubla-
ge (France, Italie, Allemagne, Espagne, etc.) et pays du sous-titrage,
(pays scandinaves, Finlande, Grèce, Pays-Bas, Portugal, Pays de Gal-
les, Slovénie, etc.). C’est une division trop simpliste, d’une part parce
que le nombre de chaînes, par exemple, est passé de 47 en 1999 à
plus de 1500 en 2002, dans l’Europe des 15, et qu’aucun pays n’a
un ensemble de directives communes ou un code unique de bonne
conduite ; d’autre part, parce que les solutions sont désormais multi-
ples et flexibles. Ainsi Malcolm X (1998) a d’abord été sous-titré pour
quelques salles à Paris, mais devant du succès obtenu, les distribu-
teurs ont vite commandé une version doublée pour un public jugé peu
familier de l’écoute de l’anglais américain ou de la lecture de deux li-
gnes sur l’écran. (Gambier 2004:6)
2. The professional environment

2.0 Preliminary discussion

(a) How many people do you think are involved in the dubbing process? Is
the translator the only agent responsible for the translation?
(b) Read the quotation below from a former dubbing director and discuss
it with other students:

Today there is more competition in the dubbing industry. This has re-
sulted in lower prices and greater time pressure, but higher quality.
Consequently all companies are desperately looking for ways to cut
costs. The first victim is usually the translator. Translators are powerless
and there are many of them. What they create is not the final product.
It is transformed by the dubbing writer into lip-sync dialog. People there-
fore don’t treat them particularly well, and I have to admit, neither do I
(Münterfering 2002:15).

(c) Do you know the names of any professional dubbing translators? Would
you know where to look for their names? Why do you think they are so
anonymous? List some feasible ways in which audiovisual translators’
visibility might be enhanced.
(d) Have a look at any commercial DVD you have at home and try to find
the information on the agents involved in the dubbing or subtitling pro-
cess. What do you find?
(e) Read the quotation below:

The skills and talents called for in a dialogue writer, as we have seen, are
enormous. He must be linguistically dexterous: adept in his own language,
with, ideally, at least rudimentary knowledge of the source language or
some foreign language. Sensitivity to dramatic and cinematic effect also
seems indispensable in view of the glaringly mediocre results when this
quality is absent. Logically, the wealth of gifts which are a boon to the native
language screenplay writer are just as much of benefit to a dubbing writer:
the knack for creating unlabored dialog, a feel for acting rhythm, imagina-
tion and versatility in wielding the rhetorical tools of his own language, etc.
In the end, the resultant screenplay translation must recapture the original
and fulfil the same requirements and standards justifiably expected of any
artistic rendering (Whitman-Linsen 1992:121, my underlining).

 Do you agree that all the skills underlined in the quote are necessary? Can
you think of any other qualities that a dubbing translator should have?
 What is your opinion of the second quality mentioned: “rudimentary
knowledge of the source language”?
 List these qualities – and any others you have added– in what you con-
sider to be their order of importance (1 being the most important).
The professional environment 23

This chapter provides a description of the dubbing market and dubbing fees,
an explanation of the technical process and the human agents involved in dub-
bing, a detailed description of the translator’s task, and concludes with some
ideas on training. Any appreciation of a profession or art form must be based
on familiarity with the daily mechanics of the activity. Dubbing is a practice that
requires teamwork, an ‘all-for-one and one-for-all’ collaboration of translation,
creative writing, artistic and technical skills. It is also an industry that touches
millions of people all over the world who as a whole willingly spend more time
watching dubbed films than reading, for example, translated books.

2.1 The market

Dubbing translators usually work in-house, or freelance for a dubbing company.

Dubbing companies, in turn, can work for the following agents:

 Private and public TV stations

 Production and distribution companies dealing with all audiovisual
genres – not only films – shown on cinema screens
 DVD distribution companies
 Film festivals
 Film clubs
 Advertising companies
 Production companies that need to translate corporate videos
 Companies working with multimedia products (education, etc.)
 Interactive software companies (videogames, etc.)

Although translators may also work for any of these agents, they usually work for
a dubbing company. All these clients look for a dubbing company that assumes
responsibility for the whole dubbing process. They want their video dubbed
into a particular target language, and they want the whole process to be taken
care of. They do not commission the translation from a professional translator,
then look for someone to do the dialogue writing and a dubbing company for
the acting and editing. These companies commission a single organization – a
dubbing company – to oversee the entire process.
A useful way of finding out which TV stations invest most money in dubbing is
to check the foreign negative pick-up volume of TV programmes in their listings
(i.e. foreign audiovisual programmes purchased from the producer at a given
date and for a fixed sum; see §2.7.5). TV channels show three different kinds of
programmes, classified according to who produces them:

 In-house production, such as the news, the weather, some quiz shows,
interviews, etc.
 External or associate production, such as domestic soap operas, sit-
coms, films, documentaries, cartoons, etc.
24 Frederic Chaume

 (Foreign) Negative pick-up, which covers all imported TV programmes:

foreign soap operas, sitcoms, TV series, films, documentaries, car-
toons, etc.

As professional translators, we are interested in all the imported TV pro-

grammes, since these are the ones that will be translated.

2.1.1 How to get a foot in the market

An easy way of finding out which TV channel makes the highest investment in
audiovisual translation is to calculate figures for foreign negative pick-up in all
TV channels operating in the translator’s country, excluding foreign programmes
made in the same domestic language. From there, we can find out which dubbing
companies are working for these TV channels and stations (see 2.7 Exercises).
A similar operation can be performed by looking at the DVD distribution
companies mentioned in DVD cover notes, and checking which dubbing com-
panies are working for them on their websites, or contacting them by email or
phone to find out.
However, let us take this one step at a time. The first step is to find out how
many dubbing companies are operating in your country, or in countries speaking
the same language as yours (although linguistic differences can be a stumbling
block to working in other countries for foreign companies). This information can
easily be found on the Internet. The keywords used to find dubbing companies
are: dubbing, synchronization, sound synchronization, post-synchronization,
sound editing, sound mixing, among others (and their counterparts in other
languages: doppiaggio, doublage, doblaje, doblatge, dobragem, synchronization,
etc.). Some websites also provide lists of dubbing companies.
Translators can also work for foreign companies that dub into their mother
tongue. Although fiction films and TV series are usually dubbed in the target
language country, corporate videos, cartoons, documentaries and commercials
can also be dubbed abroad, especially in cities with a large tradition of dubbing
into many languages, such as Los Angeles, and nowadays also London, Berlin,
Munich, Hamburg, Barcelona, Madrid, Rome, Milan, and Paris.
Once you have a list of dubbing companies operating in your country, the
next step is to contact them, either by phone or mail, and ask for an interview.
Sending CVs by email is not advisable, or at least, is not the only action you
should take, since these companies receive a constant flow of CVs in their
inboxes. The best way forward is to request a professional interview after
sending your CV.
If an interview is offered, it must be thoroughly prepared in advance. Transla-
tors should design a short, attractive CV containing all the relevant information
on themselves: a photograph (in countries where applicable), a full address, at
least one email account and a mobile phone number, educational background
(undergraduate and postgraduate courses, especially on translation and inter-
The professional environment 25

preting, and more specifically on AVT), software expertise, working languages,

and (translation/interpreting) work experience, if any.
Translators must be fully aware that they are regarded as service providers,
i.e., people who will solve any linguistic and translation problem posed by the
text, whatever the languages involved in the original audiovisual text, or even
in the target text. In other words, translators must learn to work in teams, to
liaise with other translators specializing in other language combinations, or other
translation fields (legal, administrative, scientific, technical, medical, tourism, or
literary translation).
Professional translators trying to find a niche in the translation market should
not refuse a commission because it is not in their language combination; rather,
they should join forces with a colleague who works with those languages. For
example, a German translator who translates from English to German might be
offered a translation to be dubbed from Turkish to German. Instead of rejecting
the project, s/he should contact a professional colleague who translates from
Turkish to German. They can take on the project together: while the Turkish
translator does the translation, the audiovisual translator segments the German
translation into takes (in dubbing, the translation is divided into segments, i.e.
chunks of text called takes or loops, known as anelli in Italy and boucles in France,
see Chapter 3), adds dubbing symbols (see Chapter 3), does the lip-syncing and
makes the translation sound like spoken language, more natural than a written
text that is spoken of performed. This type of service encourages the company
to use the same translator again, since s/he has successfully provided a solution
to its translation needs.
Another situation may arise in which a clip has to be translated, but there is no
script to accompany the images (i.e. a text prepared for the shooting of a film or
other audiovisual programmes containing information about scenes and actors’
dialogues). This makes the translator’s task much more difficult, since s/he has
to understand the foreign text, and then translate it. Since these commissions
are often much better paid, the income can be shared with a native translator
– whose native language is the one used in the original dialogues – who helps helps
to transcribe the original dialogues. Reverse translations may also be called for,
in which case the native speaker can again be invited to help. Teamwork, then,
is vital. Translators, and thus audiovisual translators, are problem solvers and
service providers.
Sometimes the company will ask translators to do a test translation. Some
companies simply email these tests to the translator and ask for them to be
returned once they are completed, two or three days later. Others prefer to
hand over the DVD and the script in person and set a deadline for delivery of the
translation. Some companies may invite potential translators to do the translation
on their premises. In all these cases, translators must give their professional best,
and pay particular attention to the translation brief, target language grammar
and lexis, target language orthography, typographical usages, and false friends
and calques. It goes without saying that translations should be delivered by the
deadline, or even earlier if possible.
26 Frederic Chaume

2.2 Rates and visibility

Freelancers can be paid per whole programme (film, TV series episode, cartoon
episode, documentary or commercial), per minute of programme, per dialogue
line, per number of words and per take or loop (see Chapter 3 for an extensive
description of takes or loops, i.e. segments of text grouped according to filmic
and historical conventions). Rates vary from one country to another and from
one company to another. Translators should be aware of the going rates to avoid
low salaries and unfair competition, to preserve a healthy, buoyant market, and
to maintain the dignity of their profession.
Tables 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 give an indication of approximate rates in some Eu-
ropean countries:

• In Germany, prices are agreed per number of words. s.

• When translators are asked to do only a rough translation, an aver-
age 90-100 minute film would be paid at a rate of between €200 and
€400.
• Rough translations should be done in 3-5 days.
• However, dialogue writing commands much better rates: from €1000 to
€3000 for an average 90-100 minute film.
• Dialogue writing is generally given a 10-day deadline.
• Takes or loops and dubbing symbols are usually done by in-house work-
ers (sync assistants), and not by translators and dialogue writers.
• A rough translation only accounts for 1.5% of the total dubbing budget.
• Dialogue writing, however, accounts for 10% of the dubbing budget.

Table 2.1. Recommended rates in Germany for 2008

Translators should therefore learn how to do dialogue writing, not only

because they know how far the translation can be manipulated within lip-sync
constraints or the use of oral registers, but also because it is difficult to make a
living by only doing rough translations. Chapters 3, 4 and 5 address the subject
of dialogue writing.
Rates in Spain depend on two factors: firstly, as in Germany, rough transla-
tion is paid separately from the dialogue writing; secondly, rates vary according
to audiovisual genre.
Reels are 10- or 20-minute portions of a film (usually ten minutes for TV and
twenty minutes for cinema). A reel was a roll of celluloid with a sequence of pho-
tographs to be projected. The reel was established as a standard measurement
because of considerations in printing motion picture film in a film laboratory, for
shipping and for the size of the physical film magazine attached to the motion
picture projector. They are also called acts in Poland. With the growth of digital
cinema, the physical reel is being replaced by a virtual format called the Digital
Cinema Package. Historically, therefore, translators and dialogue writers have
been paid according to the number of reels translated.
The professional environment 27

Genre Rough Translation Dialogue Writing

Films and TV series (including €36.50 per €40.00 per 10’ reel
sitcoms, soap operas, etc.) 10’(minutes) reel
Cartoons €34.75 per 10’ reel €37.00 per 10’ reel
Documentaries €42.00 ������������
per 10’ reel €15.75 ������������
per 10’ reel
If the script is not provided, a surcharge of 100% is added to the estimate
If translators are asked to do a reverse translation, a surcharge of 100% is added
to the estimate

Table 2.2. Average rates in Spain (TV) for 2010

If translators do both the translation and the dialogue writing, they are paid
for both jobs. That is, translating and dialogue writing a 10-minute reel of a film
for TV would be paid at about €76.50. This means that a translator who takes
on both the translation and the dialogue writing for a TV channel would be paid
over €750 per film. When this is done for cinema distributors, translators can
earn up to €1,500-€2,000 per film, if they also do the dialogue writing.
Dubbing actors (voice talents) are paid €25-€30 for each day’s work at the
dubbing company, plus €3 per dubbed take.. Ho How wever
er,, tr
transla
anslattor
orss rar
arely
ely work
as voice talents.
In Italy, rates are public and published in a national agreement signed by
dialogue writers and dubbing directors, assistants and voice talents (see Annex
2). These rates were approved in January 2008, and since then they have barely
changed. As in Spain, dialogue writers are paid per 10-minute reel, but in the
Italian case, rates are much higher. These rates include translation and dialogue
writing. Again, this is why learning to do both the translation and the dialogue
writing is so important to make a decent living and ensure that all changes made
to the translation are overseen by the translator, who knows the source language
and, therefore, the sensible limits of manipulation (see Chapters 3, 4 and 5):

Audiovisual Genre Price per 10-minute reel

Films, Trailers... €254.80
TV Series, Telefilms, Documentaries in Sync €235.49
Cartoons, Soap Operas €185.31
Documentaries (voice-off) €88.99

Table 2.3. Rates in Italy (Dialogue Writer)

In France, prices are set according to the number of dialogue lines translated
in the case of translations for TV, and by 20-minute reels in big screen commis-
sions. Unfortunately, dubbing companies do not disclose information on the
rates they pay.
28 Frederic Chaume

Professional associations can be of help in providing advice about rates and

working conditions. However, in the field of dubbing these associations tend to
look after the interests of the artistic agents involved in the dubbing process:
the dialogue writer, the dubbing director, voice talents and dubbing assistants.
Translators are not considered to be part of this artistic circle, and there is very
little information available on their working conditions and recommended rates.
This is yet another reason why translators should go into dialogue writing, since
their job would be more visible and acknowledged in the market. Translators do
not usually have the same copyright as dialogue writers, as it is understood that
the rough translation is not a proper translation and that the final translation is
the target text after the process of dialogue writing.
Nevertheless, Point 5.h, Section III of UNESCO’s (1976) Recommendation on
the legal Protection of Translators and Translations and the Practical Means to
improve the Status of Translators overtly states:

[...] the name of the author of the translation should appear in a promi-
nent place on all published copies of the translation, on theatre bills, in
announcements made in connexion with radio or television broadcasts,
in the credit titles of films and in any other promotional material.

Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007:39) also recommend including a mention of the
date the translation was done, since it does not always coincide with the year the
film was produced. They also recommend including the name of the translator
in the initial or final credits, subject to his or her consent, since translators may
not be happy with the changes made during the revision process.
Compared to subtitling, dubbing seems to be one step ahead in terms of vis-
ibility. Websites including www.dubbing.de, www.eldoblaje.com, www.doublage.
qc.ca, www.asinc.it, www.antoniogenna.net/doppiaggio/doppiaggio.htm, www.
dubbing.pl, www.traducteurs-av.org, www.eldoblatge.com, www.rsdoublage.
com/accueil.html compile information about dubbing directors and voice talents,
dialogue writers, film titles, etc. (see Annex 3 for an extensive list of dubbing-
related websites). Castellano (2000), for example, is a kind of encyclopaedia of
Italian dubbing, a two-volume reference work containing information on dubbing
history, profiles and materials. Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007:40) mention www.
avtranslators.org as one of the most ambitious initiatives to “exchange news in
the field of audiovisual translation and information on agreements, contracts,
working conditions and prices”. These authors list a series of initiatives to pro-
mote the subtitling profession, which could easily be adopted for the dubbing
profession:

including the name of the translator in the credits of the programme,

including their details in national film databanks, creating an annual prize
for the best subtitled and dubbed programmes as is done in the literary
world, publishing works with the names of programmes and the transla-
tors, creating websites with this information, etc.
The professional environment 29

The Berlanga dubbing prize in Valencia (Spain), the Premio Nazionale Dop-
piatoriare Leggio d’Oro and Il Gran Premio Internazionale del Doppiaggio in Italy
are examples of these initiatives.

2.3 The dubbing process and professionals

2.3.1 The industrial process

The dubbing process in Western European dubbing countries has been meticu-
lously explained in Whitman-Linsen (1992). Whereas Germany, Spain and Italy
generally seem to follow the same patterns and use the same human agents
(Spain being the country where the lowest number of human agents are used in
the whole process), France and Quebec deviate from the norm by using a unique
form of text synchronization, known as la bande rythmo (see below).
Generally speaking, Western European dubbing workflows follow this pro-
duction chain:

 A TV station or a distributor decides to broadcast a foreign audiovisual

programme (mainly films, TV series, documentaries, cartoons). In the
case of TV stations, they sign a broadcasting license with a distributor
giving them the rights to broadcast a programme a particular number
of times a year, for example. In the case of cinemas, the distributor
contacts the dubbing company directly.
 A dubbing company is commissioned with the task of dubbing the pro-
gramme into the target language. The dubbing studio finds a translator
and organizes the whole production process (dubbing director, dubbing
actors, sound engineer, timetables, etc.)
 The translator produces a rough translation, although now translators
are increasingly writing dialogues, thus making this activity more prof-
itable by speeding up the process and reducing costs. However, the
translation brief usually consists of a literal translation which reflects all
the idiosyncrasies of the source text and culture – the so-called rough
translation. Translators can also do rough versions of song lyrics for mu-
sical artists to compose a new TT.
 The rough translation is domesticated by a dialogue writer to make the
dialogues sound natural and synchronize the text to the screen charac-
ters’ mouths.
 These two tasks may also be done by different people: dialogue writers
and dubbing assistants, respectively. Assistants also segment the text
into takes and add dubbing symbols to the translation when these tasks
are not carried out by dialogue writers or translators.
 In the studio a dubbing director selects the voices (professional dub-
bing actors and actresses or voice talents) that bring the translation to
life, and encourages and guides the actors so as to bring out their most
appropriate and accurate performances.
30 Frederic Chaume

 The voice talents read this synchronized, more natural translation

aloud, supervised by the dubbing director and with the help of the
sound engineer. Their task is to speak each sentence and fit it to the
mouth of the film’s original source actors and actresses. The most com-
mon synchronization system used in the United States is three beeps
– sometimes flashes – in a rhythm before the passage and the actor
starts speaking on the fourth beep. In this process, other people may
be involved in single tasks, such as the dubbing assistant in Germany
or the assistente al doppiaggio (dubbing assistant) in charge of take
segmentation and the work schedule in Italy.
 The sound engineer then records the target dialogues on a blank track
of the original copy of the film, which will be ultimately mixed with the
original tracks so that the film can also be shown and heard in the target
language. Once this process is done, the dubbing studio sends the film
back to the client with a new dubbing track on which dialogues (and
maybe songs, or special effects) are recorded in the target language.�

Dubbing actors (voice talents) read the final version of the translation aloud.
This final version is printed and placed on a lectern inside the dubbing booth.
The dubbing director usually has one copy, the sound engineer another, and the
dubbing actors have a third copy on the lectern, leaving them free to make ges-
tures with their head and arms (imitating the screen actors’ body movements),
and breathe freely, either standing up or sitting on a stool. This process can be
better visualized in Figure 2.1.
In France, however, the original text is laboriously typed, verbatim and by
hand, onto the screen on a track called la bande rythmo. This is a clear strip of
celluloid upon which the detécteur writes and which is placed over the origin-
al film. The detécteur, who is also responsible for synchronizing the dialogues,
listens to and transcribes the original dialogues, together with breathing, laughs,
and all paralinguistic sounds uttered by characters on screen, and also makes
filmic indications, such as a vertical line to represent a shot change, a diagonal line
for fade-outs, etc. Additionally, the détecteur must indicate (using a numbered
vertical line) the places where a new take or boucle will begin (see Chapter 3).
The détecteur numbers these boucles so that the sound engineer can easily
jump from one take to another by following the numerical references. Bilabials
(p-b-m), fricatives (f-v), semi labials (w, sometimes r) and rounded vowels (o-u)
are marked with a short line or with an icon (a bone, for example) beneath the
appropriate point in the utterance, and downwards or upwards arrows are used
to indicate whether the onscreen actors and actresses have their mouths closed
or open. Consonantal groups like ‘mts’, ‘tst’ or ‘pt’ indicate slight mouth noises,
without dialogues. Détecteurs may also add dubbing symbols to warn actors
they will need to speed up their performance, or use compact writing for a fast
dialogue delivery and an elongated style for a slower speech. In France, the de-
técteur may also prepare the dubbing sheet (piano di lavorazione, croisillé, hoja
de producción, see Chapter 3), with the number and name of all the characters,
The professional environment 31

Figure 2.1. The dubbing process

how many dialogue lines they speak throughout the film, how many takes or
loops they participate in, etc.
The bande rythmo is added to the film for dubbing purposes only and will
never be seen by the final spectator. The track is added at the bottom of the screen
– like the old black box in subtitling – and the translator can finally commence.
After producing a professional translation, complying with lip-sync rules and oral
discourse nuances, translated dialogues and dubbing symbols are again typed
into the bande rythmo, so the dubbing actors can read the dialogue lines aloud
while they are looking at the screen and hearing the original actors. The whole
transcribed text with all its paralinguistic features appear projected on this strip
below the film. The dubbing director then views the film with the written transla-
tion and checks whether lip-sync, kinesic synchrony, isochrony (see Chapter 4)
and oral discourse (see Chapter 5) have been taken into account, modifying the
text whenever s/he deems necessary. This phase is called vérification, or vérif.
32 Frederic Chaume

In the dubbing booth, finally, the voice talents stand in front of a screen show-
ing both the original film and the translated text underneath, and wait for the
words they are to speak. Dialogue lines run from right to left, like scrolling and
paint-on subtitles. When the text crosses a red (or green, or black) vertical line
in the middle of the track (barre de précision) it signals to the actors that they
should begin reading. The words are meticulously synchronized, so the actors
have to wait until these words cross the red line to begin speaking. If there is a
pause or a silence between utterances, no dialogue lines will cross the red line
until the pause is over.
This has been the traditional dubbing process in France and Quebec for many
years. Nowadays, however, software has been developed to make this process
easier and what is known as the ‘virtual method’ is cheaper and faster. The
détection phase is done with various software applications, using hot keys where
appropriate. Shot changes and boucles (takes, loops, see § 2.1.1 and Glossary) are
indicated the same way as in the past. But the important issue for professional
translators is that now they can do both the détection and the translation-
adaptation, together with the work schedule. In Quebec, where the traditional
method is no longer used, détection is still carried out by détecteurs.
However, this task will probably fall into the hands of translators and dia-
logue writers, since the whole process is much faster – and cheaper – when it is
done by one single person. Again, this is another reason why it is so important
to have not only translation skills, but at the same time to learn how to write
the dialogue, segment takes, apply symbols, and, in the French case, transcribe
original dialogues.
In summary, although there are some minor variations in the dubbing pro-
cesses used across Europe – especially in the number of human agents involved
– the most significant difference is the French and Quebecoise bande rythmo,
and the subsequent time and money invested in trying to improve the dubbing
process. Professionals in Spain, Germany or Italy are somewhat critical of this
way of working, since they claim it is too expensive and time-consuming because
a person is required to re-type the translation and add dubbing symbols in this
new track. They also claim that the process does not necessarily improve the final
product, since dubbing actors could read both the bande rythmo and a printed
version of a translation placed on a lectern without any discernable difference,
as the acting does not depend on the place from which the dialogue lines are
read. However, no one appears to be willing to abandon their trusted practice.
In the French case, as technical advances are being developed and applied to
the bande rythmo, convergence does not seem to be on the horizon, and in all
likelihood, the dubbing process will remain localized for many years to come.

2.3.2 The professionals

TV Stations and Distributors

A TV station or a distributor are what Nord (1991) would call the initiators of the
dubbing commission. Both agents set the industrial dubbing process in motion.
The professional environment 33

Dubbing is an industry and, as such, is partly driven by the need to make a profit
and, in the case of TV stations, by the target of obtaining high audience ratings.
In the case of cinema, potential box-office takings are what drive the decision
to dub a film. In the case of TV, attracting advertisers, achieving high audience
ratings, and filling up the weekly listings are the three reasons for dubbing a TV
programme.

Dubbing companies
Dubbing companies specialize in sound editing and post production. Many of
them also do subtitling, voice-over and all kinds of post-synchronized sound
editing. In the case of dubbing, the voices are recorded in a cabin, a large glass-
enclosed soundproof booth where dubbers or voice talents (dubbing actors,
dubbers and voice talents are alternative denominations of the same profes-
sional figure) read aloud a translation placed on a lectern or written on the bande
ryhtmo, as explained in §2.3.1. The sound engineer works from a second booth,
separated by a convex glass partition. The film is projected from this smaller
second booth onto a TV or cinema screen – depending on standard practice in
each country – inside the dubbing booth. In Germany, dubbing directors and
sound engineers are in one booth, voice talents in the other, and there is a third
booth, from which the film is projected, as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. The
production department books the booth for the days required for the dubbing
and commissions a professional translator to do the translation, having previously
agreed a delivery date and rates. This department also contacts an in-house or
freelance director to direct the dubbing, and together they set the dates for it
to be done; when the director has come to a decision on which voice talents to
use, they are contracted by the department (figure 2.2).

Translators
Once the dubbing company has received the film, a complex production pro-
cess is set in motion. On the one hand, as mentioned in §2.3.1, the production
department looks for a translator, who will usually do a rough translation, i.e.,
a literal translation of the script without worrying about lip-sync, isochrony, ki-
nesic synchronization, oral nuances of dialogues, take segmenting, or dubbing
symbols. For copyright reasons, translators may not have access to the images
at this stage (as in the case of videogame projects), and in these cases they are
deprived of all the other linguistic and iconic messages conveyed in the film,
such as billboards, posters, notices, newspaper headlines, etc. The translator is
also obliged to work without a number of non-linguistic plot references, such
as spatial and temporal clues, atmosphere and interpersonal relationships. The
rough translation is therefore more like a literal translation of a piece of literature
than an audiovisual translation, in which the audiovisual text is the source text
(not the script, which is really a supportive text). A rough translation is a very
foreignizing translation, where many puns, idioms, jokes or cultural references
are translated literally and notes explaining the metaphorical and connotative
uses of these stylistic figures are included for the dialogue writer and dubbing
34 Frederic Chaume

director. Translators are asked to provide foreignizing solutions together with

detailed explanations of the connotative meanings of wordplay and cultural
references in the source text.

Figure 2.2. Diagram of who occupies a dubbing booth in Germany

The professional environment 35

Figure 2.3. Diagram of who occupies a dubbing booth in France and Spain

Dialogue writers
The translation is then submitted to the dialogue writer, or the adapter, the
person who will rewrite the dialogues, a task also known as adaptar, texten,
adapter, addattare, etc. Their task is to create a fresh, workable, convincing,
prefabricated oral script that meets all lip-sync requirements, but at the same
time gives the impression that it is an original dialogue. The rough translation is
completely changed at a stylistic level (see Chapter 5). The dialogue writer thus
has to achieve a balance between standard prosodic and grammar rules and
credible oral discourse. In other words, the writer must avoid artificiality, and
make dialogue lines sound credible and true-to-life.
The other important task for dialogue writers is lip-syncing (see Chapter 4).
Dialogue writers have to match the translation to the onscreen characters’ voices.
This means complying with isochrony, kinesic synchrony and lip-syncing itself,
tasks which will be explained in detail in Chapter 4.
In some countries dialogue writers also segment the text into takes according
to conventional rules, add dubbing symbols for voice talents (see Chapter 3) and
36 Frederic Chaume

even transcribe the original dialogues, as in the French case (see §2.3.1). These
tasks – together with lip-sync – are carried out by the dubbing assistant in other
countries. Again, for a professional translator, it is important to learn how to do
all these tasks and be prepared to work in all kinds of settings.

Dubbing directors
The production department also contracts a dubbing director, either an in-house
director or a freelancer. The dubbing director, who may also be the project
manager, watches the film and selects the voice talents s/he considers will best
fit the parts. The dubbing director must have good story-telling skills, since the
voice talents never actually see the whole film, only the loops they have to dub.
It is the director’s job to guide them through the film, instruct them on the plot
of the film and on their particular character, tell them what intonation they need
to use in each sentence and how to interpret each take or loop, and finally reject
or approve the recorded take. Directors might change the translation, should
they feel that a particular word or sentence does not convey the appropriate
(semantic or pragmatic) meaning for a particular occasion. As Whitman-Linsen
(1992:82) states:

Like the director of a theatre play or film, the dubbing director is re-
sponsible for prompting, stimulating and instructing the actors to put on
their best performances. He can demand that lines be read differently,
re-directing emphasis and shifting expression. Suggestions and criticism
pertaining to intonation, expression and voice-projection are also made
by the director. Before each take, the director might add a remark or two
sketching in missing context for the benefit of the dubbing actor: where
the character is, what the character feels, what message is intended to
be imparted.

The director is also responsible for the crucial task of voice selection. While
they watch the film, they are pondering over which dubber will best substitute
the onscreen actors’ and actresses’ voices. Voice selection is a crucial task and
for many professionals, the success of a dubbing largely depends on the right
choice of voice talent.

Voice talents, dubbing actors and actresses, dubbing artists or dubbers

Talents are summoned one by one to record their dialogues under the director’s
supervision. They come into the dubbing booth, are briefed on their roles in the
film, and then begin reading their lines aloud; on average, lines are read from two
to four times until everybody feels satisfied with the interpretation. They tend to
work alone, i.e., no more than one talent (or two) is dubbing at a time (Wright
and Lallo 2009:190). Therefore, talents do not work together in the same cabin,
and unlike everyday conversation, there is no turn-taking and no answers to their
questions, or no questions to their answers. They dub on their own, under the
director’s supervision and with the help of a skilled engineer (sometimes sync
The professional environment 37

assistants also advise on lip-sync issues). The process is a continuous series of

stops and starts, rather than a theatrical performance. Dubbers may also change
the translation should it not respond to their way of acting. Dubbing actors and
actresses are expected to convincingly and expressively mimic the original on-
screen performance. Voice talents have drama school training and sometimes
good talents are not good actors, and vice versa (see Wright and Lallo 2009:
219-231 for an extensive discussion on the skills needed by dubbing artists).

Sound engineers
After all the takes have been dubbed, the tracks are reassembled and edited.
All the new dubbed tracks are synchronized and overlapped on what is known
as the International Track, where music, sound effects and background noises
are added (audio mixing of production sound mixing). They are simultaneously
synchronized with the original images. The sound engineer is the key player in
this phase; the engineer’s task involves altering volumes, making secondary
conversations fade into barely audible background dialogue, or increasing the
volume of a certain sentence or conversation to make it intelligible. They can
introduce echoes, emulate loudspeakers, radio or TV sets, add new sounds and
special effects from library material (sounds of all kinds recorded in databases),
add pre-recorded loops of storms, rain, shouts, doors slamming, traffic noise,
etc. Sound engineers are usually in-house employees of the dubbing company
and may also make suggestions on the translation.

2.4 The translator’s task

As stated in the introduction, the idea of this handbook is to prepare the future
translator to carry out all the tasks the dubbing industry requires, in other words,
to enable the translator-to-be to take on tasks that are now performed by a
variety of different agents. These tasks are:

 Translating
 Dialogue writing (I): Creation of a credible, convincing oral target text
 Dialogue writing (II): Meeting the demands of all synchronies
 Text segmentation into takes or loops
 Insertion of dubbing symbols

In some dubbing countries, these tasks are performed by up to three different

people: translators, dialogue writers and dubbing assistants. It is my contention
here that all these tasks can be better performed by a single person, a well-
prepared translator. On the one hand, the translator knows the source language
and, therefore, knows how far the translation can be manipulated. On the other
hand, the process would be faster and cheaper, since the translator would deliver a
translation that already meets the demands of dialogue writing, is split into takes,
and contains all the dubbing symbols to help talents in their performance.
38 Frederic Chaume

This is not simply a utopian idea. Although many dubbing countries have the
experts for all these tasks, professional translators are gradually being trained in
all these areas through master’s degrees and workshops. Indeed, in many coun-
tries, some translators have already started to take on the full gamut of tasks and
are being paid for all of them, with the resulting rise in their standard of living.
This is the case in France, where translators (auteurs) are also responsible for
the détection phase in the new virtual dubbing process; or in Spain, especially
in translations for regional TV stations, where all tasks are performed by the
translator. In the USA, dubbing companies value and appreciate in-house project
managers who can also do the translation, the dialogue writing, the segmenta-
tion of the text into loops, and even the dubbing direction – although in my
view the skills required by a director are quite different from those translators
generally possess.
In professional practice, this is the step-by-step process followed in each
translation brief:

(a) The dubbing company contacts a translator with a request for a trans-
lation to be delivered in a set period of time (usually a week for an
average TV film, two weeks for big-screen movies, and one day for a
cartoon episode).
(b) The translator accepts the commission and usually provides an esti-
mate for the cost of the translation (and all other tasks involved, like
dialogue writing, etc., where appropriate), together with a title of the
programme in the target language (see Chapter 7 for the translation of
film titles).
(c) Once the estimate is accepted (or renegotiated), the company sends
the translator the film script and a DVD of the film. Some significant
changes have recently been witnessed in this stage:

 Scripts and DVDs are not sent physically to the translator’s home ad-
dress, as before. Scripts are scanned and sent by email. Images are
uploaded to an FTP site. FTP stands for ‘File Transfer Protocol’ and
is a standard network protocol used to copy a file from one host to
another over the Internet. DVDs are thus slowly disappearing from
the dubbing market. Cloud-computing can also be used, i.e., the on-
demand provision of computational resources (data, software) via
a computer network, rather than from a local computer. Users or
clients can submit a task, such as word processing or video clips,
to the service provider, without actually possessing the software or
hardware.
 The translator does not always receive both the script and the im-
ages. Sometimes copyright issues mean the translation has to be
done without images, or perhaps the dubbing company has not re-
ceived the images but the translation is needed urgently. On other
occasions, translators do not have the original script and are obliged
to transcribe all the dialogue lines before they can start translating.
The professional environment 39

(d) The translator therefore now receives the script by email, and accesses
the images in an FTP or in the cloud. The professional translator uses
a computer with broadband Internet access, and online bibliograph-
ical resources such as general and specific bilingual and monolingual
dictionaries, and film databases (like IMDb, the International Movie
Database) to consult film titles, film plots or any other details they
might need about the film.
(e) The translator submits either a rough translation or a final translation
including dialogue writing, lip-sync, text segmentation and dubbing sym-
bols. The translation is emailed in a Word file or any non-proprietary,
open-source text processing software, to the dubbing company, thus
delocalizing the process and making it easier for all those involved.

As in subtitling (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007:38-39), dubbing projects are

virtually always urgent. Broadly speaking, the big screen allows translators more
time, followed by TV stations, and finally the DVD industry, because of the time
pressures involved in releasing the DVD after a film launch. In general terms,
dubbing companies give translators a couple of weeks to do the translation
(maybe three) when the film is to be screened in a cinema. If it is to be broad-
cast on TV, then a week seems to be the average time for a rough translation.
The DVD industry may ask to have the translation back in three or four days.
As with subtitling, if deadlines are very demanding, it is not unusual to divide
a film or programme into several portions to be sent to various translators at
the same time. A thorough revision is required in these cases to maintain coher-
ence throughout the film or, in the case of TV series and cartoons, throughout
the whole series. The density of the dialogues, the difficulty of the topic and the
terminology used can become real obstacles to meeting these tight deadlines.

2.5 Globalization and localization

New technologies favour globalization in many areas of translation all over the
world. Translation memories are currently used to shorten translation processes
and avoid repetitive routines in administrative, legal, scientific, medical and other
translation specialities. In the field of audiovisual translation, new software for
subtitling is constantly being developed for use by practitioners and companies,
particularly to shorten the spotting process (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007) and to
make subtitling a less time-consuming and therefore more profitable activity.
Free software is also available on the web for use by freelancers, companies
or universities, Subtitle Workshop being just one example. This software is in-
creasingly being used by both translators and translator trainees, and as a result
translation processes are becoming more homogeneous across the globe. Beta
versions of expensive software can also be downloaded without charge, enabling
translator trainees to become acquainted with the programs they will be using
once they start their subtitling careers. This eventually results in a more homo-
geneous and global process, since everybody applies the same routines, files are
40 Frederic Chaume

internationally compatible, and professionals go through the same stages to com-

plete the final product, thereby making translation more profitable and faster.
In the field of subtitling, moreover, a growing number of professionals and
teachers now follow the standard guidelines for micro-textual practices (regarding
line segmentation, subtitle segmentation, typographical usages and synthesis of
information). This is due to the excellent manuals available that advocate good
subtitling standards (Ivarsson 1992; Ivarsson and Carroll 1998; Díaz Cintas 2003;
and especially Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
However, following standard guidelines is not the case in the field of dub-
bing. Major differences in macro- and micro-textual dubbing practices are still
very much in evidence in the European countries where dubbing is the most
popular type of audiovisual translation, to say nothing of Asian dubbing coun-
tries. Depending on standard practices in each country, translations vary in the
distribution of segmented takes (see Chapter 3), in the dubbing symbols added
to the translation for acting purposes (see Chapter 3), in the threshold of accept-
ability with respect to lip-sync standards and, moreover, the software applications
used to segment the translation into takes or to add the text to the images for
the final complete reading vary not only from one country to another but even
among companies.
These examples illustrate the difficulties of homogenizing the dubbing transla-
tion process. Some minor differences are also found in the way different subtitling
companies and countries work, but these differences do not prevent professional
translators from providing a service to foreign companies. The process of adapta-
tion to foreign companies’ conventions is easier, since the differences between
subtitling practices are less significant. However, in the field of dubbing these
differences are so marked that dubbing studios cannot easily contract freelancers
from outside their own countries. A German subtitling company located in Berlin
can translate from English into Italian, or an Italian subtitling company based in
Rome can translate from English into Spanish. In contrast, translations for dubbing
from English into Italian are very rarely undertaken outside Italy. Indeed, when
a German dubbing studio receives a translation brief, for example, to translate
a film from English into Italian, they look for an Italian partner in Italy to do the
dubbing, and vice versa, mainly because native dubbing actors are needed to
do the actual dubbing at the end of the process.
Indeed, in the field of dubbing, the struggle between globalization and lo-
calization historically has taken a different path. Once the appearance of talking
movies had created the demand for translation, initial approaches to dealing with
the issue were not at all localized. The multilingual movies of the late 1920s and
early 1930s in which a scene was shot in one language, and using the same sets
(and sometimes actors and directors), was shot again in a different language,
were all produced in the United States (Izard 1992). However, the process of lo-
calization began to take root when all European language versions of these films
were transferred to Joinville, Paris. This was followed by a second step towards
localization in which all dubbings were made in their respective target language
countries, giving rise to local dubbing conventions such as those outlined in
§2.3.1 and in Chapter 3.
The professional environment 41

This process seems to contradict the general trend towards globalization

witnessed in other translation domains, and is particularly significant when
compared to the globalization of subtitling; one example is the increasing use of
internationally standard templates for subtitling that allow translators to work
from home for any subtitling company no matter where it is located.
Nevertheless, in the age of globalization, some attempts have been made
to globalize the dubbing process. Major technological advances in audiovisual
translation are regularly presented at the acclaimed Languages and the Media
conference, held in Berlin every two years. In its 5th edition in 2004, the start-up
company VoxWorks Technologies launched its groundbreaking software, Reel-
Voice, voice conversion technology designed to morph any voice into another.
Essentially, the software imitates the voice of the original screen actors, recording
the target language dialogues, and then manipulates the pitch of the dubber’s
voice to resemble that of the original screen actor. The voice of the dubbing
actor is morphed to sound exactly like the original actor while retaining all the
characteristics of the dubbing actor’s performance. The aim of the program is to
enable the target audience to hear a similar voice to that of the original actors;
since by definition dubbing is a barrier to the target audience’s enjoyment of the
real screen actors’ voices, the software helps overcome this hurdle by imitating
the original actor’s voice. The target audience therefore does not completely
miss out on the original voices, which in the case of the original audience are
indelibly linked to the original screen characters.
Although the demonstration in Berlin was exceptional in its replication of the
original actor’s voice, the experiment in itself turned out to be a bit of a let-down.
The idea of replicating the original voices focused all attention on the voices.
Equivalence was measured according to voices. But the overall effect of the imita-
tion made the target product sound artificial, strange and foreign. Dubbing is in
itself a domesticating form of translation, especially compared to subtitling. In the
demo, the imitation of voices, pitches and tones, which did not comply with the
dubbing tradition in the target language (in that case, Spanish), drew the audience
away from the film, reminded them that they were listening to a translation, and
heightened their awareness that the product was in fact a palimpsest. The voices
sounded unnatural, exaggerated, overacted. The imitation itself turned out to
be a foreignizing device that deviated from the (implicit) norms of acting in the
dubbing target culture. “Paramount Pictures International believes that what is
important is that the voice is right for the character rather than that the voice
matches the English language voice” (Wright and Lallo 2009:221).
Fandubs are another technological innovation on the path towards greater
globalization. As mentioned in Chapter 1, fandubs are dubbings of audiovisual
texts broadcast on the web, made by fans. Like fansubs, fandubs are mostly cre-
ated for anime, Japanese cartoons, that have not yet been broadcast in a certain
target culture. Fans watch their favourite cartoons on the web and then produce
a dubbed version at home, using free software and carrying out the whole dub-
bing process: translating and writing the dialogues, doing lip-sync, revoicing the
dialogues, recording them in a new soundtrack, and finally uploading the new
product back onto the web.
42 Frederic Chaume

Although Japanese anime is the most popular fandub genre, other genres are
also fandubbed, such as sitcoms or TV series and even film trailers. VirtualDub
or the more professional software, Adobe Premiere, is generally used in making
fandubs, which separates the soundtracks from the original audiovisual text and
allows fans to then record their own voices on a new virgin track. Because the
same software is used, the whole process of fandubbing is homogeneous, and
the results are very similar worldwide. It should be made quite clear, however,
that fandubs are not a commercial threat to the dubbing sector; the two can
coexist quite happily without any risk to the traditional dubbing industry. The
appearance of a popular fandub on the web may indeed be a wake-up call for
the dubbing industry to make a professional dubbing of the same programme
or cartoon and distribute it in the fandub target culture. Fandubs, in this sense,
can act as a catalyst for professional dubbing.
New York University has also developed an application known as Video Re-
write, which uses existing footage to create a new clip of someone mouthing
words that s/he did not speak in the original footage. The application automat-
ically labels the phonemes in the training data and in the new audio track, and
then reorders the mouth images in the training footage to match the phoneme
sequence of the new audio track. When particular phonemes do not appear in
the training footage, Video Rewrite selects the closest approximations. More
information is available on the Video Rewrite website.
Another shift towards globalization is the joint supervision of some dubbings
in all European countries. Some majors (especially some of the Big Six American
majors, or some art cinema directors, such as Woody Allen) take particular care
over the foreign dubbings of their films and give detailed instructions to the
dubbing companies; a dubbing assistant may also be appointed to supervise the
dubbings. As a result, the same translation strategies can sometimes be seen in
a range of European dubbings.
There is also a growing use of previous subtitling to create the dubbing, or
especially the reverse trend of using a dubbing as the base for subtitling. Taking
advantage of previously translated subtitles to write the takes or loops for dub-
bing – and vice versa – is very cost-effective, and saves a great deal of time. The
end result is that (almost) the same translation is used for both the dubbing and
the subtitling, and companies save money as they pay less when they commis-
sion a translation for dubbing from existing subtitles.
Finally, again motivated by the need to cut costs, dialects of the same language
are increasingly being adapted for different audiences. Thus, if an American film
has already been translated into Canadian French, companies will adapt this
Canadian translation for the European French version of the film, rather than
translating it again from English. The same happens with Latin American Spanish
(Spanish of the Americas) and European Spanish (Peninsular Spanish, sometimes
Castilian), or with Roman Serbian and Cyrillic Serbian, European Portuguese and
Brazilian Portuguese, Catalan and Valencian, etc. The same translation solutions
are eventually provided in all dialects, since differences lie more in the grammar
and lexis than in solutions to particular translation problems.
The professional environment 43

2.6 Training

Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007:41) state:

The well-being of the subtitling profession depends, as in many other

professional disciplines, on the sound training of experts in the field.
If only some thirty years ago, the teaching, learning and researching of
translation in educational institutions was a rare occurrence, nowadays
it is an unquestionable reality.

Today’s landscape has, fortunately, changed beyond recognition from the

times when audiovisual translators learned their skill through hands-on experi-
ence in subtitling and dubbing companies, under the watchful eyes of in-house
subtitlers or dialogue writers and dubbing assistants. Nowadays, many univers-
ities recognize the need for formal AVT training, especially at postgraduate level.
While as recently as 2007, AVT was taught on the margins in intensive courses
and extra-curricular seminars, as reported by Díaz Cintas and Remael, regular
MA courses on AVT are now offered in many European cities and universities,
such as London, Sheffield, Leeds, Surrey, Nice, Parma, Hildesheim, Barcelona
and Seville, to name just a few, and in India, South Africa, the United States and
Brazil, for example.
A major hurdle to the teaching of dubbing at university level is the technical
equipment and the software needed. Universities are reluctant to invest large
sums of money in the necessary equipment. Students need hands-on experience
in professional dubbing booths if they are to gain a full understanding of the
dubbing process, a facility that is extremely expensive for an average university
budget. This sound-proof booth has to be equipped with professional micro-
phones, audio recording and editing equipment, several screens and professional
software sound and image applications such as Pro Tools, Avid or Final Cut Pro
to mix the different video tracks – none of which the translator will be required
to master. Pro Tools, for example, can move a line or expand or contract it for
a close sync.
A dubbing course can, however, get off the ground without a booth; trans-
lators are not voice talents, and do not strictly need a dubbing booth to read
their translation. Up to now, students had to read their translation out loud in
order to check whether their target text matched the original actors’ mouth
movements.
These days, software can be used to check the lip-syncing process. Windows
Movie Maker, for example, free software that is now available to all Windows
users, allows students to cancel out the original soundtrack and record their
own translations on a new soundtrack following the screen actors’ mouth ar-
ticulation and movements. The students can then check whether their recorded
translation fits the original actors’ mouth movements by playing the clip with
their new soundtrack. If the translation fits, the dubbing is satisfactory and the
students move on to translate and lip-sync the next utterance. If it does not fit,
44
44 Frederic
Frederic Chaume
Chaume

they might rephrase the translation, shorten or extend the sentence, or maybe
add some bilabials to match the closing movements of the original actor’s
actor's mouth.
Although this is not strictly a globalizing trend in the professional dubbing field,
this kind of software unquestionably goes some way to homogenizing the aca-
demic training process.
This book is based on the firm belief that dialogue writing can best be done
by the translators themselves. Whitman-Linsen (1992) also claimed that these
two tasks are best carried out by just one person.
person . Dialogue writers alter the
translator’s
translator's draft translation to make it sound fresher and more natural, and also
to achieve lip-sync. However, dialogue writers do not always master the source
language. While they are very good professionals in what they do and have an
excellent command of the target language, particularly oral registers, they can
completely change the meaning of the film for the sake of naturalness and lip-
sync. Moreover, in economic terms, the whole process would be much faster
and cheaper if both the translation and the dialogue writing were commissioned
to just one individual.
On the other hand, translators are trained in universities, whereas dialogue
writers have no official training. They learn their trade on the job,
job, from other
professionals. Courses on dialogue writing for dubbing are few and far between.
This increases the risk of atomization, in the sense that each professional and
This
each dubbing studio have their own conventions. By contrast, universities can
train translators, with varying degrees of success, not only in translation strat-
egies and techniques, but also in new technological advances. If translators were
allowed to move into dialogue writing -– a process that is gradually becoming a
reality -– they would share their know-how and experience more easily. Indeed,
information flows better among translators than among dialogue writers and
dubbing companies. Moreover, if dialogue writing were to be taught in univers-
ities, it would undoubtedly have a knock-on effect on old localized practices.
Dialogues written by translators would help to homogenize dubbing practices
and cast off old local, capricious conventions.

2.7 Exercises
Exercises

2.7.1
2.7.1 0 Look
����� on
��� the
���� web
���� for
���� dubbing
�������� companies
���������� ���
in �����
your ��������
country ���
or
in dubbing countries whose language you can speak. Remember that
subtitling countries also dub cartoons or import dubbed versions from
abroad. See the discussion in Chapter 1.
e �����
 Once ����
you have
����� compiled
��������� your
����� list,
������ go
��� to
��� Appendix
��������� 4
�� in
��� the
���� DVD,
����� or
���
go to www.trama.uji.es (section >Profesión)
>Profesi6n) and download
down load the excel file
containing a list of AVT companies. Compare it with your findings. findings .••

2.7.2 Write a covering letter and a CV for a dubbing company, including

your personal details, a colour photograph -– where appropriate –,- , all
your contact numbers and email addresses, your school qualifications
The professional environment
environment 45

and career (if any), including all courses on translation and,

and , specifically,
on AVT, your previous work experience, and software and hardware
programs you have experience with. with . Address the cover letter to the
company director or manager and explain why you have chosen this
company and what you can offer them.

2.7.�
2.7.33 Note down the name and website of all the DVD distribution com�
com-
panies mentioned in the information provided on the back cover of
DVDs that you can find on the web, or by looking in a DVD store. Then
visit their websites and check which dubbing companies are working
for them. If this information is not provided on the website, email -– or
phone -– them to find out.

2.7.4 Provide an estimate for the following commissions according to

Spanish,
Spanish , Italian and German rates:
o The translation and dialogue writing of the film You
 You Will Meet a Tall
Tall
Dark Stranger (Woody Allen 2010).
Alien 2010) . Consult the IMDb website to
check the film footage.
e
 The translation and dialogue writing of a 24-minute���������
����������
24-minute ��������
episode ���
of ����
the
Cramp Twins
Twins (Brian Wood 2001-2006)
e The translation and dialogue writing of ������������
 a 48-minute ������������
documentary
by National Geographic.
See http://www.proz.com/forum/prozcom%3A_translator_coop/160954-
http://www.proz.com/forum/prozcom%3A_translator_ coop/160954-
new_invoice_templates_available_for_some_countries.html,
newjnvoice_templates_available_for_some_ cou ntries.html, for different
invoice templates.

2.7.5 �����
Look ���
at the
���� listings
��������� for
���� this
����� week
����� on
��� one
���� of
��� your
����� country’s
����������
country's TV
���
channels and identify the percentage of foreign negative pick-up it
broadcasts during the week. First add up the total number of broadcast
hours for the week (channels broadcasting 24-7 will have a total of 168
hours a week). Then subtract all in-house programmes, such as the
news, the weather, some quiz shows etc., and all external or associate
programmes produced in your country that do not need to be trans� trans-
lated. This gives you the total hours of all the foreign programmes that
have to be translated for broadcasting on that channel (either dubbed
or subtitled). Work out the percentage of the foreign negative pick-up
for that channel,
channel , i.e., the amount of programmes and hours a week that
have to be translated into your language.

2.7.6 Visit
������ the
���� website
�������� of
��� at
���������
least three
������ �������������
institutions ���������
offering ���
MA ��������
courses
on AVT.
AVT.
o What subjects do they offer?

e Do they include a dubbing course?

e What are, in your opinion,
 opinion , their strongest and weakest features?
o Would you change, add or delete any course?

o Would you take any of these courses? Why? Why not?

3. Text segmenting and dubbing symbols

3.0 Preliminary discussion

(a) Unlike subtitling, translation for dubbing is segmented in many differ-

ent ways, depending on the conventions in each country – and even
in each dubbing company within the same country. The layout and
size of dubbing units, called takes (or loops) in professional circles,
vary across the world. Would you be in favour of a set of guidelines
that could be applied internationally, or do you think guidelines
might erode national idiosyncrasies?
(b) Dubbing symbols also vary from country to country. Could some
standardization be reached at international level? What would
you propose? Who might take responsibility for coming up with
guidelines?
(c) Can nationalism be accounted for this heterogeneity? As a domesti-
cating practice, is dubbing more sensitive to nationalistic influences
than subtitling?

If we agree that a subtitle is the subtitling unit, then takes or loops are the dub-
bing units. The aim of this chapter is to introduce the reader to some of the ways
translations are segmented for dubbing. We will examine dubbing practices at
a micro-textual level as they are carried out in seven different countries: Ger-
many, Italy, Spain, France, Poland, Argentina and the United States of America.
The chapter explores the differences in layout, take segmentation and dubbing
symbols in these seven countries. These differences reveal that the dubbing
industry is still very conservative, and resistant to any change and homogeniza-
tion of its practices.

3.1. Dubbing vs. subtitling in the global world

As we have seen in Chapter 2, §2.5, new technologies favour globalization in many

areas of translation, such as subtitling; however, dubbing shows a reluctance to
embrace this globalizing trend, and appears reticent to bend to homogeniza-
tion. This chapter attempts to analyse why this might be the case. Perhaps due
to the notions of nationalism and singularity attached to it, dubbing still follows
different macro- and micro-textual practices in the European countries where it
is the most popular mode of audiovisual translation.
This chapter also covers dubbing takes or loops, and the dubbing symbols
commonly included in the takes.
Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 47

3.2 Text segmentation: takes or loops

Toury (1995) draws our attention to some trends in translations which he calls
translation norms. He considers that the task of the translation researcher should
be to identify the norms governing how translations are done at a given time
and in a given space or geographical context. Toury distinguishes between the
initial norm, a general decision translators make on whether to follow either
the norms governing the ST or those of the target language and culture, thus
producing adequate or acceptable translations, respectively. At a deeper level,
the author discusses another set of norms, which he calls preliminary norms,
that include the translation policy (factors conditioning the selection of texts to
be translated in a certain culture and at a particular time) and the directness of
translation (whether translation passes through an intermediate language or not).
At an even deeper level, the author describes what he calls operational norms,
which include textual-linguistic norms (lexical choices, syntactical patterns or
stylistic choices) and matricial norms, which relate to the completeness of the
TT, including such changes as omission or relocation of passages, the addition
of passages and footnotes and textual segmentation.
Much research has been devoted to initial norms, preliminary norms, and
especially to textual-linguistic norms. However, very little has been published on
matricial norms in audiovisual translation and still less in translation for dubbing.
In dubbing, the translation is divided into segments, i.e. chunks of text called
takes or loops, known as anelli in Italy and boucles in France. These are por-
tions of text, the lengths and layouts of which vary from one dubbing country
to another.
Historically, translations were divided into short portions of text because
dubbing actors had to memorize all their dialogue lines. Dialogues were bro-
ken up into these dubbing units, known as takes, enabling dubbing actors to
concentrate fully on the screen actors’ movements and mouths. If their lines
were too long, actors would have to look down at the printed version of the
translation in order to read their lines aloud. This would result in their missing
the screen actors’ mouth articulation and kinesic movements and, eventu-
ally, in blatant dischronies in terms of isochrony or equal utterance duration.
With shorter dialogue lines, actors can memorize short portions of text and
therefore give their full attention to the original actors’ body movements and
mouth articulation. This results in better synchronization and a faster pace
in dubbing sessions, which in turn, lowers the dubbing costs. For this reason
takes have a limited number of lines, although this number varies from country
to country, a further example of how globalization has not spread to dubbing
practices (Chaume 2007b).
48 Frederic Chaume

3.2.1 Text segmentation in Spain

In Spain the target text is divided every ten lines, or eight lines in some Catalonian
dubbing studios. This operation has certain constraints; if this were not the case,
a computer could do the job at no cost. One constraint is that a take can be up
to ten lines long, but any one character involved cannot speak for more than five
lines. In other words, a take can have ten lines when no voice talent has to dub
more than five lines. Ten-line takes may consist of two characters speaking five
lines each, or three characters speaking three, four and three lines, respectively,
and so forth. If there is a silence or pause in the film where no dialogues or para-
linguistic signs are heard, the dialogue writer will ‘segment’ or ‘cut’ the take and
begin a new one after the silence. Finally, the audiovisual narrative must also be
taken into account, and a fade out, for example, implies a new segmentation.
The dialogue writer must also segment the text according to what are known
in film theory as audiovisual punctuation marks, i.e., wipes, iris, fade-ins, fade-
outs, which mark the beginning of a new scene or sequence. In theory, these
punctuation marks imply a change of mood for the dubbing actors or the intro-
duction of new dubbing actors for new on-screen characters. An audiovisual
punctuation mark, then, generates a new take. Scene cuts and sequence cuts
marked by these audiovisual devices represent the end of one take and the be-
ginning of another. Temporal, spatial and narrative cuts in the plot also require
a new take (Chaume 2004a).
Actors are paid according to the number of takes they dub, the number of lines
they read aloud, or the number of sessions they attend. In Spain, for instance,
actors and dubbing directors are paid according to the number of takes they dub;
consequently, the more takes a translated film has, the more they earn. Dubbing
studios therefore prefer longer takes, since this means a saving in their costs. So
whereas dubbing actors and directors prefer short takes because they are easy
to remember and record, and because they earn more, dubbing managers prefer
longer takes because they involve less financial outlay.
Hence, while all these constraints (total number of lines, lines per character,
silences, scene and sequence cuts, etc.) have to be taken into account, over-
segmenting the text into too many takes must also be avoided, since managers
want longer takes to reduce dubbing costs.
Translators and dialogue writers must therefore aim to reach a balance be-
tween the number of takes and the requirements of the audiovisual narrative.
Indeed, they must bear all these points in mind if they are to deliver a product
that complies with both professional constraints and audiovisual narration. The
following example (in Catalan) illustrates some of these conventions (Chaume
2007b):
Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 49

Example 3.1
BBC This World
Episode Title: Tiger Traffic
Producer/director: Amanda Feldon for Cicada Films

20. 07.46

YURTXENKO (ON) Hola a tots, hola Steve, mira estos són els meus companys.
/ Assenteu-vos.
STEVE (OFF) Ens aniria molt bé que ens digueres què saps sobre les
rutes de comerç il·legal en esta zona.
YURTXENKO (ON) Estem en Slavyanka. El tràfic d’animals va cap a Usserisk o
cap a la frontera de la Xina.
STEVE (OFF) D’ací van directament a la Xina, hi ha una carretera que hi
va directa.

21. 08.19

YURTXENKO (ON) Sí, hi ha una carretera, i també una via de tren. Potser que
primer els productes del tigre o del lleopard vagen a Usserisk, i
que després, a través d’ací, vagen a la frontera.
STEVE (OFF) Ens centrem en les zones més riques des del punt de vista
de la biodiversitat, zones amb poca regulació jurídica, on els ca-
çadors saben que el risc és menor i els guanys majors.

In the example, the first take has seven lines and no one character speaks
more than five lines (Yurtxenko 4 lines and Steve 3 lines, respectively). The second
take has six lines, and the characters involved have three lines each. Yurtxenko’s
third utterance (dialogue lines in 8.19) cannot be included in the first take, since
this would give him a total of 7 lines in the same take, which would contravene
the Spanish dubbing norms. The dialogue writer (see Chapter 2) was therefore
obliged to segment the text at this point. There is no audiovisual punctuation
mark to condition a new take anywhere else, since the camera focuses on Yurtx-
enko for the whole scene.
Let us now take a look at the layout. Takes are separated by a continuous
– sometimes dotted – line indicating the end of one take and the beginning of
another. Notice also that the characters’ names are written in capital letters.
Takes are numbered, either using a single digit (1, 2, 3...) or three digits begin-
ning with 001, 002 and so forth. Our example shows takes number 20 and 21.
A time code (TC or TCR), noted after the take number, indicates when the first
character in the take should start speaking or making paralinguistic sounds. Some
dubbing symbols also appear (ON, OFF); they will be dealt with in §3.3. Finally,
hanging indentation is used for the dialogues.
Some Spanish dubbing studios have developed non-commercial software to
segment the translation automatically. This software generally counts the total
50 Frederic Chaume

number of lines and characters in the target text, and then divides the translation
according to the maximum number of permitted dialogue lines per take. This
process ignores both the requirements of audiovisual narration and the film plot.
It is merely a simple way of segmenting the text automatically, with no regard for
the way the plot develops or how it is structured by the scenes and sequences
and the way they are put together. This software is not marketed commercially,
however; dubbing studios contract an IT engineer to design the program. The
software is only used by the dubbing studio that initially commissioned and paid
for it. This is yet another example of the parochialism of dubbing practices, which
remain trapped, isolated and jealously guarded in each dubbing studio.

3.2.2 Text segmentation in France

In France, takes (or boucles) can be much longer than in Spain or Germany, al-
though they are not usually more than a minute long. There is no set limit for the
number of lines permitted per take. Instead, dialogue writers meticulously follow
audiovisual narrative criteria, e.g. action breaks, scene changes, or fade-ins and
outs, to segment the target text; and a new take begins after these audiovisual
punctuation marks. The French tradition also differs in the criteria followed to
introduce new takes, such as when a new character comes into the scene (for
example, two characters in a scene are joined by a third), a character leaves the
scene, or there is a flashback or a flash-forward.
Like subtitles, takes have a time code in and a time code out. The time in is
noted when the first character in the take speaks for the first time, i.e., begins his
or her dialogue lines or utters a paralinguistic sign (coughs, laughs, etc.). When
the last character in the take stops speaking (or uttering paralinguistic features),
the time out is noted. The total time duration is also noted. Below is an example
of French boucles (Chaume 2007b):

Example 3.2
Street Soccer (Foot 2 Rue) Episode 19-���������������������������
Trop d’amour tue l’amour���/ ‘Hot
�����������
Stuff’
Téleimages Kids

Boucle : 1 de 10:00:00:00 à 10:00:58:22 Durée: 00:00:58:22

Akim : (reac)
Mr. Salim : Now watch...
: Watch carefully...
Albert the b : Oooooh!
: Oh!
: Never seen anything like it!
Ali : (reac)
Mr. Salim : And that’s nothing! Wait till you see what’s next!
: Watch...
: what he’s going to do!
Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 51

: And now he’s going to make a super fast pass!

Ali : (reac)
The Scorpion : (‘Yeah! Yeah! We’re awesome!’)
Mr. Salim : See, I told you!
: What do you think?
Albert the b : hhh!
: I think the blues don’t have a chance...
: against...
Mr. Salim : (mm__
Albert the b : against that!
: We have to warn them!
Mr. Salim : __end)
Albert the b : So they are prepared!

Boucle : 2 de 10:00:59:10 à 10:00:59:23 Durée: 00:00:00:13

out : (out)

Boucle : 3 de 10:01:08:00 à 10:01:59:18 Durée: 00:00:51:18

Ambiance : (School’s out __

Antoine : Did you have a pleasant morning, Miss?
Eloise : Sure did, Antoine !

The layout includes the boucle number, then the time in and time out, and
finally the total duration of the boucle. Inside the boucle, characters are listed
on the left and a hanging indentation is used to introduce all the dialogue lines
including dubbing symbols, such as (reac) or (ambiance).
In most dubbing countries, a separate sheet is prepared with the number of
times each dubbing actor speaks and in which takes s/he is present. This sheet is
called a croisillé (dubbing sheet) in France, and it shows the takes voice talents
participate in:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Titre : Street Soccer
Épisode : #19 Trop d’amour tue l’amour / ‘Hot Stuff’
Société : Téleimages
Auteur : Jessica Menendez
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---- Comédiens ----

Rôle Nom Prénom Signature Durée Mots Lignes
Fan 4 green jacket 0 : 00 : 03 17 1
Boucles : 27
52 Frederic Chaume

Fan 3 Orange 0 : 00 : 04 16 1
Boucles : 12, 16
Fan 2 Beard 0 : 00 : 05 24 2
Boucles : 12, 16
Fan 1 0 : 00 : 13 57 5
Boucles : 12, 16
Mr. Guérin 0 : 00 : 07 29 2
Boucles : 12
The Scorpions 0 : 00 : 03 5 1
Boucles : 1, 14
Ali Scorpion (M) green eyes+str 0 : 00 : 17 55 5
Boucles : 1, 18, 19, 22, 23, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 34
Akim Scorpion (M) 0 : 00 : 04 13 1
Boucles : 1, 18, 19, 24, 29, 30, 33
Samira Scorpion Girl 0 : 00 : 01 5 1
Boucles : 20, 21, 23, 29, 30, 33
Scorpion goalie Male 0 : 00 : 06 14 1
Boucles : 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 29, 30, 31, 33

Figure 3.1. Le croisillé

This croisillé is a work schedule where all characters are noted in a table in-
dicating the number of takes in which they speak, their gender, clothes, etc., to
identify the character, and the number of words and, particularly, the number
of dialogue lines they speak. Nowadays this table is generally prepared using
an Excel file, and it is essential for the recording in the dubbing booth, since it
includes the name and number of characters (and therefore, of voice talents),
their importance in terms of lines and the moment they have to start speaking.
The croisillé is called piano di lavorazione in Italian, and hoja de producción in
Spanish. Voice talents in France are paid according to the number of lines they
speak and the number of times they are required to be at the dubbing studio.

3.2.3. Text segmentation in Germany

As in the previous cases, it is difficult to generalize too much since conventions

can vary from one dubbing studio to another. However, general trends can be
observed in how the target text is segmented. As in Spain, there is a set maxi-
mum number of lines per take in some companies. German practice does not
normally allow takes with more than five dialogue lines. Regardless of the number
of lines, the translation is also segmented according to time. Thus, takes can be
from 3 to 10 seconds long, and the text is segmented again after a maximum
of 10 seconds.
Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 53

The German tradition also respects the audiovisual narrative criteria as far
as possible. Action breaks, scene changes, flashbacks, fades and audiovisual
punctuation marks therefore denote a new segmentation of the translation,
i.e., a new take.
As with the French tradition, a take ends when a new character enters the
scene, or when a character leaves. The following example shows the layout of
some German takes (takes are not consecutive in this case) (Chaume 2007b):

Example 3.3
Emergency Room. Episode 247

023
KOVAC: (OFF/ON) Sam!
SAM: (OFF/ON) Wir fahren noch mal zu Shelley’s, (.) zur Union Station
(.), zum Park...
KOVAC: (über.) Sam! (..) Sam, der Wagen steht...

028
SAM: (Laute)
KOVAC: (OFF/ON) Er weiss mit seiner Krankheit umzugehen und, dass er
viel trinken muss.

036
MORRIS: (Laut) Die Tagenschicht (..) (Kuss) (Laut) Ist das Leben nicht
herrlich?
JANE: (Laute)

038
PRATT: ��� ����� ��� ��������� ������ ���� ��� ����������������

German takes are shorter than Spanish or French ones and may often contain
just one line, such as number 38 (see also Wright and Lallo 2009:220). They nor-
mally include up to three speaking characters, since the text is segmented every
3 to 10 seconds. They therefore follow natural conversation patterns and also
follow the film’s narrative or editorial unit: one angle combined with a reverse
angle. As for the layout, time codes (TCs) are aligned on the right, characters
are written in capital letters and listed in the left-hand column, and dialogues,
dubbing symbols (ON/OFF) and verbal transcriptions of paralinguistic features
appear in the right-hand column, again with a hanging indentation. We will look
more closely at all dubbing symbols in §3.3.

3.2.4 Text segmentation in Italy

In Italy takes (or anelli) usually have up to ten or twelve lines, but this is not a set
rule in the profession. They can be even longer, like the French ones. Segmentation
54 Frederic Chaume

is based on narrative criteria; for example, a take ends when a dialogue is over. If
the dialogue is long, the scene is segmented into more anelli, according to narra-
tive criteria, which may be when a sentence comes to some kind of conclusion.
Sometimes the dubbing director, or even the voice talent, decides when a take
should finish, and some directors and voice talents prefer longer takes. Since
voice talents are paid according to the number of dialogue lines they dub (as in
France), and not according to the number of takes (as in Spain), there is no set
number of lines per take.
As in Spain, two or three Italian takes can have the same reference number,
especially in scenes with many characters (long shots, camera shots taken at
some distance from the subjects), where the audience may hear many conver-
sations at the same time, people mumbling, laughing or speaking, etc. Different
conversations are segmented into different takes with the same reference.
The Italian layout looks like this:

Example 3.4
Cuore d’Africa 5 – Ep. 4

00:35 106
ALICE (FC) Conterò fino a tre. / (IC) Danny! / (DS) Sei pronto?
DANNY (da CL) Scusa… sì, pronto.
ALICE Okay? / (da FC) Uno / due / tre!
CHARLOTTE (da FC) Corri, Ngozi, corri! (FIN. FC)
DANNY (01:09) (FC) Fila dentro. / (IC) (fiato)

01:13 107
ALICE (da FC) Allora (fiato)… che ne pensi?
DANNY (da FC) Comincia a funzionare…
CHARLOTTE Possiamo liberarlo adesso?
ALICE No, se non torna il proprietario.
CHARLOTTE E allora che facciamo?
ALICE Aah, potresti andare dai fornitori con Danny, va bene?
(FIN. FC)
DANNY No lei non può. / (FC) Ci vado con Dup.
ALICE (su muto) Ma, c’è spazio per tutti e tre no?
DANNY (fiato) Forse un’altra volta. / (FC) Sai una cosa? / (IC) Ti porto
all’asta degli animali la prossima settimana. (FIN. FC)
ALICE (FC) (verso)
CHARLOTTE (verso)

01:43 108
ALICE (FC) Tutto bene?
DANNY Sì, certo perché? (FIN. FC)
ALICE Sembri un po’ / nervosetto.
DANNY Sarà colpa del viaggio, ecco tutto. 01:49
Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 55

02:05 109
ROWAN (coperto) Benvenuta al Mara.
OLIVIA Grazie.
ROWAN Per la reception di là…
OLIVIA So dove vado. (Conosco la strada)

Italian and Spanish takes use practically the same layout. The time code
(TC) appears at the top left-hand side of the page, the take number at the top
right-hand side (the other way round in the Spanish example), and then the
characters are written in capital letters on the left and dialogues and dubbing
symbols are indented on the right. Sometimes a TC is noted at the end of the
take, especially when there is a silence or pause at the end of one take before
the next one begins.

3.2.5 Text segmentation in Poland

Although generally speaking Poland is a voice-over country (see Chapter 1), the
translation is also segmented into takes. Take layouts prepared for TV channels
differ slightly from those for DVD distributors. This is a typical voice-over layout
(Chaume 2007b):

Example 3.5 (for TV)

Kika (Pedro Almodóvar 1993)
Translator: Piotr Andrzej Majewski
Voice-over reader: Piotr Borowiec

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Paul- 47’58’’ Pi�knie pachnie ... �� Spójrz ... Widzisz, jakie mi��nie? ...
Podoba ci si�? ... Ale jeste zm�czony! ... ���� Juanita,
byłem grzeczny, nie zgwałciłem. Obudź si�.
Idziemy do kuzynki Reme. Obiecała� mi dwa numery.
Nie udawaj, że �pisz ... �emdlała ...
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example 3.6 (for TV)

Town and Country / Romanssidło

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1’44” Po����� (off) Powinienem was chyba uprzedzić, że ta pani nie jest moją
żoną i że nie przepadam za muzyką poważną. Popełniłem wła�-
nie wielki błąd. To si� może zdarzyć każdemu m�żczyźnie po
dwudziestu pi�ciu latach małżeństwa. Ale przyrzekam, że to si�
już nie powtórzy
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
56 Frederic Chaume

Example 3.7 (for DVD)

Kika (Pedro Almodóvar 1993)
*
(w kuchni) Byłem grzeczn
grzecznyy, nie zzgw
gwałciłem.
ałciłem. Juanit
Juanita,
a, obudź si
si��.
Idziemy do Remy. Obiecała� mi dwa pieprzenia. Nie udawaj, że �pisz.
( - ) Śpi.

In the two TV examples (3.5 and 3.6), the time code and the character involved
in that take are written together; in the first example, the name of the character
is given followed by the time code and in the second one the time code appears
first. In both cases, characters’ names are written in lower case. Dialogues are
indented on the right side of the page, together with dubbing symbols (see
§3.3). The DVD take (example 3.7) has more information in the translation – and
fewer words – than the first one; it is the same scene, but a different transla-
tion. An explanation is given of where the scene takes place (w kuchni, i.e., in
the kitchen) and dubbing symbols are also provided. Takes are separated by a
single dotted line, by two consecutive dotted lines or sometimes by an asterisk,
as in the DVD example.
As for types of fonts and font sizes, Times New Roman 12 and Arial 12 are
usually employed. Both simple spacing and double spacing between lines can
be used. The following example shows a take with single spacing between the
paragraphs and a serif font (Times New Roman 12):

Example 3.8
Series original title: DUCK TALES
Polish title: KACZE OPOWIEŚCI
Episode number: 55
Episode original title: LAUNC�PADS FIRST CRAS�
Polish title: PIERWSZA KRAKSA ŚMIGACZA
Dialogues: Anna Celińska
SKNERUS: Teraz mnie zaskoczyłe� – po raz pierwszy mówisz
[off]

do rzeczy!
ŚMIGAC�: Si� okaże!
SKNERUS: Szybciej! To mi wygląda na erupcj� wulkanu!
SKNERUS/ŚMIGAC�: [krzyczą]
ŚMIGAC�: Hurra! Przeżyli�my!
SKNERUS: Nie tylko przeżyłem, ale i si� wzbogaciłem! [śmiech]
[śpiewa] Diament to przyjaciel jest… [mówi] Babutasa!
[śmiech]
EMCEE: To nie są zwyczajni poszukiwacze przygód, to są…
ŚMIGAC�: Herosi!
EMCEE: Tak, no wła�nie. Dzi�kuj�, Śmigacz.
ŚMIGAC�: Drobiazg.

Some companies require time codes before each utterance, some others
only before each change of scenes or before the introduction of a new character.
Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 57

Although time codes can already be inserted in the original text, they hardly ever
correspond with the ones in our copy of the film.

3.2.6 Text segmentation in Argentina

In Argentina, translators submit a Word file with their translation to the dubbing
company. A .DOC file is saved as a .TXT file that can be read by the software used
in the dubbing booth to convert it into this layout:

Example 3.9

DUB [0 N 01:47:25:25>01:47:28:09] NARRADOR

El increíble nacimiento de los octillizos.

DUB [0 N 01:47:28:05>01:47:29:28] EDUARDO

Silencio, por favor.

DUB[ 0 N 01:47:36:27>01:47:38:23] GERARDO

¿Te ves en un futuro como madre de alquiler?

DUB[0 N 01:47:39:03>01:47:43:13] PRESENTADOR

Debido a la atención de los medios, Nadya ha instalado un sistema de
seguridad avanzada y un portón metálico.

DUB[0 N 01:47:43:19>01:47:52:02] NADYA

Me pongo muy nerviosa. Se ha vuelto peor últimamente. Tengo que saber,
asegurarme de que están cien por ciento a salvo en la casa por todo lo
que ha estado sucediendo.

The most striking feature is that each character’s speech constitutes a single
take or loop, i.e., each character’s dialogue lines are put in a different take. A TC in
and a TC out are used for each turn. Characters’ names are written in capitals.
Software is not commercial and therefore differs from one company to an-
other as it is designed and tailor-made for each company.

3.2.7 Text segmentation in the United States of America

Again, each character’s dialogue lines constitute one loop: a take or loop begins
when a character starts speaking and ends when this same character stops. The
next character then begins a new take, as can be seen in the following example
of a German dubbing in L.A.:
58 Frederic Chaume

Example 3.10
Mr. Brooks (Bruce A. Evans 2007)
Mr. Brooks - Der Mörder in Dir

Loop # TCR Character ENGLISH GERMAN

1 1:00:50 EARL Oh God. God grant Gott, gib mir die Gelanssen-
me the serenity to heit, Dinge hinzunehmen,
accept the things I die ich nicht ändern kann.
cannot change
2 1:00:55 MARSHALL Why do you fight it so Warum kämpfst so hart da-
hard, Earl? gegen an, Earl?
3 1:00:58 EARL Courage to change Den Mut, Dinge zu ändern,
the things I can di ich ändern kann.
4 1:01:01 MARSHALL Come on. You’ve been Komm schon. Du warst lange
a good boy for a long Zeit ein gutter Junge. Du
time You know you weisst, dass du das machen
wanna do this willst.

Loops are numbered and contain only one digit. Time codes in are noted to
indicate when the voice talent should begin speaking, but there is no time code
out. Characters are written in capitals, and voice talents have both the English
version and the target language version, German in this case. No dubbing sym-
bols are added.
This review shows that current dubbing practices are far from unified or ho-
mogenized in dubbing countries. Indeed, it seems that the differences between
text segmentation and layout are gradually becoming more pronounced. Again,
the number of dialogue lines per take varies from one country to another and
even from one dubbing studio to another. The use of time codes is different in
each country. The length of the lines is different in each country. Time constraints
(duration of takes) are different in each country. In sum, globalization has not
yet reached the dubbing industry. But at the same time, some repeated patterns
can be seen: a) takes are usually numbered; b) TCs are normally used, especially
the TC in, which is noted either before or after the take number; c) the name
of the character is noted (usually in capital letters); d) dialogues tend to include
some dubbing symbols that help the voice talents in their performance; and e)
a hanging indentation is usually used for the dialogues.

3.3. Dubbing symbols

Another example of heterogeneity emerges in the form of dubbing symbols.

Dialogue writers or dubbing assistants include dubbing symbols in the translation
as ‘props’ to help dubbing actors imitate the screen actors’ paralinguistic signs:
sounds, pitch, tone, volume, primary voice qualities, etc. They stand for human
sound effects (Wright and Lallo 2009:48-50). The most important symbols refer
Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 59

to where the voice comes from: (ON), (O/S) (On Screen), etc., indicate that the
actor is speaking on-screen, i.e., that the audience can see the actor’s face or
body, whereas (OFF), (V/O), (Off Screen) etc., indicate that the actor is not in
field, and the audience cannot see the actor speaking on screen. Other symbols
provide more clues to help the dubbing actor.

3.3.1 Dubbing symbols in Spain

We have seen that layouts vary from country to country. Likewise, the dubbing
symbols used in each country and even each individual dubbing studio vary ac-
cording to the local conventions and preferences. A few commonly used symbols
are listed below:

(OFF) Voice Off, voice out of camera range

(ON) On screen or in field voice
(DE) The character has his/her back to the camera
(DL) The character is far away from the camera
(SB) The character is on screen, but we cannot see his/her mouth
(G) Paralinguistic signs
(A la vez) Two or more characters speak at the same time
(P) (T) (X)One character interrupts another
(Ambiente) A long shot or establishing shot (schoolyard, hotel hall, etc.)
with no dialogues in the original script, but original voices have
to be dubbed to create possible coherent dialogues, predict-
able social interactions etc. In English, it is called walla – the
sound of many people speaking at once, like in a restaurant,
rock concert, party, etc. – and wild lines or call outs, i.e. short
improvised single lines recorded individually (Wright and Lallo
2009:212)
(R) Laughter
(LL) The character cries or weeps
(ATT) The voice comes from a telephone
(ATR) The voice comes from a radio
(ATV/ATTv) The voice comes from a TV set
/ Silence or pause in the original dialogues
// Long silence or pause in the original dialogues

Figure 3.2. Dubbing symbols in Spain

These symbols, among others, are inserted between the dialogue lines, so that
dubbing actors know when paralinguistic sounds such as laughter or crying must
be uttered or how to speak these dialogue lines, paying attention to lip-sync in ON
voices, interrupting another character, pausing between two sentences, etc.
60 Frederic Chaume

3.3.2 Dubbing symbols in France

As in Spain, different dubbing symbols are used in different dubbing studios.

Some of them are only inserted in the bande rythmo, and they also help dubbing
actors in their performance (Chaume 2007b).

ON / OFF Only marked on the bande rythmo

(réac) Paralinguistic sounds (especially those made with a
closed mouth)
(rire) Laughter
(sanglot) Sobbing
(ambiance) A long shot (schoolyard, hotel hall, etc.) with no dia-
logues in the original script, but original voices have
to be dubbed to create possible coherent dialogues,
predictable social interactions, etc.
hum, mm, hhh, ahh… Transcription of gestures, especially those uttered
with an open mouth
mts, tst, pt Transcription of different vocal noises

Figure 3.3. Dubbing symbols in France

In addition, some studios use particular dubbing symbols to call the actor’s atten-
tion to some important dubbing constraints. Thus, bilabials can be marked on the
bande rythmo with a symbol placed below the consonant, so that the dubbing
actor does not miss the closing of the original actor’s lips. In a French dubbing
studio this is represented by a symbol of a bone placed below close-up bilabials,
so that the dubbing actor pays particular attention to the lip-sync at that specific
moment. Bones are also used to mark semi-labial consonants, round vowels and
even fricative consonants. Dialogue lines are written according to the speed they
are uttered – compact writing for a character speaking fast and elongated writing
for one speaking slowly. A vertical line is drawn on the bande rythmo to mark a
shot change, and a crossed vertical line denotes a new take or boucle.

3.3.3 Dubbing symbols in Italy

Fortunately, in Italy symbols are standardized since they all appear in the col-
lective agreement signed by the dubbing actors’ association and the dubbing
companies (see Annex 2). This goes a long way to familiarizing dubbing actors
with dubbing symbols (Chaume 2007b):

IC ON screen (in campo)

FC OFF Screen (fuori campo)
inIC, finIC Beginning and end of voice on screen, respectively
inFC, finFC Beginning and end of voice off screen, respectively
SOVR A voice is heard over another voice
/ Pause between two sentences
Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 61

// Pause between two scenes

EFF A voice effect (through a TV set, etc.)
VOCE Inner monologues, the voice of thoughts, dreams, etc.
Ant. The dubbing actor has to begin speaking shortly before the origin-
al actor begins his or her lines
DS The character has his/her back to the camera
Orig. Advises actors and engineers not to dub the original voices, spe-
cial effects, etc.
VERSO Paralinguistic signs (coughing, kissing, crying, whistling...)
FIATO Paralinguistic signs (sighing, huffing, puffing)
RIDE Laughter
RIS Smiling, giggling, etc.

Figure 3.4. Dubbing symbols in Italy

Apart from the fact that dubbing symbols differ because they are abbrevia-
tions or words in the target language, which seems reasonable from the point of
view of the industry, the biggest concern is that not all countries use the same
symbols for the same occurrences, and that some symbols are used differently in
each country. Again, unification of symbols in dubbing countries does not seem
to be on the horizon at the moment.

3.3.4 Dubbing symbols in Germany

Not many dubbing symbols are used by German dubbing companies, with the
exception of the almost universal (ON) and (OFF). They can be used together
when the character starts speaking in field and ends up speaking off camera
or out of shot (ON/OFF), or the other way round (OFF/ON). Short pauses and
long pauses may be represented with one or two dots in brackets, respectively:
(.) and (..). Other indications can be added; for example, voices might overlap
when, for instance, one character interrupts another. In these cases the indica-
tion (über) is given.

3.3.5 Dubbing symbols in Poland

Although these symbols are primarily used for voice-over, they also appear in
dubbing for cartoons. These have usually been the symbols used for TV and DVD
(Chaume 2007b):

Symbols for TV and DVD Meaning

TV DVD
( �� ) (V) A pause between two sentences or in the middle of a
single sentence.
( ���� ) ( // ) Longer pauses
(…) (-) Proper names, vocatives and taboo words that are not
usually translated
62 Frederic Chaume

* ---------- Asterisks and dotted lines (one or two) are used to separ-
ate two scenes, and thus, two takes
Paralinguistic signs Noted in brackets and sometimes in italics
(Words or sentences in They indicate what the lektor must not read. Proper
the original version with- names, easily understood words (yes, no, one, two…),
out a translation) etc. This only applies to voice-over.

(Words or sentences in A translation appearing in brackets means that the lektor

the target language) can choose whether to read it or not. This only applies
to voice-over.
(Off) (Off) Off-screen dialogues (dialogues are written in italics in the
DVD version). They sometimes appear next to the charac-
ter speaking and other times next to the dialogues.
(On) On-screen dialogues
Bold type Used in words uttered with a special intonation
[Phonetic Helps the lektor to pronounce the foreign word correctly.
transcription in
brackets]
[Translator’s The translator expresses doubts about the translation,
notes in and offers various options.
brackets]

Figure 3.5. Voice-over symbols in Poland

Nowadays, conventions have varied slightly, especially in the case of dubbing.

These are the most common dubbing symbols used in dubbing companies:

^ SUSPENSION Catching a breath, short pause, plays the

(HESITATION) role of a coma - “,”
/ PAUSE Longer suspension / hesitation, plays the
role of a full stop – “.”
// LONG PAUSE Longer pause in speech, e.g. change of
scene – in dubbing unlike in voice-over
paragraphs are not divided with a hori-
zontal line
ON Speaker can be seen Only indicated when the speaker comes
on screen from off screen into field
OFF Speaker can’t be seen Off screen
[reag.] [reak.] [laughter] [shouts] Types of reactions

Figure 3.6. Dubbing symbols in Poland

The symbols ON/OFF inform actors, directors and technicians whether the
speaker is on or off screen. If they are off screen there is more creativity allowed
Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 63

as far as lip synchrony is concerned. Nowadays, off screen speech is more often
indicated by the use of bold font whereas the on screen speech is written in
normal font, as can be appreciated in the following examples:

Example 3.11
Example of a text with ON / OFF symbols:

ŚMIGACZ: [off]
Hehe, luzik! Mam w tym wprawę! // [on] [reag.] Zanurkujemy
szybciej niż myślałem… ^ o [off] wiele szybciej!
SKNERUS: [off]
Przecież ty nic nie widzisz!
ŚMIGACZ: [off]
Nic nie szkodzi! To pustynia, [on] lądować wszędzie można! ^��
Byle nie tak!

Example 3.12
Example of a text with the use of bold font to indicate off screen speech:

ŚMIGACZ: Hehe, luzik! Mam w tym wprawę! // [reag.] Zanurkujemy szyb-

ciej niż myślałem… ^ o wiele szybciej!
SKNERUS: Przecież ty nic nie widzisz!
ŚMIGACZ: Nic nie szkodzi! To pustynia, lądować wszędzie można! ^ Byle
nie tak!

3.4 Final remarks

The above examples (§3.2 and §3.3) show the difficulties of homogenizing the
dubbing translation process. To summarize, dubbing countries follow different
conventions in the way they split the translation into takes, prepare the transla-
tion layout, and use dubbing symbols. While translation for subtitling is becoming
increasingly homogeneous and globalized in terms of layout and subtitling
conventions, translation for dubbing remains heterogeneous and localized in
these aspects.
This raises the following question: is the dubbing industry actively refusing
to bend before globalization? Is it a matter of conscious resistance? This does
not seem to be the case; historically, the dubbing industry has been limited to
a small number of dubbing studios that have focused their attention on the
art of dubbing, rather than on technological advances. Dubbing studios have
concentrated their efforts on acting, direction of actors, and lip-sync. For many
years, a good dubbing has been regarded as one in which the acting was neither
monotonous nor too exaggerated. Unfortunately, translation has not been given
much credit in this process.
On the other hand, much of the dubbing industry is very conservative and
resistant to change. One example is the software developed by each individual
Spanish dubbing studio to automatically segment the translation into takes, or
the software used in France to type the translation and dubbing symbols on the
bande rythmo (see Chapter 2). This software is not commercially available; it
is commissioned by a single studio and only used there. Moreover, translators
64 Frederic Chaume

are not usually provided with this software; as a rule, they simply submit the
translation and someone in the dubbing studio uses the software to segment it.
Dubbing companies are very concerned about industrial espionage –sometimes
due to strict non-disclosure agreements with their own clients, but some other
times due to just being too distrusted – and go to great lengths to prevent other
companies from taking advantage of their findings. In the past, translators and
dubbers were even obliged to return their scripts and VHS and DVD copies of
the films.
Finally, little research on dubbing technology is being carried out in univers-
ities. This also obstructs the flow of information among dubbing companies.
Sticking to old practices and recoiling from change may also be interpreted as a
planned strategy to prevent academic intrusion.
Can nationalism also be blamed for this heterogeneity? As a domesticating
practice, dubbing is more sensitive to nationalistic influences than, for example,
subtitling. Furthermore, each dubbing country is proud of its dubbing industry,
claiming that they produce better results than other dubbing countries; some
European dubbing studios despise the perfectionist lip-sync of US dubbings, for
example, somehow ‘too perfect’ for European standards. However, this is not
a question of nationalism, as dubbing itself is not only a nationalistic practice
(Chaume 2004a). This is more a question of conservative behaviour, a fear of
industrial espionage, and a firm belief that dubbing is ultimately a question of
art and craft, which cannot be improved by anyone other than the professionals
already working inside the industry.

3.5. Exercises

3.5.1 Go to DVD > Chapter 3 > Exercises > Exercise 3.5.1 > Night of
the Living Dead – Prayers
This is the scene in which Reverend Hicks, together with Mr. Krantz
and Hilda Krantz, and two men (Mikey and Danny) are going to bury
a zombie. Translate those dialogues into your mother tongue and seg-
ment the translation according to one of the layouts explained above in
§3.2. As there is no time code, leave the TC space blank. Try to respect
the clergyman’s rather formal register. Take into account important shot
changes, like when Hilda and Mr. Krantz leave the scene, and when the
reverend says his prayers alone and then also leaves. In many dubbing
countries, these changes would entail a take segmentation.

3.5.2 Go to DVD > Chapter 3 > Exercises > Exercise 3.5.2 > Charade
– Embassy
Use the OFF/ON symbols (or IC/FC in the case of Italian). Watch this
scene from Charade, translate it into your mother tongue, and use the
ON/OFF symbols where appropriate. At the beginning Walter Matthau
speaks from an inner room where he is not seen. There are also some
angle-reverse angle shots but the two characters’ dialogues do not co-
Text segmenting and dubbing symbols 65

incide with the moments they are in field. In these cases, use the OFF
symbol where appropriate.

3.5.3 Go to DVD > Chapter 3 > Exercises > Exercise 3.5.3 > Father’s
Little Dividend – Assimilation
In this scene, Spencer Tracy is coming to terms with becoming a grand-
father. There is a stream of consciousness (or interior monologue), a
non-mediated presentation of a character’s thoughts and impressions
or perceptions. These kinds of inner thoughts are usually preceded by
an OFF symbol to tell the voice talent that lip-sync is not important here
(see Chapter 4). Spencer Tracy’s thoughts are also intertwined with
scenes of what his new life will be like. Every scene change should con-
stitute a new take. Translate these dialogues into your mother tongue,
choosing one of the layouts described above in §3.2, and paying par-
ticular attention to the two most important dubbing symbols (OFF) and
(ON).

3.5.4 Go to DVD > Chapter 3 > Exercises > Exercise 3.5.4 > Une
������������
liaison
pornographique ������
–�����
Café
Translate this scene into your mother tongue, choosing one of the lay-
outs described above in §3.2. Take into account the dialogues uttered in
OFF. Choose conventional dubbing symbols for the paralinguistic signs
heard in the scene.

3.5.5 Go to DVD > Chapter 3 > Exercises > Exercise 3.5.5 > La Sicilia
– Police
Translate these dialogues into your mother tongue applying all that you
have learnt in this chapter: segment the translation according to scene
changes, use (OFF) and (ON) where appropriate, and use conventional
dubbing symbols for all paralinguistic signs uttered in these scenes.
4. Synchronization or lip-sync: Read my lips

4.0 Preliminary discussion

(a) When you watch a dubbed movie, can you tell whether the lip-sync is good
or bad? What happens when you notice that the actors on screen are not
speaking the target language? Does it distract you from the film?
(b) Sometimes lip-sync constrains the translation to such an extent that dialogue
writers have to rewrite the translation completely so that it fits into the screen
actor’s or actress’s mouths. A pie can be turned into an omelette for the sake
of lip-sync. What do you think of these changes?
(c) Who do you think should do the lip-syncing, the translator or the dialogue
writer? Why?
(d) What happens in your country if a dubbing is not well lip-synced? In subtitling
countries, what is the reaction to a badly synchronized dubbed cartoon?

Achieving synchronization is a question of practice and training, in which mas-

tering the target language is crucial to a happy ending. Experienced translators
and dialogue writers translate and synchronize at the same time, i.e. the first
translation option usually fits into the screen characters’ mouths. But this is not
the case with trainee translators and novice professionals facing this specific
AVT challenge for the first time. It therefore seems appropriate to discuss the re-
sources available to help translators deal with this aspect of AVT. These resources
are translation strategies and techniques that explicitly refer to the cognitive
processes the translator experiences (strategies) and the stylistic features s/he
can make use of (techniques).

4.1 Synchronization: a key factor in dubbing

Synchronization (or lip-sync, also spelt lip-synch) is one of the key factors in au-
diovisual translation, especially in the context of dubbing. Although it is often
considered as the distinguishing feature of dubbing, it is only one of several
important aspects such as the reproduction of a prefabricated oral discourse
or the translation problems posed by the interaction between image and word.
If we take a look at the research on lip-sync, it is regarded as an urgent, vital
issue, as can be seen from the wide range of publications on the sub sub��ect (see
Chaume 2004c).
Beyond doubt synchronization has a direct impact on the translation process
and product, and as such, it should be given due consideration in Translation
Studies, particularly in audiovisual translation courses. Synchronization puts all
the translator’s creative skills to the test. It is precisely through practice in the
learning environment that synchronization can help the trainee translator to
move away from literal conceptions in translation and build up confidence in his
Synchronization or lip-sync: Read my lips 67

or her abilities to put forward alternatives that depart from the source text to
focus on the function of the text and on the viewer, one of the essential features
of audiovisual translation.
Dubbing is a well-known example of the invisibility of translation, an artistic
and technical exercise that intentionally replaces the original dialogue track with
a new track on which target language (TL) dialogue exchanges are recorded. In
contrast to voice-over for example, the emphasis in dubbing lies in matching the
translation to the silent mouths of the original actors. The result is that viewers
watch and hear foreign actors speaking in the viewers’ own language, a paradox
which has been naturally accepted in all dubbing countries.
Let us now turn specifically to the translational aspects of synchronization.
These concern the denominations and definition of synchronization, the scope
of the subject (types of synchronization), relevant factors in its analysis and
the techniques the translator commonly uses to solve synchronization-related
problems.

4.1.1 Denominations

Synchronization is the process of matching a target language translation to the

screen actors’ body and articulatory movements in a recording made in a dubbing
studio. Although synchronization is the term used in academic circles to refer
to this process (Fodor 1976; Mayoral et al. 1988; Whitman-Linsen 1992), other
terms can also be found, such as adjustment or adaptation –although adapta-
tion also includes creating or mirroring oral dialogues, i.e. trying to make target
dialogues sound fresh and natural. The term revoicing is also used synonymously,
although this is really a synonym for dubbing, which also includes the process of
intralingual post-synchronization. ����������������������������������������������
When revoicing is used to refer to dubbing or
interlingual post-synchronization, it is an umbrella term that����������������������
includes all dubbing
types (dubbing itself, partial dubbing, narration, free commentary, etc.).

4.1.2 Definition

Luyken et al. (1991:73) provide an extensive definition of synchronization (lip-

sync dubbing) as “the replacement of the original speech by a voice-track which
is a faithful translation of the original speech and which attempts to reproduce
the timing, phrasing and lip movements of the original.” Agost (1999:59) defines
synchronization (which she refers to as ‘visual synchrony’) as “the harmony
between the visible articulatory speech movements and the sounds heard” (my
translation).
Chaves (2000:114) explains it as synchronizing the translation with the lip
movements. To achieve this, the dialogue writer substitutes the words that
do not coincide phonetically with the screen actors’ lip movements for others
that do. Pauses, the start and end of the utterance, the openness of the vowel
sounds and the presence of bilabials are all taken into account. The dialogue
writer is also responsible for synchronizing the pace of the dubbing actor, at
68 Frederic Chaume

times through modifications to the text received from the translator. According to
Chaves, in summary, the dialogue writer is responsible for synchronization. Díaz
Cintas (2001:41) indicates that synchronization is accomplished by “maintaining
synchrony between the sounds of the language of the translation and the actors’
lip movements” (my translation).
This selection of recent definitions of synchronization shows how the idea
of equivalence between the utterances in the source language and those in the
target language is pursued according to phonetic articulation. We can therefore
conclude that a thorough definition of the term should cover the following
aspects:

• synchronization between the translated text utterances and the source

text utterances
• synchronization between the translation and the screen actors’ body
movements and
• synchronization between the translation and the screen actors’ articu-
latory movements (Chaume 2004c).

The following definition may thus be posited: Synchronization is one of the

features of translation for dubbing that consists of matching the target language
translation and the articulatory and body movements of the screen actors and
actresses, and ensuring that the utterances and pauses in the translation match
those of the source text.

4.1.3 Types of synchronization

The definition proposed in §4.1.2 leads us to establish the following types of

synchronization (Chaume 2004c):

• phonetic or lip synchrony

• kinesic synchrony or body movement synchrony
• isochrony or synchrony between utterances and pauses

Lip or phonetic synchrony, referred to as phonetic synchrony by Fodor

(1976:10 and 21-71), lip-sync by Luyken et al. (1991) and lip synchrony by
Whitman-Linsen (1992:20), consists of adapting the translation to the articula-
tory movements of the on-screen characters, especially in close-ups and extreme
or close-ups, also called big close-ups. In order to achieve the reality effect and
naturalize the product to make it appear less foreign and more familiar (Goris
1993), particular care should be taken in the translation to respect the open
vowels and bilabial and labio-dental consonants pronounced on screen, as well
as sentence endings.
Fodor’s (1976) comprehensive study includes much more detailed obser-
vations for phonetic synchrony. This author (Fodor 1976:54-57) advocates
replacing bilabial consonants with bilabial consonants, labio-dental consonants
with labio-dental consonants, and even rounded vowels with rounded vowels.
Synchronization or lip-sync: Read my lips 69

He also recommends that the dubbing actor should imitate the gestures of the
screen actor in order to come as close as possible to the original as far as verbal
mimicry is concerned. Fodor’s study (1976:32-36) compares the mouth move-
ments of various languages, inhaling and exhaling and head movements but,
with the exception of close-ups, extreme close-ups or detailed lip shots, norms
described in the professional contexts of European dubbing coun ounttrie
iess sho
how
w tha
hatt
his approach is a bit exaggerated and his advice is not followed in professional
practice (Chaume 2004c).
The synchronization of the translation with the actors’ body movements is
known as kinesic synchrony. Originally referred to by Fodor (1976:72) as char-
acter synchrony, Whitman-Linsen (1992:33) later employed the term kinetic
synchrony. The translation must also correspond with the movements of the
screen characters: a head shaking to indicate a negative cannot be accompanied
by an affirmative “yes”, and a character raising his hands to his head must make
some kind of inter�ection to match the gesture.
The synchronization of the duration of the translation with the screen char-
acters’ utterances is known as isochrony (Whitman-Linsen 1992:28); i.e., when
spoken, the translated dialogue must be exactly the same length as the time the
screen actor or actress has his/her mouth open to utter the source text dialogues.
Most criticisms of a badly dubbed film stem from isochrony deficiencies, since
this is where the viewer is most likely to notice the fault. Instances in which the
character’s lips have closed at the end of an utterance but the viewer still hears
the translated speech, or where an actor is obviously speaking while the viewer
hears nothing, are frequent and �ustified grounds for criticism by both critics
and the public.
The implementation of these three types of synchronization – lip-sync, kinesic
synchrony and isochrony – is the result of a conscious agenda to domesticate
the translated text, so that viewers are oblivious to the fact that what they are
witnessing on screen is a translation. Good lip-sync will transmit what Metz calls
the “impression of reality”, a powerful phenomenon that essentially consists of
the con�unction of images in motion, credible photography and icons, and cred-
ible dialogue and sounds. This impression, or tacit pact between the director of
the film – and the scriptwriter, actors, and all the crew involved in a film – and
the viewers, has been defined historically in terms of the use of realistic images
and a realistic performance. Unfortunately, however, less attention has been
paid to the features of oral discourse in dialogue exchanges that also contribute
to this prefabricated realism (see Chapter 5).

4.1.4 What synchronization is not

Two further types of synchronization described in the literature do not strictly

fall within the definition of synchronization: character synchrony and content
synchrony. Character synchrony (Whitman-Linsen 1992) refers to the coincidence
between the voices of the dubbing actors and what the audience expects the
on-screen actors’ voices to sound like: in general, a child actor cannot be dubbed
70 Frederic Chaume

by an older male voice; a woman’s voice must sound feminine; and the “baddie”
must sound gruff and sinister. This opens up a fascinating debate, which would
lead us into discussions about what is politi
ticcally correct in terms of gender issues,
or the criteria used for castings.
However, this issue is directly related to the dubbing actors’ dramatizations,
rather than a type of synchronization. As such, it falls outside the range of syn-
chronization to which the translator or dialogue writer has access, and should
not therefore be regarded as a type of synchronization as it does not directly
affect translation operations or text re-writing. The type of language used by each
character in the source text should provide sufficient indication of the character’s
idiosyncrasies for the translator to work with. The effects of dramatization are
the exclusive concern of the dubbing actors and the dubbing director.
Other authors have discussed the existence of what is known as content
synchrony (Mayoral et al. 1988), which refers to the semantic relation between
the translation and what happens on screen (images and music). The term
synchrony or synchronization in this context is misleading however, as these
authors are referring not to synchrony but to coherence, a functional-systemic
term. Translation must not only follow the written source text, but also the
events on screen. In other words, it must be coherent with the communica-
tive situation established on screen (context of situation). To achieve this, the
translator has several cohesive links at his or her disposal (ellipsis, recurrence,
substitution, con�unction, collocation, etc.), which help to produce a translation
that is coherent with the on-screen action, but which do not fall within the area
of synchronization (Chaume 2004c).

4.2 Kinesic synchrony

In certain circumstances, the meaning of kinesic signs (body language) must

sometimes be made explicit, either because they need to be understood in order
to follow the plot (a functional need), or because if they are not spotted, the
viewer would be rudely awoken from the cinematographic reverie that comes
of the conscious alliance of film and viewer. Kinesic signs are sometimes accom-
panied by (redundant) words which make their meaning explicit. At other times
they appear alone, with no spoken word, caption, sound or other icon to explain
them. In the first case, translators simply have to translate the words accompany-
ing the kinesic sign. In the second case, however, they have to decide whether
the sign needs to be made more explicit or not (Chaume 2008).
In the first case, when the sign has the same meaning in both cultures, transla-
tors use conventional words or phrases that would normally go with it. Viewers
understand the sign, the gesture or the movement because it also belongs to
their culture. Semiotic redundancy, typical in cinema, dispels any possible am-
biguity. But it also forces translators to be respectful of this cohesive device since
gestures will ultimately condition the words selected to explain them. In many
Western cultures, nodding is the equivalent of giving one’s assent to something
previously said, while shaking one’s head has the opposite meaning. In an old
Synchronization or lip-sync: Read my lips 71

dubbing into Catalan of the iconic TV series Mission Impossible (Bruce Geller et
al. 1966-1973) the following example could not be missed:

Mr. Johnson: Then, won’t there be more holidays until next year?
Secretary: No, Mr Johnson.

The Catalan translation changes the point of view of the answer, and we hear
the secretary saying, in Catalan, “Yes, Mr Johnson”, in the sense of acknowledging
Mr Johnson’s inferences. The translation made sense because what the secretary
meant was “Right, Mr Johnson, you understood what I said before”. A literal
translation would have worked (“No, Mr Johnson, there won’t be more holidays”),
but the modulation also worked (“Yes, Mr Johnson, you are right in what you are
saying; you understood what I said”). While “no” answers the locutionary verb
– “no, there won’t be more holidays” –, “yes” answers the illocutionary verb
– “yes, you are right to think that there will be no more holidays”. The problem
is that the secretary accompanies her affirmative answer with ���������������
a very obvious
shaking of her
���������������������������������������������������������������������
head. The translation thus provokes laughter and breaks the pact
with the spectator discussed in §4.1.3 (Chaume 2008).
Translators, dialogue writers, dubbing directors and actors easily spot this
obvious dischrony, making this type of mistake very infrequent. Nevertheless, it
is very useful as an example to show that kinesic signs work as translation con-
straints. In most Western cultures, the audience expects a “no” to accompany a
shaking head, or a “neither”, “nor”, or any other negative word or phrase. It is
difficult to explain a mistake like this, since the translation passed through vari-
ous hands before the final recording.
For our purposes, the following strategies and techniques can be used to
produce a translation that camouflages the translator’s manipulation (Chaume
2008):

 Strategy:
 To be coherent ����������������������������������������������������
with the actor’s body movements, in this particular
case, with the shaking head.

 Techniques:
 Natural translation or coined equivalent in the TL. But when a natural
translation does not work:
 Substitute the original words for other word classes (conjunctions,
pronouns, etc. such as “neither”) and phrases with the same seman-
tic content (“at all”, etc.). In cases in which a paralinguistic sign ac-
companies a body movement (a person about to fall, for instance),
the translator will look for the coined equivalent that corresponds
with that body movement. The English interjection “Oops!” can be
rendered in Spanish or Catalan as ¡Epa! or even ¡Ep!, both of which
respect the bilabial phoneme /p/ where required in case of close-ups
and extreme close-ups.
 Repetition of the original ST, when the term has already penetrated
72 Frederic Chaume

the target language or there is a similar equivalent. “Hey!” can be

translated as¡Eh! in Spanish, or even the substandard *¡Ey!, which
also contains the open vowel for close-ups and extreme close-ups.

In a hierarchy of priorities, synchronies take precedence over a faithful ren-

dering of the ST content. Complete substitution, including change of semantic
meaning, would also be accepted when none of the proposed techniques works,
and when the change of semantic meaning does not affect the overall meaning
of the film, or the character’s personality.

4.3 Isochrony

Mouth articulation movements are directly related to two kinds of synchroniza-

tion: isochrony and lip-sync proper. In dubbing, isochrony means equal duration
of utterances, i.e. when spoken, the translated dialogue must be exactly the same
length as the time the screen actor or actress has his/her mouth open to utter the
ST dialogue exchanges. Criticism of a badly dubbed film, as we noted in §4.1.3, is
generally due to isochrony deficiencies, as it is here that the viewer is most likely
to notice the fault. Isochrony is thus what compels translators to fit the length of
their translation to the length of the screen character’s utterance.
In subtitling, translators also aim to synchronize all subtitles with the screen
characters’ utterances (a process called spotting), so that viewers can relate the
subtitles to these utterances. Synchrony in subtitling, however, does not need to
be as perfect as in dubbing: a subtitle may appear some frames before the screen
character opens his/her mouth, and more commonly, a subtitle can remain on
screen for some frames, or even seconds, after the character has closed his/her
mouth (Chaume 2008).
If the rough translation for the dubbing – i.e. the first draft of the translation
still without lip-sync – does not fit the screen character’s mouth movements, the
dialogue writer will have to to expand or reduce the translation. Ultimately, it is
the task of the dubbing actors to fit the translation into the mute screen actors’
mouths in the dubbing studio.
Amplification and reduction techniques must be monitored by relevance
theory (this theory argues that the audience will search for meaning in any given
communication situation and having found meaning that fits their expectation
of relevance, will stop processing, Gutt 1991) and by the conventions govern-
ing audiovisual genres in each culture and time period. In the case of both
amplification and reduction in dubbing, several stylistic resources or translation
techniques are available to help translators overcome problems posed by iso-
chrony (Chaume 2008):

 Strategy:
 To fit a translation into the duration of the screen characters’ utter-
ances, matching their mouth articulation movements and their paus-
es and silences.
Synchronization or lip-sync: Read my lips 73

 Techniques:
 In the case of amplification, expansion of the target text using trans-
lation techniques such as repetition, gloss, periphrasis, anacoluthon
(when a sentence abruptly changes from one structure to another),
paraphrase, (longer) synonyms, antonyms, hypernyms or general
terms, and hyponyms or words or phrases whose semantic range is
included within that of another word. Most of these techniques also
confer a fresher and more oral touch to the translation, another of
the agreed dubbing standards (see Chapter 1).
 In the case of reduction, ellipsis of performative verbs, modal verbs,
interjections, markers of the phatic function (i.e., the use of language
for the sake of interaction, which can be observed in greetings and
casual discussions of the weather, for example), expressions per-
forming purely social functions (“hello”, “good morning”, “yes”, “no”,
“thanks”, “sure”, “certainly”), vocatives, surnames and proper names;
omission of redundancies with the images; use of deictics instead of
nouns and phrases, of all-purpose words like “thing” or “stuff”, of
(shorter) synonyms, antonyms, hypernyms, hyponyms, metaphors,
and metonymy.

Mouth articulation and the duration of utterances are key factors in deciding
how many syllables the translation should have. Although in daily professional
practice dialogue writers do not usually count the number of syllables in both the
source and the target texts (although it is recommended they do so), a good lip-
sync can help achieve a truly remarkable dubbing. Respect for isochrony in dubbing
follows the hidden agenda of keeping the suspension of disbelief and making the
programme more realistic, credible and true-to-life (Chaume 2008).

4.4 Lip-sync

Another type of synchrony related to mouth articulation is known as phonetic

synchrony or lip synchrony (see §4.1.3). The term lip-sync is used in real practice
as a general term that embraces isochrony and phonetic synchrony. For academic
purposes, however, we must distinguish between equal duration of utterances:
isochrony, and mirroring certain phonemes in close-ups: phonetic synchrony.
The difference between the two should be made clear, and in this book lip-sync
is understood to mean phonetic synchrony.
Dubbing assistants, dialogue writers, dubbing directors, or translators per-
forming this function have to analyze what types of shots they are dealing with.
Traditionally, dubbing countries are only concerned with close-ups and extreme
close-ups – shots showing only the character’s face. Dialogue writers, then, adapt
the translation to the articulatory movements of the on-screen characters, paying
particular attention to ensure that the translation respects the open vowels and
bilabial and labio-dental consonants pronounced on screen. Dubbing primarily
consists of domesticating a foreign product to make it seem realistic, credible
and in tune with the audience’s expectations and experiences. The translation
74 Frederic Chaume

should therefore contain an open vowel or a bilabial phoneme where the screen
actor articulates an open vowel or a bilabial phoneme in the original. Fodor’s
(1976) pioneering work goes into much more detail on phonetic synchrony, but
as mentioned in §4.1.3, in real professional practice, lip-sync is only observed in
close-ups and extreme or big close-ups (Chaume 2008).
In close-up shots, translators or dialogue writers match an open mouth or a
closed mouth with open vowels or bilabials in the translation. Vowels or conso-
nants, however, do not have to be identical. Open vowels in the ST – /Λ/, /æ/,
/a:/, /e/ – must correspond with open vowels in the translation, but rotations
are possible. This������������������������������������������������������������
means that ������������������������������������������������
translations can use vowels other than those in
the source text, in the same position. Exact correspondence between vowels is
not required: an /æ/ can substitute an /e/ and vice versa, if necessary, although
sometimes an exact match is preferrable if possible. Even in the more demand-
ing case of bilabials, words in the target language do not have to have the same
consonants as the source: a /p/ can easily be replaced by an /m/, /b/ or even
by the labiodentals /f/, or /v/. Phonetic articulations of close phonemes help
the translator find excellent solutions that lend credibility to target dialogues in
extreme close-ups with closed lips.
In these cases of close-up shots it should be noted that phonetic equivalence
overrides semantic or even pragmatic equivalence: it is much more important to
find a word with a bilabial consonant than to find a synonym or a similar word
in the TL. Bilabial consonants or open vowels are easily interchangable, thus
opening up the possibilities for the translation and encouraging creativity. This
practice can be compared to creating rhyme in poetry or songs. Translators must
bear in mind that the function of the translation is to maintain the impression of
reality discussed in §4.1.3, by matching open vowels and bilabials where screen
characters in close-ups visibly open or close their mouths. Fortunately for transla-
tors, these instances are scarce in films. The strategies and techniques that can
be used to overcome this problem are summarized below (Chaume 2008):

 Strategy:
 Selecting words in the TL containing the same or similar phonemes
as those found in the ST, taking into account that this will be only
required in close-ups, extreme close-ups or detailed mouth shots.
 Techniques:
 Repetition of the word or words in the source language, when the
words are identical or very similar in both source and target lan-
guages: “football” and Spanish fútbol; “morning” and German mor-
gen; “table” and French table.
 Change of word order (syntactic or informative – topic/comment –)
so that the word containing the marked phoneme coincides with an-
other word in the TL containing similar or identical phonemes: “the
parson had a house which belonged to...” can be replaced in French
with la maison du clergé appartenait à…[the house of the clergyman
belonged to…], thus placing the bilabial /m/ of maison in the spot
where the screen actor pronounces the /p/ of “parson”, and placing
the bilabial /p/ of appartenait where s/he says the /b/ of “belonged”.
Synchronization or lip-sync: Read my lips 75

 Substitution of the target word, which is in principle the literal trans-

lation of the source word, for a synonym, antonym, hypernym, hypo-
nym or any other stylistic resource that respects the original meaning.
Thus, The Pancake Day, the title of a rap song repeated by the singer
in a close-up in an American TV series, was translated into Spanish as
martes de carnaval (Mardi Gras, Pancake Tuesday), fitting the Span-
ish /m/ to the English /p/. In some cases professional actors, dubbing
directors or dialogue writers completely change the meaning of the
ST to achieve phonetic equivalence, usually within the constraints of
pragmatic equivalence, i.e. still unaffecting characterization, plot, etc.
This illustrates how phonetic equivalence is perceived as an absolute
priority in professional practice.
 Reduction or amplification of the word, phrase or sentence, a tech-
nique which can be combined with those mentioned above.
 Omission of a word or sentence constituent or addition of a new
element, techniques that in some cases might be considered to be
translation errors in written translations, but are permitted in AVT,
especially in dubbing.

4.5 Further discussion

4.5.1 Considerations on genres and text types

Synchronization is not carried out to the same degree of precision in all audio-
visual genres and in all dubbing types. For example, synchronization is not a
priority in documentaries, which are usually voiced-over so the viewer can hear
the original sound in the background at the same time with ith a few se
secconds de
dela
layy.
la
Isochrony is not strictly followed: the translation often comes in two or three
seconds after the narrator or screen character has started to speak. A functional
approach would consider documentaries as informative text types. In this case,
convincing the viewer that the actor or narrator is speaking the target language is
not as important as getting across certain information or ideas with the greatest
possible respect for the source text. Thus the only synchrony that tends to be
taken into account is isochrony, and even so, only partially, by ensuring that the
spoken target text finishes at the same time as the source text, thereby avoiding
any overlap with the following section.
The other three commonly dubbed audiovisual genres are texts with a pre-
dominantly expressive function: cartoons, television series and films. If the function
of the translation is to convey emotions without sounding foreign or strange, and
the viewer is to experience the events taking place on screen, then the role of
synchronization is certainly much more relevant. However, there is an observable
difference in how synchronization is used in each of the three genres.
Cartoons demand a minimal degree of synchrony (Katan 2010). Since the
characters obviously do not speak, but rather seem to move their lips almost
randomly without actually pronouncing the words, a precise phonetic adaptation
76 Frederic Chaume

is not necessary, except in the case of extreme close-ups or detailed shots in

which the character apparently utters an open vowel. A further relevant factor
in any analysis of this genre is the viewer: child audiences are not demanding
as far as synchronization is concerned and neither isochrony nor lip synchrony
is strictly applied. In contrast, kinesic synchrony is important to children’s car-
toons, as the cartoon characters tend to use exaggerated gestures to capture
the attention of their young viewers. These gestures should be accompanied by
a coherent translation.
An obvious case of how genre affects synchrony is that of Japanese cartoons
(anime) and comics (manga), which are aimed at different types of consum-
ers. Adult-oriented cartoons are not so common in Europe, where the cartoon
format is generally considered as implicitly designed for the children’s market.
When cartoons aimed at teenagers or adults in the source culture are shown to a
child audience in the target culture (Shin-Chan, Yoshito Usui 1992, for example),
synchronization can be more flexible, as it will depend on the target culture’s
conventions for the genre and the viewer, and not on the genre and viewer in
the source culture.
A thorough application of all synchronization types is required for the tele-
vision series genre. Although the degree of perfection is not as high as that
demanded by the big screen, television series do include the three synchron-
ization types in all their forms. Television series offer a magnificent apprenticeship
for those interested in this area of translation, as all types of synchronization
have to be applied, but the final result allows for a greater margin of error than
in the dubbing of a film.
Last but not least, films demand a highly polished synchronization at all levels.
Without going into exceptions such as B movies or telefilms, the vast majority
of films systematically require synchronization of the highest quality. Producers,
distributors and exhibitors are fully aware that the success or failure of a dubbed
film depends on its synchronization. All the above-mentioned synchronization
types (see §4.1.1, 4.1.2 and 4.1.3) are to be found in detail in this genre, from labial
consonants and rounded or spread vowels, to pauses and syllables, and even facial
movement synchronization with the on-screen characters (Chaume 2004c).

4.5.2 Considerations on language contact

Synchronization poses translation problems, but these are not the only challenges
the translator has to deal with. Sometimes another translation problem arises
simultaneously. For example, in some cases an icon (an image) accompanying the
spoken words appears on screen. With no icons on screen the translator is freer
to find a word that more or less relates to the situation and fits the on-screen
actor’s mouth. But with an on-screen icon related to the word pronounced in
a close-up, for example, translation solutions are limited. This situation forces
translators to call on all their translation resources, and apply every last ounce
of their creative skills (Chaume 2004c).
Synchronization will be more accurate if the ST word or words posing a po-
tential synchronization problem exist in the target language. Thus, the translation
Synchronization or lip-sync: Read my lips 77

from English to most European languages of the word “mummy” in a close-up will
be easy to translate in terms of lip synchronization, as very similar words exist in
all these languages. Close languages can benefit as far as synchronization prob-
lems are concerned since they share many words coming from the same root.
Finally, there will obviously be variations in the norms and conventions that
control the way synchronization is achieved in different target cultures. The
degree of perfection in the application of the various synchronization types de-
pends on the norms of each target culture, the viewer’s expectations, the role
of tradition in the use of the different synchronization types and the audiovisual
genre in question, among other factors.

4.5.3 Considerations on the translation brief

Of all the types of audiovisual translation, dubbing demands the most thorough
synchronization. Other dubbing subtypes, such as partial dubbing or narration, do
not prioritize synchronization to the same extent. As we have already seen, voice-
over does not require an exact synchronization, neither in terms of isochrony nor
lip synchrony, while simultaneous film interpretation completely bypasses even
kinesic synchrony. Clearly, the effort involved in the oral translation of a film is
quite sufficient on its own without the interpreter having to factor lip synchrony,
kinesic synchrony and isochrony into the bargain.
A further relevant factor in synchronization is the client who commissions the
translation. The cinema industry demands more careful attention to synchron-
ization than do television companies, which in turn are more exacting than a
company requiring a translation of a corporate video. While the cinema and
television industries insist on thorough, careful synchronization, other clients
are generally satisfied with a good translation.
The function of the target text also plays a part in how carefully synchron-
ization is carried out in the translation. Equifunctional or heterofunctional
translations (Nord 1997) demand different degrees of synchronization. If the
function of the target text is not the same as that of the source text (heterofunc-
tional translations), the translator will usually synchronize the text according to
the conventions laid down by the target culture for that particular function. For
example, in a programme about advertisements in other languages and from
different cultures, the advertisements may be dubbed using voice-over, which
requires practically no synchronization, or through a more relaxed dubbing
style (or even narration or subtitling). However, if the same advertisement is
introduced into the target culture in order to sell the product, the standard of
synchronization required will be higher (for example, the case of Werther’s Ori-
ginal candies, dubbed into various European languages, see Chaume 2004c).

4.5.4 Considerations on the viewer

As we noted, child audiences are not as exacting as adults where synchronization

quality is concerned. For this reason, and also because phonetic synchrony
78 Frederic Chaume

does not have to be as precise since cartoon characters are not real and do not
articulate real phonemes, a lower standard of synchronization quality is accept-
able in the cartoon genre, both in lip synchrony and isochrony. Child audiences
will not notice any delay, nor will they demand higher synchronization quality.
By the same token, television series designed for young audiences also accept
certain liberties in isochrony, as young audiences, although more aware than
child audiences, do not consider synchronization quality as a top priority when
judging a television series. Adult audiences, however, seem to demand greater
perfection in synchronization quality, and consequently, television series and
films aimed at adults are generally much more polished in this respect. None-
theless, no empirical studies have been carried out to explore any differences
in the standards demanded by different age or gender groups within the adult
audience as a whole.

4.5.5 Factors relevant to synchronization

Not all synchronization types require the same degree of perfection in transla-
tion. Contrary to Fodor’s (1976) claims, lip synchrony does not require a source
language bilabial consonant to be substituted for a target language bilabial
consonant; rather, any labio-dental consonant will suffice. Open vowels can be
replaced by any other open vowel as is evidenced by the numerous shots in which
an /æ/ is substituted for an /e/, and even on occasions, with an /o/, and vice
versa. Likewise, kinesic synchrony can also be flexible where rotations between
interjections are concerned, except in affirmative or negative head movements,
which do require a non-ambiguous solution. In the case of isochrony, one syl-
lable before the screen actor opens his or her mouth, and even two syllables
after he or she has closed are quite acceptable, as the effect will go practically
unnoticed by the viewer.
The function performed by synchronization in the source text (sound post-
synchronization, in this case) is also a relevant factor in translation. If sound
post-synchronization has not been carefully respected in the source text, because
it is not a priority in the text, then there is no reason why it should be respected in
the target text, unless additional reasons prevail (client demands, target culture
conventions, etc.). Thus, in advertising or publicity texts, in which source language
post-synchronization has not been given priority, synchronization in the target
language is not normally of prime concern (Chaume 2004c).

4.6 Exercises

The following exercises combine problems raised by isochrony, phonetic syn-

chrony and kinesic synchrony, and become gradually more difficult. Isochrony
can be practised in every single sentence of every single film. In other words,
students can select any film, watch a scene, listen to the on-screen dialogue, and
then produce a translation, read it aloud, and check whether the translation fits
Synchronization or lip-sync: Read my lips 79

the screen actors’ mouth movements. It must be emphasized that the reading
of the translation must start the moment the screen actor first opens his/her
mouth, and must finish the moment it closes. Pauses and silences between words
and sentences must also be respected.
These exercises can also be done using the many applications on offer to im-
prove lip-sync. Nowadays free software is available to help students, translators
and dialogue writers improve the degree of lip-sync accuracy. Windows Movie
Maker (see Annex 1), for example, allows trainee translators to watch the source
film and, at the same time, to read their translations aloud, record them, and
then watch the clip again while listening to their own voices and checking for
lip-sync accuracy. If it is not accurate, they can repeat the exercise, rephrasing
their translation, and adding or removing words. The same exercise can be done
with the software fandubbers use to dub webtoons and anime: Virtual Dub,
Goldwave, Audacity, and Adobe Audition, among others.

4.6.1 Go to DVD > Chapter 4 > Exercises > Exercise 4.6.1 > Charade
– Apartment
This first exercise only practises isochrony. Translate the dialogues
in this scene into your working language, paying particular attention
to isochrony. Your translation should fit both Cary Grant’s and Audrey
Hepburn’s mouths. First translate the dialogue lines, then turn down
the volume of the original film and read your translation aloud, line by
line, until your lines fit the on-screen characters’ mouths. Remember
to read your translation aloud at normal speed, and do not rush if you
think it does not fit; just change your translation – make it either shorter
or longer, according to the total duration of the speech uttered by the
characters.

4.6.2 Go to DVD > Chapter 4 > Exercises > Exercise 4.6.2 > Charade
– Encounter
This second exercise explores isochrony in greater depth. The dialogue
lines in this scene are spoken more quickly than in the previous exer-
cise. Translate them into your mother tongue following the same steps
as in 4.6.1.

4.6.3 Go to DVD > Chapter 4 > Exercises > Exercise 4.6.3 > The Three
Amigos – Balloons
This third exercise deals with kinesic synchrony.

 Translate the dialogues into your mother tongue, taking into account
the various meanings of the word blow, but also the actual meaning of
this verb, when the girl blows into a balloon/condom. Try and create a
translation that keeps both the literal and the metaphorical meaning of
blow in this dialogue line. Remember that images cannot be contra-
dicted, but at the same time, try to respect the figurative meaning of the
verb in this situation.
80 Frederic Chaume

 Take isochrony into account too, thus increasing the level of difficulty.
4.6.4 Go to DVD > Chapter 4 > Exercises > Exercise 4.6.4 > Night of
the Living Dead – Prayers
This exercise tackles lip-sync (phonetic synchrony).

 Translate only the close-up shots of Reverend Hicks, Mr. Krantz and
Hilda Krantz, taking into account lip-sync. Try to successfully substitute
words such as believe (containing a bilabial and a fricative consonant),
cremation (a bilabial), fires (a fricative), way (a rounded semi-vowel) or
punishment (two bilabials, which can be replaced by just one in the tar-
get language, since they are uttered almost consecutively), in the case
of Rev. Hicks. Or some, be, beyond and repentance in the case of Hilda
Krantz, all four words containing a bilabial consonant.
 Remember that no lip-sync is needed when Rev. Hicks’ mouth is
hidden behind the Bible, nor in medium, knee, or long shots and in off
speeches.
 Take isochrony into account.
4.6.5 Go to DVD > Chapter 4 > Exercises > Exercise 4.6.5 > Charade
– Hotel
You can choose either this scene or another scene from any clip without
copyright which you can download from the web, or any scene from
a DVD if you digitize it first. Read the simple guide to dubbing with
Windows Movie Maker (Annex 1). Open the software, free in all PCs
(you can also download it for free if you have other operating systems).
Follow the instructions given in Annex 1: Load the clip, segment it into
scenes, translate a couple of scenes taking into account all synchronies
explained in this chapter, erase the original sound, read your translation
aloud as many times as necessary to fit it into the screen character’s
mouths (only close-ups and extreme or big close-ups), and finally
record it. You can now play the new clip with your voice and check
whether your translation exactly fits the characters’ mouths in terms of
isochrony, kinesic synchrony and lip-sync.
5. The language of dubbing: a matter of compromise

5.0 Preliminary discussion

(a) When you watch a dubbed movie or cartoon, do certain expressions

sound somewhat awkward and typical of dubbing? How do you react
when on-screen actors don’t sound quite right? Does it distract you
from the film?
(b) What expressions are typical of dubbing in your country? If you live in a
mainly subtitling country, what odd expressions are commonly heard in
dubbed cartoons?
(c) Why do you think these expressions are still used in translations today?
(d) Do you suspect that taboo language is toned down in dubbings? Why?
(e) Does the language of dubbed cartoons sound natural to you?
(f) How would you give dialogues a natural flavour?

Writing fictional dialogues that sound natural and credible to the audience’s ears
is one of the major challenges in both scriptwriting and audiovisual translation,
especially in the case of dubbing. This challenge does not lie so much in trying
to imitate spontaneous conversations, but in selecting specific features of oral
discourse that are widely accepted and recognized as such by the audience.
Including those features in the translation should not interfere with the com-
prehension and interpretation of the dialogue, but must succeed in recreating
a spontaneous-sounding conversation. Several academics have concluded that
fictional dialogue is a combination of linguistic features used in both spoken and
written texts (Remael 2000 and 2008; Chaume 2004a; Pérez González 2007), and
that both translators and scriptwriters should aim to achieve a balance between
speech and writing (Baños-Piñero and Chaume 2009).

5.1 In search of oral discourse

5.1.1 A balance between planned and spontaneous speech

In their seminal 1978 article, Gregory and Carroll made the first systematic at-
tempt to describe the linguistic register used in audiovisual texts. They argued
that audiovisual texts present a peculiar mode of discourse – the language of
audiovisual texts is “written to be spoken as if not written” (ibid.:42). Much has
been written on the subject since then, and the language of audiovisual texts can
now be said to present a combination of features deriving from both oral and
written texts. The particular features that shape the audiovisual model of each
language will, in the end, depend on cultural constraints. Each culture’s norms
explicitly or implicitly determine the linguistic and iconic appropriateness of an
audiovisual text.
82 Frederic Chaume

The critical role of fictional dialogues in audiovisual texts and their translations
warrants a thorough study of the resources available to recreate spontaneous
on-screen dialogue. The main purpose of this chapter is to analyze how the lin-
guistic code is woven into translation for dubbing, focusing on what is specific to
audiovisual texts and, therefore, to audiovisual translation. The multiple semiotic
codes operating simultaneously in audiovisual texts are also taken into account.
What we are ultimately dealing with are texts characterized by a strange kind of
oral discourse, an orality which may seem spontaneous and natural, but which is
actually planned or, as we might say, feigned, false, prefabricated (Chaume 2001)
in terms of mode of discourse. This characteristic is common to most audiovisual
fictional texts regardless of their origins (Baños-Piñero and Chaume 2009).

5.1.2 The notion of prefabricated orality

As stated in Baños-Piñero and Chaume 2009, prefabricated orality is common

to most original and dubbed audiovisual programmes based on a script that is
to be interpreted as if it had not been written, especially fictional texts. Various
linguistic resources are available to help scriptwriters create believable dia-
logues that, despite their carefully planning, viewers recognize as true-to-life
conversation. Depicting realism through dialogues is one of the keys to creat-
ing a successful audiovisual programme, according to professionals in the field
(Comparato 1993; Toledano and Verde 2007), as well as scholars (Pavesi 2005;
Whitman-Linsen 1992) and viewers.
Several factors seem to hamper scriptwriters’ creativity and actors’ impro-
visational skills, however. Firstly, scripts must comply with the constraints of
audiovisual media, as well as with the conventions of the programme’s specific
genre. Secondly, the production of audiovisual discourse is governed by norms
that have been consolidated since the advent of cinema and television – such as
the use of formulaic language (Pavesi 2008:93) – and that might differ according
to the media in which the text is to be broadcast (television, cinema, Internet).
The choice of particular linguistic features aimed at mirroring spoken speech will
ultimately depend on what is considered acceptable in the system to which the
audiovisual text belongs and on the varied factors which operate in that system
(Karamitroglou 2000:71-81).
This strange mode of discourse in audiovisual fictional programmes also
has direct consequences for its translation: translators must be aware that the
original script they receive from the translation agency or dubbing company has
been written to convey the impression of spontaneous speech, and that in their
translation they must take into account the multiple signifying codes that operate
simultaneously in audiovisual texts. Audiovisual translators must therefore be
skilled at imitating spontaneous-sounding conversation in the target language. In
a sense, the audiovisual text translator is like a second scriptwriter, whose task
is to transfer the exchanges on screen in such a way that they sound credible in
the target language, and can thus be identified as true-to-life dialogues and easily
understood by the target audience (Baños-Piñero and Chaume 2009).
The language of dubbing: a matter of compromise 83

On the surface, mirroring spontaneous conversation in dubbing might not

seem too complicated as, unlike subtitling, spoken linguistic features of fictional
dialogues are also transferred through speech in the target language. However,
in addition to the above-mentioned restrictions to scriptwriters’ creativity and
actors’ improvisational skills, and the constraints of dubbing as an audiovisual
translation mode (lip synchrony, kinesic synchrony and isochrony, see Chapter
4), the tacit norms set by dubbing companies that enforce the linguistic and
stylistic standardization of dubbed fictional dialogues must also be considered
(Ávila 1997:25).
Concerns about the corruption of languages other than English through dub-
bing and subtitling is evidenced by the publication of style guides and books that
attempt to regulate the correct use of target languages in the media. Several
articles deal with the ‘contamination’ of languages other than English through the
effects of audiovisual translation (see the work by Gottlieb, for example, 1997,
2005 and 2008). Given these concerns, it is paradoxical, to say the least, that
very few publications are available to provide guidance for translators specializing
in dubbing and subtitling in the major dubbing languages. One example is the
style guide published by Televisió de Catalunya (1997) to control the quality of
audiovisual programmes dubbed into Catalan: Criteris lingüístics sobre traducció
i doblatge (Linguistic Criteria for Translation and Dubbing; see an updated online
version http://esadir.cat). The authors of this style guide argue that both transla-
tors and dialogue writers should imitate spontaneous speech using appropriate
spoken linguistic features in Catalan, but that this must be accomplished without
failing to observe the Catalan grammar rules and conventions (Televisió de Cata-
lunya 1997:11). The differences between the discourses of domestic and dubbed
audiovisual texts are also evidenced in these linguistic criteria, which suggest that
some linguistic features of spoken Catalan should be exclusive to domestically
produced programmes and should therefore not be used in audiovisual texts
dubbed into Catalan (Baños-Piñero and Chaume 2009).
This statement brings us back to the key concept of this chapter: prefabricated
orality in both original and dubbed audiovisual texts. It also invites us to reflect on
what linguistic features set domestic programmes apart from dubbed productions
and on what kind of norms govern the production of their discourses.

5.2 The language of dubbing: linguistic and translation issues

Translation oscillates between two poles: its adequacy to the source text and its
acceptability within the target culture (see �� 3.2).. In the case of tr
transla
ansla
anslation
tion for
dubbing, a major benchmark for good dubbing quality is that the target language
sounds realistic, credible, and plausible; i.e. that it does not distract us from the
storyline. Put another way, it must be acceptable according to the canonical
standards of an audiovisual text translated into the target language. The threat
to the breakdown of the tacit agreement between spectator and film must be
overcome by achieving an oral register that can be defined as false spontaneous
84 Frederic Chaume

(Marzà and Chaume 2009). This applies not only to dubbing and subtitling, but
also to film production.
Nonetheless, academics and linguists have, until recent decades, neglected
oral registers. Perhaps this has led television companies to publish guidelines
for translators, as well as newsreaders and scriptwriters. These guidelines or
stylesheets explain how to achieve an acceptable non-spontaneous oral regis-
ter, to make previously prepared written language (the script) sound as though
it has not in fact been written. In the Spanish dubbing field, the following are
worth highlighting: the Manual de Estilo de RTVE (RTVE Style Manual), written
by Salvador Mendieta in 1993, and the more thorough Criteris lingüístics sobre
traducció i doblatge (Linguistic Criteria for Translation and Dubbing), published by
Televisió de Catalunya in 1997. The Catalan corporation proposes a set of norms
to be followed when writing a translation for dubbing. This is a short summary
of their proposal (1997:12-14):

Avoiding: Promoting:
The passive voice Juxtaposition and short sentences
Unfinished sentences
Topicalization
Ellipsis
Deixis
Clichés and set phrases
Discourse markers
Phatic markers
Onomatopoeia
Interjections
Puns
Informal register

Table 5.1. Summary of the styleguide proposed by Televisió de Catalunya

(1997) for dubbed audiovisual programmes

In reference to subtitling, Gottlieb also applies some of the factors mentioned

in the Televisió de Catalunya guidelines:

In spontaneous speech (which may be ‘artificial’, as in feature films) the

subtitler will often find:
3) Pauses, false starts, self-corrections and interruptions.
4) Unfinished sentences and ‘grammatically unacceptable’ constructions.
5) Slips-of-the-tongue, self contradictions, ambiguities and nonsense.
6) Overlapping speech, a feature very difficult to render in writing.
(Gottlieb 1997:112)
The language of dubbing: a matter of compromise 85

The proposal drawn up by the linguistic advisors of the Catalan corporation

summarizes what is meant by false oral register in television and cinema; in short,
what norms prevail in the production of credible life-like dialogues in the target
culture, in this case Catalan, but needless to say, in all other target cultures.
Once again, if the norms that shape the oral register in the target culture are
not respected, the threshold of permissiveness is crossed, the norm is violated,
and the tacit agreement between the spectator and the visual content is broken.
Whitman-Linsen also regards the issue in the same way when she refers to an
experiment conducted by Herbst on the recognition of oral register:

Artificiality is one of the main faults pilloried in denouncements of dubbed

versions: the audience can hear that it is not an original. Dubbed language
simply does not correspond to the way normal people talk. Herbst con-
ducted an experiment in which he presented students with original and
dubbed texts. The revealing findings indicated that the latter were clearly
recognizable as such. No wonder the dubbing actors themselves take the
brunt of criticism. (Whitman-Linsen 1992:118)

Here we are dealing with a prefabricated, artificial, non-spontaneous oral

register; in other words, one which does not exactly imitate the spontaneous
oral register, but echoes many of its characteristics (Chaume 2004a:167‑186). As
early as 1960 Caillé took the same line, particularly in reference to the translator’s
responsibility, who, if s/he did not produce a realistic oral text, later forced the
actors into a false performance:

L’acteur, le comédien, ne peut donner sa mesure et avant tout ‘jouer

juste’, que si le texte qu’il a à interpréter est lui-même naturel. (Caillé
��������
1960:107)

Above all else, Caillé considers a realistic text in the right non-spontaneous
oral register to be essential, even more so than lip-sync:

Pourvu qu’une phrase soit au rythme, qu’elle traduise l’original avec

toute sa charge de sensibilité, de colère ou de tendresse, qu’elle garde
la saveur, il n’est pas nécessaire, sauf dans certains cas de très gros plan,
que toutes les labiales soient en place. [...] Si les voix des comédiens sont
justes, si le texte doublé est juste, émeut ou divertit, la partie est gagnée.
(Caillé 1960:107)

Duff also noted the peculiarity of this kind of discourse, and following the
prevailing trend for prescriptiveness at that time, recommended translators not to
use dubbed translationese. He identified two stages in translation: the first when
writers ‘translate’ their thoughts into words, and the second when translators
‘translate’ from words into words, i.e. from one language to another:

[...] concepts do not cover exactly the same fields of meaning in different
languages. And the translator who imposes the concepts of one language
86 Frederic Chaume

to another is no longer moving freely from one world to another but

instead creating a third world – and a third language. (Duff 1989:10)

Nencioni (1976) spoke about “parlato-recitato”, i.e. recited spoken language,

to distinguish between real oral discourse and planned discourse, a discourse
which can be labelled “l’attributo di ‘recitato’, purché s’intenda nel senso della es-
ecuzione di un parlato programmato” (1976:49), i.e. the attribute of ‘recited’, in
the sense of performing a planned speech. In the same line, but in much greater
detail, Pavesi baptized the language of dubbing as “a third norm” and focused on
linguistic elements characteristic of this kind of language (Pavesi 1996). Melloni
(2004) and Bruti and Perego (2005) also explore this issue, focusing their atten-
tion on some peculiar elements of dubbed discourse and subtitling discourse,
respectively (Marzà and Chaume 2009). To date, Freddi and Pavesi (2009) is the
most comprehensive volume on the peculiarities of the language of dubbing.
Forchini (2012) shows a challenging experiment which confutes the claim that
movie language is different from real oral language.
Although not all authors agree (Fodor 1976; Kahane 1990-91), it would ap-
pear that most publications on dubbing confer greater importance on realistic
dialogue than good lip-sync. If the gestures, the intonation and the dialogues are
credible and natural, the audience will be more tolerant of any unsynchronized
lip movements that may appear in the dubbing. Whitman-Linsen sums this up
in five sentences:

As long as a certain tolerance threshold is not overstepped in any of the

different types, the illusion of authenticity can be successfully established.
[...] Most researchers and professional dubbers alike lend the greatest
priority to a believable, convincing dialogue. [...] What matters is the im-
pression, the credibility of the artistic word viewed as an integral whole.
Ultimately, Caillé claims, cinema is a factory of illusions. Dubbing attempts
to give the illusion of an illusion. (Whitman-Linsen 1992:54-55)

To achieve realistic dialogues, certain more micro-textual norms must also

be respected. In one of the most systematic studies on dubbing in the nineties,
Goris (1993) summarizes his doctoral thesis, based on field work carried out on
translation norms for dubbing in France. Following an analysis of various North
American films dubbed into French, Goris (1993:169-190) discovers that during
the translation process, non-standard fragments of the original text (i.e. slang,
colloquial syntax) tend to be standardized and culturally adapted (from the con-
version of measurements into the decimal system to the adoption of the French
equivalent of foreign place names, and the use of synchrony as a primary strat-
egy for naturalization). He also reveals the tendency to explain any ambiguous
fragments of the original text, in order to produce a uniform, easily understood
text that comes close to the receiver’s culture. The norms Goris identifies are
essentially repeated in the Spanish dubbing industry, as shown in the work of
Ballester (2001) or Martí Ferriol (2010).
The language of dubbing: a matter of compromise 87

Focusing on micro-textual norms, Chaume (2004a) proposed a model of

analysis structured around four language levels (prosody, morphology, syntax and
lexis), based on the comparison of written discourse, oral discourse and dubbese
from a target-oriented perspective. This model was later validated and extended
by Marzà et al. (2006) with a corpus of 900 minutes of dubbed cartoons, and
then again later validated and extended by Baños-Piñero (2006). Their results
offer a more detailed view of the specific position of dubbese along the written-
spoken and high register-low register axes, showing that their defining features
are unequally distributed among the four language levels.
The prosodic and phonetic level is oral by nature, but dubbing actors’ profes-
sionally clear articulation and intonation place it high along the register line. Very
few features, such as the expressive use of intonation or vowel liaisons – between
two words liaison involves a follow-through between a final consonant and an
initial vowel (though otherwise mute in liaison) or between a final vowel and
an initial vowel thus transforming the first vowel into a semiconsonant –, echo
spontaneous oral speech. Similarly, the morphological level proves to be very
standard: the limited use of verbal tenses and the extended use of derivation – the
process of forming a new word on the basis of an existing word – are the only oral,
spontaneous features found in that corpus (Marzà and Chaume 2009).
Syntactically, dubbese presents a balance between oral and written features.
On the oral side, the sentence structure tends towards immediacy and simplic-
ity, and the flexibility of syntax is exploited for pragmatic purposes, as in the
case of topicalization – the tendency to place what is being talked about at the
beginning of the sentence. In contrast, anything which could lead to a dispersion
of information is usually avoided. This results in a syntactically direct, simple
and compact language characterized by short sentences and a preference for
juxtaposition. Another noteworthy syntactic and pragmatic feature is the strong
interaction of dubbese with its context, expressed through conversational mark-
ers and deixis – the phenomenon by which understanding the meaning of certain
words and phrases in an utterance requires contextual information (Marzà and
Chaume 2009).
Finally, lexis is extremely open to oral and colloquial language. It is common
in translation practice to bring together all the characteristic features of a given
linguistic variety in this level, i.e., all substandard features in the four different
levels of the source text are poured into the lexical level of the target text, to
maintain the original substandard flavour of the film. The vocabulary used in
dubbing is not varied, but it is very flexible, creative and cohesive, and therefore
easily adapted to a given communicative context. However oral and colloquial,
lexis is also restricted by a strong tendency to respect standard language, as a
recurrent characteristic of dubbese on all levels (Marzà and Chaume 2009).
To summarize, dubbese is a culture-specific linguistic and stylistic model for
dubbed texts, labelled by Pavesi as a third norm, similar, but not equal to real
oral discourse and external production oral discourse (i.e., original target-culture
films, sitcoms, etc.). Dialogue writing must comply with a series of demands,
which include:
88 Frederic Chaume

 creating the effect of natural, credible and true-to-life dialogues

 promoting a balance which avoids overacting and underacting when
dubbing actors perform the dialogues (i.e., avoiding cacophonies, etc.)
 complying with lip-sync.

These demands, however, operate differently in real oral discourse, in-house

or outsourced production and dubbing, since target culture norms vary across
these three language production environments. If one had to place the mode of
discourse of these two production modes, i.e., in-house production programmes,
and dubbed programmes, on a continuum between the traditional written and
oral poles, the in-house production linguistic model would certainly be nearer
to the oral pole than would the language of dubbing:

Real oral discourse

written spoken
–________________________________________________X_+

In-house production oral discourse

written spoken
–_______________________________________X__________+

Dubbese
written spoken
–_______________________________X__________________+

Figure 5.1. The written-spoken continuum

Both in-house production oral discourse and dubbese strive to resemble real
oral discourse and use it as a benchmark, but dubbing is far more standardized
and strict than the language of in-house production (Baños 2006).

5.3. An analytical model for the study of prefabricated orality

In order to study the language of dubbing, we need an analytical framework to

guide us through the numerous features that language presents. This does not
mean that the same analytical framework should be used for all languages, or that
it has to be set in stone. Rather, the framework of analysis should be continually
nourished by new research findings. Most importantly, however, we must specify
the linguistic features we want to look for in our corpus, since otherwise we would
be overwhelmed by the infinite magnitude of the written and oral features we can
find in a screenplay (see Chapter 7). We may wish to look for phonetic features,
for syntactic misplacements or for semantic calques, for example. But it is difficult
to select one feature and not another, and in the end research projects on dub-
bing tend to be limited to just one feature (such as interjections in dubbese; for
The language of dubbing: a matter of compromise 89

example, see Matamala 2009), and leave aside all the other aspects that weave
together and breathe life into the language of dubbing.
The language of dubbing is the result of a planned agenda at many differ-
ent levels. It is not just a question of selecting certain lexical features that have
been widely used in target language dubbings over many decades, but rather
it emerges from a holistic approach to dialogue writing. This approach consists
of avoiding or promoting certain recurrent linguistic features at all language
levels. In the main, these features come from spontaneous oral discourse and
are adopted by the language of dubbing or dubbese, although other features
typical of written discourse are also found. Generally speaking, dubbese evolves
by discarding particular features of real oral discourse and incorporating other
features from the real spoken language of the target culture. But since trans-
lated dialogue lines are in fact written language, it also shares many features of
written discourse.
The following model therefore combines features from both spontaneous
oral discourse and written discourse. The model is conceived to provide a start-
ing point for the analysis of dubbese. It is not language-specific, in the sense
that each target language will also have its own linguistic devices to simulate
real oral discourse. These peculiarities cannot be represented here, for obvious
reasons. And many of the features included in the model will not be applicable
to all languages, since oral registers and the features making them up vary from
one language to another. Neither is the model prescriptive; in other words, it
does not specify how to do the translation. Rather, it is descriptive, since it is the
result of analyzing many films dubbed into various languages.
The main characteristics of the model are suggested below:

Analytical model for the study of dubbese (Baños-Piñero and Chaume

2009).

General Features Some Specific Features

Phonetic Consonant and vowel reduction and omission
articulation Addition of epenthetic initial vowels – i.e. the addition of one or
more vowels to a word –, linking consonants and vowels, etc.
Glottal occlusions
Assimilations
Aspiration of consonants
Prosodic features Clarity in pronunciation and diction:
Avoiding cacophonies, metatheses and prosodic ambiguity
Marked and emphatic pronunciation
Elongation of sounds
Use of intonation as a cohesive marker

Table 5.2. Phonetic and prosodic level

90 Frederic Chaume

General Features Some Specific Features

Grammatical Grammatical disagreement (number and gender)

inconsistencies
Non-standard verbal inflections

Table 5.3. Morphological level

General Features Specific Features

Textual organization Short, simple syntactic structures

Syntactic dysfluencies:
 incomplete utterances
 syntactic blends, digressions, expressive
paraphrases
 pauses and hesitations
 repeats, reformulations and false starts

Word order:
 conventional vs. pragmatic word order
(topicalization)
 marked word order (fronting, inversion, dislo-
cation and clefting)

Link between clauses Type of connections between clauses: juxtaposition,

and phrases coordination, subordination (statistics needed to check
the amount of each connection type)

Type of conjunctions and cohesive devices used:

 discourse markers
 stereotypical structures of conversation
 interjections
 vocatives

Redundancy Repetitions and additions

Ellipsis Elision of clausal elements

Elision of prepositions and conjunctions

Exophoric reference Personal deixis (I/you...)

Temporal and spatial deixis (here/now...)

Table 5.4. Syntactic level

The language of dubbing: a matter of compromise 91

General Features Specific Features

Lexical choice Simple vocabulary – limited lexical choice
Colloquial lexis
Lexical creation Creative neologisms (especially in cartoons)
Suffixes, prefixes and shortening processes
Slang and jargon terms
Specialized terminology
Loan words
Expressivity and lexical Phraseology
creativity
Features that promote expressivity and lexical cre-
ativity (colloquial expressions, figures of speech,
intertextuality, etc.)
Swear words Use of swear words and offensive terms (in films)
Use of euphemisms (in cartoons)
Lexical standardization Use of standard lexis
Avoiding use of dialectalisms and anachronisms

Table 5.5. Lexical and semantic level

It should be borne in mind that the language of dubbing is essentially conser-

vative and tends to stick to the grammar rules of the target language, especially
at the phonetic and morphologic levels. For this reason many phonetic and mor-
phologic features belong to the most correct levels of written language rather
than typically spoken language. This can be explained by the burden of historic
prejudice about language that dubbing carries: dubbing was consolidated at a
time when imitating real spoken language was completely unacceptable.
These linguistic features – and many others (see exercises in this chapter)
– provide the clues to what the language of dubbing actually consists of. The
researcher scrutinizes all the dialogue lines to find recurrences between target
and source text segments. The researcher will find features that are character-
istic of spoken language and that have been imported to dubbese, features of
written language that also weave the language of dubbing together, and also the
features that characterize dubbese in the target language, i.e. set phrases and
recurrent uses of discourse markers, interjections, vocatives, etc. In summary,
the researcher selects a (representative) corpus, uses an analytical framework
to look for linguistic features of dubbese in the target language and identifies
them. Two final important tasks remain: to discard all the features in the model
that are not useful in the target language; and to incorporate and define new
features that are characteristic of the target language in question. This would
be part of a typical descriptive analysis of dubbese.
Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) have opened up the way for a new
stream of research into how translation is done in a given time and space, and
92 Frederic Chaume

offer a possible interdisciplinary framework for the analysis of translations.

The interdisciplinary analysis advocated by DTS takes into account, on the one
hand, the relations of economic, social, political and moral power in the target
culture that influence a translation product, and, on the other, the linguistic,
communicative, pragmatic and semiotic dimensions of the target product
– often ignored by researchers. This analysis enables us to establish a series of
regularities, tendencies, or recurrent behaviour in a significant group of transla-
tions, which may constitute norms of translation (see ��������������������������
§3.2).��������������������
There is plenty of
evidence to suggest that current AVT scholars consider DTS to be the most ap-
propriate methodological and theoretical framework for the study of dubbese,
as reflected in the prolific research output in recent years. However, AVT is a
rapidly changing field which constantly demands renovation from professionals
and researchers.
Internet, DTV and the videogame boom have dramatically escalated the
impact of AVT on our daily lives: hordes of teenagers (and not only teenagers)
eagerly await the latest videogames, which only fall into their hands after the
language transfer process; impatient fans of Japanese culture bypass this process,
by accessing their favourite anime and manga through fansubs and scanlations,
and then demand that professional translations be consistent with these fan-to-
fan translations; subtitles and audiodescriptions are gradually being offered to
viewers through digital television; and the list of examples goes on. The language
of AVT is now far from being a monolithic entity. Academia should now turn
its attention to these new translation modes and not neglect them as AVT was
neglected in the past (Marzà and Chaume 2009).

5.4 A representative case study: calques

One frequent research topic is that of calques. A calque is a literal translation

of a word, a phrase or even a whole sentence into the target language. Calques
are not loans: while loans are borrowed from the source language and remain
inviolable in the target language (such as perestroika, for example, in many
languages), calques are literal translations that sound a bit awkward, especially
when heard for the first time, but which can eventually form part of the target
language system.
It is important to highlight here that calques are just one aspect of the
complex dubbese phenomenon that includes many other features. Calques
are just one typical side of the multifaceted prism of dubbese. Researchers,
however, are particularly sensitive to calques because they are so conspicuous
in translations.
Translations from English, the typical direction in most audiovisual transla-
tion commissions, have some notorious calques, particularly in translations into
Romance languages. The following table provides some examples:
The language of dubbing: a matter of compromise 93

Over-use of the passive voice

Over-use of possessive determiners and pronouns (Raise your hand should be
translated as Levanta la mano into Spanish – using the possessive modifier in-
stead of the article –, and not the inappropriate Levanta tu mano, so typical of
Spanish dubbings)
Literal translations of demonstratives (This morning is found translated as diesen
Morgen in German dubbings, whereas heute Morgen might be more appropriate)
Lexical calques and false friends, a long list of examples could be compiled in all
languages
Swear words, such as the numerous instances of fucking used as an adjective in
English, or taboo expressions such as get your ass out of here, repeatedly trans-
lated literally in many languages
Idioms

Figure 5.6. Examples of common calques from English into other

languages

Idioms are a particular case in point. Literal translations of idioms are com-
monly found, even in film titles. Below are some of the titles given to the film
One flew over the cuckoo’s nest (Milos Forman 1975), as listed in the imdb
webpage:

TRANSLATED FILM TITLE COUNTRY

Atrapado sin salida Argentina / Mexico / Peru (imdb display
title)
Пролетая над гнездом кукушки Russia / Soviet Union (Russian title)
Einer flog über das Kuckucksnest Austria / West Germany (imdb display
title)
Vol au-dessus d’un nid de coucou Canada (French title) / France
Alguien voló sobre el nido del cuco Spain
En flög över gökboet Finland (Swedish title)
Yksi lensi yli käenpesän Finland
Gökboet Sweden
Gøgereden Denmark
Gaukshreiðrið Iceland
Gjøkeredet Norway
Guguk kusu Turkey (Turkish title)
Kakkou no su no ue de Japan
Ken Ha-Cookiya Israel (Hebrew title)
Lendas üle käopesa Estonia (imdb display title)
94 Frederic Chaume

Let iznad kukavicijeg gnezda Serbia

Let iznad kukavicjeg gnijezda Yugoslavia (imdb display title) (Croatian
title)
Let nad kukavicjim gnezdom Slovenia (imdb display title)
Lot nad kukulczym gniazdem Poland
Prelet nad kukaccím hnízdem Czechoslovakia (imdb display title) (Czech
title)
Prelet nad kukucím hniezdom Prelet Czechoslovakia (imdb display title) (Slovak
nad kukucim hniezdom title) Slovakia (TV title)
Qualcuno volò sul nido del cuculo Italy
Sti folia tou koukou Greece (transliterated ISO-LATIN-1 title)
Száll a kakukk fészkére Hungary
Um Estranho no Ninho Brazil
Vlucht boven een koekoeksnest Netherlands (informal literal title)
Voando Sobre Um Ninho de Cucos Portugal
Zbor deasupra unui cuib de cuci Romania (imdb display title)

Figure 5.7. The translation of the title of One flew over the cuckoo’s nest

Many of these translated titles are literal translations of the original film title,
which is an expression built around an idiom in English. This is the explanation of
the title offered in Wikipedia: “A playful name for a mental asylum is a cuckoo’s
nest, a mentally unstable person can be referred to as cuckoo. To fly over a
cuckoo’s nest is to go too far, to get yourself in trouble” [http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoo%27s_Nest_%28novel%29]. Although not all
dictionaries agree that the whole sentence can be considered as an idiom, what
matters here is that the idiom cuckoo’s nest (which indeed is an idiom) has been
translated literally into several languages, even though it has no real meaning
in most of them; in other words, the title sounds completely nonsensical. Film
titles will be dealt with extensively in Chapter 7.

5.5 Exercises

The exercises for this chapter are just the starting point for a descriptive study.
They aim to help the trainee translator discover how the language of dubbing is
prepared. Although describing norms would be an enormous task for a handbook,
the idea of the exercises is to give trainee translators a taste of research work.
The results of a descriptive micro-study also tell us what professional transla-
tors regularly do in practice. To this end, the exercises will focus on finding the
typical features of dubbese represented in dialogue writing and disguised under
the cloak of unlaboured oral discourse.
The language of dubbing: a matter of compromise 95

5.5.1 Look on the Internet for a 5- to 10-minute clip from Pulp Fiction
(Quentin Tarantino, 1994), or any other film using taboo language, both
in English and dubbed into your working language. Focus on the lexical
level, i.e., on words and set expressions. Use the framework below to
find examples of these linguistic features in the dubbed version:

AVOIDANCE OF: PROMOTION OF:

Offensive or rude words Euphemisms
Unnecessary technical Spontaneous lexical creation
vocabulary
Dialectalisms Clichés
Anachronisms Intertextuality
Non-standard vocabulary All-purpose words
... Vocatives
... Use of universal and target-
culture cultural references
Slang
...
Figures of speech
...

... ...

 Did you find any examples of these linguistic features in the transla-
tion? What are they?
 Did you find any new lexical features belonging to spoken language
not listed in the table? Complete the table with any new lexical features
you found in the translated clip, using the empty boxes at the end of the
avoidance and promotion columns.
 Now watch the English clip (the source version clip if you choose
some other film, whatever language it might be) and then the trans-
lated clip again. Are there any calques in the translation? Are any of the
translation solutions overdetermined by the original text, i.e. noticeably
marked by features of the original text? How does it sound to you as a
native speaker?

5.5.2 Look on the Internet for a 5- to 10-minute clip from Friends (Da-
vid Crane and Marta Kauffman 1994-2004), or any other TV sitcom,
both in English and dubbed into your working language. Focus on the
syntactic level, i.e., on sentence structure and word order. Use the
framework below to find examples of these linguistic features in the
dubbed version:
96 Frederic Chaume

AVOIDANCE OF: PROMOTION OF:

Digressions and redundancies Deixis
Discourse segmentation Active (rather than passive)
sentences
Omission of prepositions Strict word order (no
anacoluthon)
Omission of conjunctions and Emphasis through topicalization
discourse markers
Expressive paraphrases and Stereotypical structures of
interferences without gram- conversation
matical connection to the main
clause
Deviations from grammatical or Number of juxtaposed
semantic constraints sentences: ___
Number of coordinate
sentences: ___
Number of subordinate
sentences: ___
Hesitation Interjections
... Ellipsis
... Opening and closing cues (tag
questions)
... Short sentences
... Repetitions and additions
... ...

 What examples of these linguistic features did you find in the transla-
tion?
 Did you find any new syntactic features characteristic of spoken lan-
guage not listed in the table? Complete the table with any new syntactic
features you found in the translated clip, using the empty boxes at the
end of the avoidance and promotion columns.
 Now watch the English clip (the source version clip if you choose
some other film, whatever language it might be) and then the trans-
lated clip again. Are there any calques in the translation? Are any of the
translation solutions overdetermined by the original text? How does it
sound to you as a native speaker?

5.5.3 Look on the Internet for a 5- to 10-minute clip from Little Britain
(Matt Lucas and David Walliams, 2003–), or any other sketch comedy,
The language of dubbing: a matter of compromise 97

both in English and dubbed into your working language. Focus on the
phonetic and prosodic level, i.e., on pronunciation and accent. Use the
framework below to find examples of these linguistic features in the
dubbed version:

AVOIDANCE OF: PROMOTION OF:

Consonant and vowel reduction Local /standard phonetic features
or elision
Metathesis Intonation stress to avoid
ambiguities
Addition of initial or middle Clear pronunciation
vowels
Addition of linking consonants Tense phonetic articulation
Assimilation ...
Cacophonies ...
Neutralization (weak forms) of ...
unaccented consonants and
vowels
Dialectal pronunciation ...
... ...

 What examples of these linguistic features did you find in the

translation?
 Did you find any new phonetic features of spoken language not listed
in the table? Complete the table with new syntactic features found in
the translated clip, using the empty boxes at the end of the avoidance
and promotion columns.
 Now watch the English clip (the source version clip, whatever lan-
guage it might be) and then the translated clip again. Are there any
non-standard phonetic features in the target language influenced by
the presence of non-standard phonetic features in the source version?
Why do you think non-standard phonetic features are never dubbed?
How does it sound to you as a native speaker?

5.5.4 Look at the following example from the film Kids (Larry Clark
1995):

Telly: I wanna fuck Darcy […] I just sat, like sat across from her and
started watchin’ her […] She was eatin’ this watermelon. Juices just
start runnin’ off her chin onto her shirt.
98 Frederic Chaume

 Translate the excerpt into your working language.

 What did you do with the underlined verbs? Did you try to find
equivalent non-standard features in your language? If so, where did
you introduce them? If not, why?
 Try to find a dubbing of this scene (or any other scene from this
same film) on the Internet and see how the teenagers’ language has
travelled into the dubbed version. What did you find? If you couldn’t
find a dubbed version, what would you expect to find in a translation for
dubbing: a conservative standard dubbed version or a norm-breaking
transgression of standard grammar and phonetics that tries to emulate
the teenagers’ language in the target culture? Why?

5.5.5 Look at the following example from the TV series Boston Com-
mon (David Kohan & Max Mutchnick 1996-1997):

[Joy is putting on a babyish voice to make fun of Boyd]

Joy: (Babyish voice) Oh look, there’s pasghetti and grilled cheese
samiches

 Translate the dialogue line into your working language.

 What did you do with the nouns in italics? Did you try to find equiva-
lent non-standard nouns in your language? If so, are they typical of
baby talk? If not, why not?

5.5.6 Look at the following example from the film In the Bleak Midwinter
(Kenneth Branagh 1995). An actor is rehearsing a sentence from this
well-known Shakespearian drama. The sentence is cacophonic (It spills
itself in fearing to be spilt), and in fact the actor mixes up the <f> of fear-
ing with the <sp> of spilt. The result is as follows:

Henry: “Oh, my offence is rank” Can you rehearse on something harder?

Terry: “So full of artless jealousy is guilt. It spills itself in fearing to be
spilt. In spearing to be filt”. If I get halfway through that sentence again,
I’ll lose a filling”.

 Translate the excerpt into your working language.

 What did you do with the malapropism? Did you try to retain the ef-
fect in your language? And what is more important: do you think that
a dubbing director would accept malapropisms in the target version or
would it be softened and adapted to standard grammar and lexis? Try
to find the dubbed clip in one of your working languages and see what
happened.

5.5.7 Try to rank these sentences below from most (1) to least (11) im-
portant, according to how relevant they may be to the task of dialogue
writing:
a) Avoiding loan words, foreign word order and foreign tenses
The language of dubbing: a matter of compromise 99

b) Using deictic pronouns instead of nouns (this, it)

c) Using conventionalized conversational formulae (‘you betcha’)
d) Being as explicit as you can
e) Sensitivity to dramatic effect (immediacy, subjective viewpoints)
f) Being natural in the target language (using vocatives, etc.)
g) Creating rhythm (length of words, phrases, sentences)
h) Using the rhetorical tools of the target language (register, expressive
resources, synonyms, metaphors)
i) Putting relevance theory into practice and omitting all unnecessary
information
j) Respecting textual coherence and cohesion with visual text
6. The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual
dimensions

6.0 Preliminary discussion

(a) Make a list of the sign systems you expect to find in an audiovisual
translation, especially in dubbing (music, images…).
(b) In subtitling, paralinguistic signs are hardly ever translated, since con-
straints on the number of characters per line preclude the introduction
of suprasegmental features in the subtitles and, furthermore, viewers
can pick up paralinguistic information directly from the screen, since
the original version is heard simultaneously. What would you expect to
happen in dubbing, in which the original version cannot be heard?
(c) Are songs in cartoons dubbed in your country? Do you remember any
of them? What do you think of the translation now?
(d) Do you think all audiences understand the meaning of auditory special
effects? Why? Should we translate special effects? How?
(e) Do images mean the same in all cultures? Can you give an example of
an image that means different things in different cultures?

An audiovisual text is a semiotic construct woven by a series of signifying codes

that operate simultaneously to produce meaning. A film, a cartoon or a docu-
mentary is made up of a series of codified signs, articulated in accordance with
conventional syntactic (editing) rules. Its typology or genre ascription – the way it
is organized and the meaning of all its elements – results in a semantic structure
that the spectator deconstructs in order to understand the meanings of the text.
The interest for the translator lies in disentangling the meaning and function-
ing of each of these codes, and the possible impact of all signs, linguistic and
non-linguistic, on translation operations. In this chapter, examples will be used
to illustrate and explain these codes of meaning and to examine the extent to
which they affect the translation process.

6.1 The acoustic dimension

Without the presence of a linguistic code in a text – either a source or a target text
– we would not be able to speak adequately of the translation process. It is also
true that the linguistic code is a signifying code common to all translatable texts,
and therefore its analysis is not specific to an audiovisual approach. However,
as we have seen in Chapter 5, what sets the linguistic code apart in audiovisual
texts is that in films, television series, cartoons and certain advertisements, we
are dealing with a written text that must seem oral and spontaneous (written to
be spoken as if not written, according to the now-classic definition [see ���������
§��������
5.1.1.]
from Gregory and Carroll 1978).
The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual dimensions 101

It is not easy to achieve a balance between writing a text and making that text
sound oral and spontaneous. In Chapter 5, we examined the features peculiar to
each linguistic level of this strange language, called dubbese, translationese, or
the language of dubbing. Conclusions showed that this register includes features
of written speech and observance of standard grammar, together with certain
characteristic features of colloquial oral registers that lend a text verisimilitude
and a true-to-life quality. The linguistic code also presents general translation
problems such as multilingualism, humour, cultural references, etc., which will
be dealt with in Chapter 7. We will now focus on problems that are specific to
audiovisual translation, problems only posed by a multimodal text.

6.1.1 Translating paralinguistic features

Translators and dialogue writers, as well as dubbing assistants, should be familiar

with the series of symbols that must be included in the translation and whose use
is a matter of convention in the profession (see Chapter 3). Many of these symbols
represent supra-segmental features, as we have seen. This means that paralinguis-
tic signs are also translated, although the translation itself is just a conventional
symbol, such as a (G) in brackets in Spain, a (reac) in France or a (verso) in Italy,
to represent a cough, for example. Paralinguistic features can also be verbalized
in the translation: a character coughing can be translated intersemiotically with
the action in brackets. The following example shows these two possibilities when
an imaginary character called Sharon coughs (or sniffs, mumbles, etc.) on screen,
depending on the national conventions seen in Chapter 3:

Example 6.1. Representation of paralinguistic features

Sharon: (coughs)
or
Sharon: (G) [Spanish symbol]
Sharon: (reac) [French symbol]
Sharon: (verso) [Italian symbol]
etc.

Silences and pauses are usually “translated” with a forward slash (/) or a
backward slash (\). Not only non-linguistic utterances are noted, therefore, but
also the absence of speech between a single character’s dialogues. If Sharon stops
coughing (or speaking) and then starts again after a few seconds, translators,
dialogue writers or dubbing assistants use the slash to mark the interruption of
her speech or the interruption of her paralinguistic signs:

Example 6.2. Representation of silences and pauses within a character’s

dialogue lines

Sharon: (G) / (G) / (G) / Hola. [Spanish symbols]

Sharon: (verso) / (verso) / (verso) / Ciao. [Italian symbols]
102 Frederic Chaume

But the important issue here is how to detect these paralinguistic features,
since they are hardly ever written down in the original script. We now come to
one of the first commandments of audiovisual translation: the screen, not our
original written text, is the script. We translate what we hear in the clip, not
what is written in the script. The reason for this is that we may receive either the
pre-production script – the one used to shoot the film, which may have been
rewritten many times during filming –, or the post-production script (sometimes
a mere transcription, other times a complete rendering of what happens both in
the visuals and in the acoustic channel, see Chapter 7 for some samples). Hence,
on the one hand, when we receive a pre-production script, we must compare it
with the audiovisual text, the one we can hear and watch on screen, and see how
many modifications have been introduced during the filming process. But on the
other hand, even if we receive the post-production script, most paralinguistic
features will not be included in the text, so we have to detect them, classify them
according to the dubbing symbols list used in each country (see Chapter 3), and
then note them down in the translation. If we find a paralinguistic feature that
is not included in our dubbing symbols list, or one which we are not sure how
to classify (sighs, kisses, mumbles, etc.), then we should verbalize it in brackets.
Below are some examples:

Example 6.3. Paralinguistic features

In the TV series Boston Common, a character called Joy asks another

character, Wyleen, the following question:

Joy: Studying for the big communications final, huh? How is it going?
Wyleen: It’s going. It’s... going.

On the one hand, Joy ends her question with an alternant, a “huh”, inviting a
response to her question, using this paralinguistic feature as a tag question (“aren’t
you”), or even substituting it for a whole sentence, such as “Am I right?” or “Isn’t
that true?” This feature will have to be detected on screen and later translated
using an equivalent feature in the target language. Sometimes a translation of the
paralinguistic sign will not be necessary, for example, when the target language
translation of the whole sentence in English is long enough to substitute the whole
source dialogue. On other occasions, the translator might consider a translation
of the paralinguistic sign unnecessary. But in most cases, we will need a transla-
tion of this feature. If this is the case (for the sake of isochrony, see Chapter 4),
we have two possibilities: either we find an equivalent paralinguistic sign in our
target language, or we verbalize the meaning of the sign, with the alternatives
shown above or shorter ones like the adverb “right?”, for example.
In addition, when Wyleen says her second sentence, she starts crying. This
clearly illustrates the problem outlined above: most paralinguistic features are
not included in the script, even in the case of post-production scripts and tran-
scriptions. We have to be alert and well trained to detect these signs, because
all of them have to be translated one way or another. In this case, after our
The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual dimensions 103

translation we need to verbalize her crying by noting (Weeps) or (Cries) in the

target language, after her second sentence.
Finally, topicalization – in the languages and on the occasions where it can be
used – can also be a useful translation technique to indicate a primary quality of
the voice, like higher volume, or a complaining tone. In the following example,
Darrin (from the iconic TV series Bewitched, Episode 205), intentionally speaks
more loudly at the end of his sentence (in the underlined adverbial):

Example 6.4. Topicalization used to transfer paralinguistic features

Darrin: Oh, certainly... I used very striking colors in this one

If we look at the Catalan translation, for example, we can see how the
translator has intentionally changed the word order of his translation to
highlight the importance of the adverbial:

Darrin: Ah! Clar que sí! / En aquest he utilitzat colors molt vius.

This example gives us several interesting translation solutions at the para-

linguistic level. First, “in this one” is translated as “en aquest” (literally, “in this
one”), but the Catalan adverbial comes at the beginning of the sentence, to em-
phasize the louder voice in the original version. Second, the English interjection
“Oh” is rendered with an equivalent in the target language, since keeping the
original in the translation would have revealed the text as foreign. And finally,
the suspension points in the original script, indicating that Darrin hesitates while
he thinks what to say next, are replaced with a slash, which in the target conven-
tions means a short pause.

6.1.2 Translating songs

The acoustic channel gives us access to dialogues (linguistic code) and particular
suprasegmental features that constitute an important source of meaning to help
us understand the on-screen characters’ intentions, ideology and power rela-
tions (paralinguistic code). Music, however, can also convey substantial meaning
and may be significant to the plot. Both songs and incidental music form part
of the musical code, another meaning code transmitted through the acoustic
channel.
Songs in films or cartoons usually require an adaptation in the translation
that matches the pace of the music in accordance with the four poetic rhythms
of classical rhetoric:

 rhythm of quantity or number of syllables

 rhythm of intensity or accentual distribution
 rhythm of tone
 rhythm of timbre or rhyme
104 Frederic Chaume

When a translator comes across a song, s/he has to decide whether or not
to translate it. This decision depends on the following norms:

 Some dubbing countries are reluctant to translate songs and generally

leave them in the original version
 In some countries the norm has changed. Whereas previously songs
tended to be translated, nowadays they are subtitled in the dubbed
version.
 Translating songs is also related to the audiovisual genre. Commercials
use songs that are often subtitled in target languages, musicals are also
often subtitled, and songs in the opening sequences of cartoons are
translated and dubbed.
 And last but not least, the key factor in deciding whether a song should
be translated or not (dubbed or subtitled) is its function in the film.
When the lyrics refer to the plot, the song should be translated to give
the target audience the same access to the meaning of the lyrics as the
original audience has. In the case of plot-related songs, subtitling is now
the preferred mode of translation. When this is not the case, the song
remains untranslated.

In the case of cartoons, the subtitling option is often rejected (except in

cartoons for older children, teenagers and adults) since they are mainly aimed
at children (however, see Perego, 2010). Songs in cartoons usually explain the
characters’ moods, their temper, their wishes and thoughts, and also function
as a mnemonic device which helps the viewer memorize the opening or closing
sequence of a series. In the following example, the opening sequence of the
cartoons The Real Ghostbusters (David Landers 1986-1991) has been translated
into some languages:

Example 6.5. Translating songs

There’s something strange

in the neighborhood
Who you gonna call?
Ghostbusters!
There’s something weird
and it don’t look good.
Who you gonna call?
Ghostbusters!
Ain’t afraid of no ghost.
Ain’t afraid of no ghost.

The song’s lyrics cannot be analyzed without the sheet music that accom-
panies it, i.e. we need to know how certain parts of the song are supposed to
be sung (Comes, 2010). A useful technique in translating songs in cartoons is to
refer back to classical rhetoric and analyze the rhythms of the song, as follows:
The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual dimensions 105

The rhythm of quantity is seen in the following pattern:

Example 6.6. Translating songs: Number of syllables

There’s something strange (4)

in the neighborhood (5)
Who you gonna call? (5)
Ghostbusters! (3)

There’s something weird (4)

and it don’t look good. (5)
Who you gonna call? (5)
Ghostbusters! (3)

I ain’t afraid of no ghost. (6)

I ain’t afraid of no ghost. (6)

The two last lines are not sung, but simply spoken, as is the chorus “Ghost-
busters”. The eight previous verses are sung. Since dubbing companies do not
change the music – especially in this case because the song became famous
through the eighties film and is easily recognized by the average audience – our
target verses should each have the same number of syllables. Thus, the pattern to
follow in our translation should be the same: 4-5-5 for the first and second stanzas,
since the number of syllables inevitably follows the musical beats of the song.
The rhythm of quality or accent distribution is seen in the following pattern:

Example 6.7. Translating songs: Accent distribution

There’s something strange __ / __ /

in the neighborhood. __ __ / __ /
Who you gonna call? / __ / __ /

There’s something weird __ / __ /

and it don’t look good. __ __ / __ /
Who you gonna call? / __ / __ /

Some interesting features can be seen in this pattern. Firstly, the rhythm
is the same in the first and second stanzas – a typical characteristic of many
songs, particularly children’s songs. Secondly, some words that would normally
be heavily stressed, such as the pronoun “you” or the full verb “look”, lose their
emphasis to fit with the music (the beat falls on the previous syllable in both
cases, even in the case of “don’t”, which as an auxiliary verb would not usually
be accentuated). But music, like poetry, allows itself these licenses – plus the
ungrammaticalities (“it don’t”) and substandard English (“Who you gonna”). The
interesting point for the translator is that this rhythm should be mirrored in the
target version so the same musical cadence is followed.
106 Frederic Chaume

Regarding the rhythm of tone, the interrogative and exclamative sentences

of the original should be copied in the translation. Although this is not as man-
datory as the first two rhythms, both the repetitive question “Who you gonna
call?” and the exclamation “Ghostbusters!” should be kept in the target version as
they will help listeners to learn the song, and create a catchy, repetitive rhythm.
Ghostbusters is the title of both the film and the cartoon, and techniques for
translating film titles will be dealt with in Chapter 7.
Finally, the rhyme pattern is as follows:

Example 6.8. Translating songs: Rhyme

There’s something strange (a)

in the neighborhood. (b)
Who you gonna call? (c)

There’s something weird (d)

and it don’t look good. (b)
Who you gonna call? (c)

Rhyme can reinforce meaning (sounds can elicit moods), invoke other texts
(intertextuality), aid the text’s flow and order, provide pleasure, etc. Rhyme is
also one of the most powerful resources to help successful memorization of a
poem or song. The important issue here is not necessarily to copy the exact ori-
ginal rhyme pattern, but to invent a (new) rhyme for the target version, which
may differ from the original.
Songs often work as narrative punctuation signs in film grammar and usually
involve a take segmentation, i.e., the translator segments the text into a new
take or loop. In subtitling, a new subtitle (usually in italics, see Díaz Cintas and
Remael 2007) would also be introduced, since the translator does not mix lyrics
and dialogues in the same subtitle.
Incidental music is always kept in the target version, and it is therefore of
some relevance to how things ought to be translated. Incidental music plays a
semiotic role and unveils the speaker’s mood or the action tone.

6.1.3 Special effects and the soundtrack: implications for translation

Special effects are also conveyed through the acoustic channel. They constitute
another semiotic code which helps to shape the meaning of the audiovisual
text. The first step in dealing with special effects is to check whether they are
recorded on the soundtrack or on the track containing the original dialogues.
If they are recorded on the soundtrack, the audience will hear them and these
effects will perform their function. But if they are recorded on the original dia-
logue track, they will be lost, since this track is erased for dubbing purposes. In
this second case, the special effects will somehow have to be emulated in the
dubbing booth.
The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual dimensions 107

Nowadays these sounds can be cut-and-pasted from one track to another

thanks to digital technology, but in the past, ingenious tricks were used to sub-
stitute special effects that were not recorded on the soundtrack. Perhaps one of
the best-known tricks was the use of hollowed-out half coconut shells to make
the sound of horses’ hooves. Translators, however, do not have the information
about whether the special effects are recorded on the soundtrack or not, and
until the sound engineer has access to the film, it is impossible to know where
they have been recorded. In these cases, the translator indicates the special ef-
fects by describing them in brackets: (tapping), (applause), etc.
It is important to mention here that all sounds uttered using vocal chords
or articulated in the mouth are not considered to be special effects, but para-
linguistic signs, which must be represented in the translation according to the
conventional symbols studied in Chapter 3 – including kisses. Special effects can
be made by humans (such as applause, or a punch, or a thump), animals, natural
phenomena (wind, rain, etc.), objects (door slamming), etc.
Translation problems emerge when the special effects code and the linguistic
(or paralinguistic) code interact. This is the true nature of audiovisual translation:
code interaction. Problems arise when we hear, or hear and see, simultaneously,
two or more signs that refer to each other. In the case of two signs transmitted
by means of different codes in the acoustic channel, either the soundtrack or
the track containing the dialogues can be modified. In the following example,
two codes and signs interact. The Ghostbusters have cleaned up a house in their
search for ghosts, although they found none. The leave the house and explain
to the owner, Mrs. Campbell, that there is no ghost in the house. However, they
are mistaken: the ghost has managed to hide from them and is now making his
escape from the house. They cannot see it, although they can hear a whistle as
they use a set phrase to explain to the owner that the house is clean:

Example 6.9. Special effects

Mrs. Campbell: (...) You are completely sure there’s no ghost?

Ray: We checked the entire house. No ghost.
Peter: It’s as clean as a whistle.
[Ghost exits the house, sliding down the stair banister. A whistle is heard
as he slides down. He escapes unnoticed]
Ray: Have you ever wondered how clean whistles really are?
Egon: Well, absolutely
Peter: Frequently, why?

When Peter says the set phrase “clean as a whistle”, the audience can clearly
hear a whistle, that of the ghost escaping from the house. An interaction of codes
and signs is thus produced. In other words, we receive information through dif-
ferent channels and codes, but two of these signs interact and are cohesively
108 Frederic Chaume

brought together: the whistle we hear (a sign from the special effects code) and
the word “whistle” in Peter’s set phrase (linguistic code). The translation is then
constrained by the interaction of these codes. If we do not have an equivalent
set phrase in our working language, containing a reference to whistles or similar
sounds, our audience will miss the comical effect produced in the original film.
For the source culture viewer, humour is established when a ghostbuster refers
to a whistle and the ghost makes the sound of a whistle while he escapes.
It may be argued that not all comical elements have to be translated, or
that losing the interaction between these two codes is not so important, and
that the viewer can still follow the plot. Others might argue that this effect may
be compensated later on in the film. While all of this may be true, a qualified
translator should try to find a solution in his or her working target language
that also acknowledges the sound of the special effects – the exact idiom need
not be used and an idiom invoking another sound would also be welcome.
Untranslatability should not be on the professional’s agenda: there is always
a way out. However, if time is at a premium, in this particular case, the sound
engineer now has the digital tools to manipulate the soundtrack and substitute
the whistle for another effect that will fit coherently with the target language
solution for each language.

6.1.4 Off- and On-screen sound

The sound arrangement code refers to where sound comes from and how. De-
pending on the sound source, the translator, the dialogue writer or the dubbing
assistant will introduce dubbing symbols that will be helpful to voice talents
and sound engineers. This is the last of the codes transmitted by the acoustic
channel that have a direct impact on the translator’s task. In an audiovisual text,
sound can be diegetic (or belonging to the story) or non-diegetic (belonging to
a person or object that is not part of the story, such as sound coming from an
off-screen narrator).
At the same time, sound may be produced on-screen, associated with the
vision of the sound source, or off-screen, in those cases in which its origin is not
present in the frame and is therefore not visible at the same time the sound is
heard. In these cases, the translator / dialogue writer / dubbing assistant uses
the symbols (ON) – or (IC) in Italian – when the on-screen source of the sound
is perceived, and the symbol (OFF) – or (FC) in Italian – when the sound source
cannot be perceived. The symbol (ON) is the default symbol, in other words,
when characters are on screen it does not have to be used, unless a character
speaks off-screen and then comes into field and continues speaking on-screen.
In these cases, a combination of these two symbols makes the performance
easier for the dubbing actors:
The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual dimensions 109

Example 6.10. On and off sound

6’32”
Miss Masombuka: White? Who says so? I never saw that in the Bible.
Did you see it in the Bible? No. It doesn’t say that. It
says God created man in his own (OFF) image, which
means to be like him. So, (ON) what colour is God?
Give me a color, people.

Sarafina, Darrell Roodt 1992

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-f60oe_xScs

The dubbing symbols indicate that Miss Masombuka speaks to the camera
when the (ON) symbol is noted and off camera when the (OFF) symbols is used
(or IC and FC in Italy, respectively).The dubbing actress will know that she has
to fit her target dialogue lines to Miss Masombuka’s lips when she appears on
screen, but that she is not under any pressure to match her lines when the original
actress is off screen. In Italy, for shorter swaps from on to off, dubbing assistants
prefer to use inIC and finIC for the beginning and end of voice on screen, respec-
tively, and inFC and finFC to indicate the beginning and end of voice off screen,
respectively. The OFF symbol can also be useful for the sound engineer, since
sometimes an off sound is better simulated with a slight reverberation effect,
which can also be added in the dubbing.
Other symbols marking variations in the sound can be helpful to the sound
engineer or mixer. Dubbing symbols are also used (see Chapter 3 for national
dubbing symbols lists):

 to indicate an utterance by actors with their back to the camera (the

sound engineer usually adds a reverberation effect in such cases)
 to indicate a voice which is heard over another voice
 to indicate a voice effect (voices coming through a TV set, a radio set, a
loudspeaker, etc.)
 to indicate inner monologues, the voice of thoughts, dreams, etc.
 to indicate that the on-screen character has his/her back to the camera
(no isochrony and lip-sync is needed)
 to indicate that the on-screen character is sideways to the camera
(slight isochrony is needed)
 to indicate an utterance by a person in long shot (with corresponding
sound effects, such as reverberation)...

Apart from technical considerations, it is worth noting that on-screen dia-

logues have to match the dialogues uttered by on-screen characters’ mouths
(lip synchrony and isochrony, see Chapter 4), whereas off-screen dialogues al-
low translators to produce freer, non-constrained solutions to the translation
problems posed by the source text. Therefore, depending on how and where
110 Frederic Chaume

the sound comes from, the translation will have to be synched or not, which is
particularly relevant information for translators.

6.2 The visual dimension

6.2.1 The language of images: icons, indices and symbols

The audiovisual text is more than a symphony of acoustic codes playing at the same
time. The visuals are even more powerful than the words, to the extent that when
we are not sure of the exact meaning of an excerpt or of the pragmatic meaning of
a dialogue line, we look for the meaning in the images and come to believe them,
rather than the dialogues. Sometimes, the dialogues contradict the images if the
script or the translation is erroneous. When this happens, the visuals also smooth
over the damage. Some authors complain about the loss of pragmatic meaning in
subtitling (Hatim and Mason 1997), but fortunately this loss is usually recovered
by what happens on screen: the interpersonal meaning conveyed by a discourse
marker lost in translation can frequently be understood by simply looking at such
signifiers as the on-screen characters’ faces, position, or distance.
The iconographic code is the most relevant code transmitted via the visual
channel. It contains the following signs:

 Icons are signs or likenesses that stand for an object by signifying or

representing it either physically or by analogy. Images (including char-
acters) are icons.
 Indices represent their objects regardless of whether or not they re-
semble them, but only by virtue of real connections or relationships of
contiguity with them (such as the relationship between smoke and fire).
 Symbols are signs referring to the objects they substitute by conven-
tion, like the representation of the earth by a globe.

The problem for translators consists of verbalizing icons, indices, and symbols
in the translation when this is needed for full comprehension of the film. The
general norm regarding these iconographic symbols is usually not to make them
explicit, i.e., not to decode them linguistically, unless they are accompanied by
a verbal explanation – which has to be translated – or their deconstruction is
considered truly essential to understand the story. In these cases, translators have
to make the icon explicit within the translation, or make some indirect reference
to it within the dialogue, but taking into account constraints of isochrony – i.e.,
respecting the length of the original dialogue line. To just give one example, a
possible translation technique would be to substitute a deictic expression that
signals the icon in the source text for its full name in the target text. For example,
a sentence like “Look at that” in a context where “that” stands for a typical sau-
sage not known in some cultures – like haggis, for example –, can be translated
for “Look at that haggis/sausage/pudding”, making the icon explicit, or just “A
haggis/sausage/pudding” if lip-sync prevents so much explicitation.
The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual dimensions 111

A further challenge for the translator is usually to achieve a translation that

is coherent with the image. Again, when two codes interact, audiovisual transla-
tion problems arise (Martínez Sierra 2009b). For example, if a translator is faced
with a joke about eggs that is also illustrated on screen with an icon representing
an egg, his/her joke in the translated version will probably have to involve eggs
too, something that might not be so problematic when translating written texts,
which possibly allow a functional translation of the joke:

Example 6.11. The iconographic code

[In the morning, Wolfie – the son of the Werewolf – tells one of his bad
jokes, when the rest of characters are still trying to wake up]

Wolfie: Oh, Breakfast! I love eggs! The funniest food in the world, you
know. Inside every egg is a joke [yolk], get it? Joke!

The Mini-Monsters
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hpx8K92BwPQ&feature=related

The images show Wolfie telling his joke inside a huge egg (an icon). In addition,
when he makes the word play between joke and yolk, he shows a fried egg (another
icon) on a dish to the camera. Our joke will inevitably have to involve eggs.
This does not only happen in cartoons, where images can be purposely cre-
ated to interact with words for comic effect. In Viva Zapata (Elia Kazan 1952),
there is a challenging moment when Marlon Brando explains to his fiancée, Jean
Peters, that he is the best judge of horses in the country. To substantiate this
statement, he explains that he used to advise a landowner, Don Nacio, on his
horse purchases, and that when he did not help him to do so, Don Nacio was
cheated into buying defective animals:

Example 6.12. The iconographic code

Zapata: Apparently, Josefa, you do not know that I am the best judge of
horses in the country. You are the only one who does not know this. I
was with him for years. I bought every horse in his stable. When I have
not helped Don Nacio buy his horses... it’s later discovered that they
have five legs.
Aunt: Conceited monkey!
(Spanish Dubbed Version)
Zapata: Josefa, no sabes que soy el mejor entendido en caballos de toda
la provincia. Tú eres la única que lo ignora. Yo compré todos los caballos
que tiene Don Nacio en sus cuadras. Cuando Don Nacio compra caballos
sin mi ayuda... no tarda en darse cuenta de que sus caballos tienen cinco
patas. [his horses have five legs]
Tía: ¡Marrano!
Viva Zapata, Elia Kazan 1952
112 Frederic Chaume

In English, Brando uses the set phrase “they have five legs”, meaning they
are defective or faulty – not necessarily that they physically had five legs. It
would not raise a translation problem, since most languages have set phrases
to convey the same meaning. The problem arises when he shows his open hand
to the camera, with his five fingers representing the horses’ figurative five legs,
so that we hear “five legs” and see five fingers at the same time. The translation
solution will have to incorporate the number five, somehow related to faulty
horses and an open hand.
The proof that this was a translation problem lies in the Spanish translation.
The Spanish is a literal translation, since five-legged is not a synonym for defective
or faulty. A five-legged horse can only be a horse with literally five legs. When this
translation was done, in the 1950s, heavy censorship was the order of the day. The
censors regarded films as being full of dangerous references that had to be cut
out of the film, or at least censored (Rabadán 2000; Rabadán and Merino 2002).
Sometimes translators and dialogue writers worked as self-censors and produced
translations that were politically correct according to the ideology of the Franco
regime. In this case, translating literally five legs into Spanish immediately rang
bells in the obsessed censor’s mind and the fifth leg was rapidly equated with
the horse’s sexual organ. In fact, Jean Peters’ aunt replies “Conceited monkey”
in English, which has nothing to do with sex – she’s reproving him because he
is constantly showing off his virtues in order to woo Jean. But, surprisingly, in
Spanish we find the word “marrano”, which literally means filthy or dirty. This was
not the scriptwriter’s or the director’s original intention. The Spanish audience
is confronted with a new Emiliano Zapata, a revolutionary leader who also told
dirty jokes. Dubbing ran its risks in the hands of dictatorial regimes.
In this sense, it may be said that audiovisual translation differs from other
translation modes. The non-existence of an image tied to the verbal text in
written translation allows for a free translation, a play on words, or a joke, for
example, without this causing errors of coherence within the semiotic construc-
tion of the target text.

6.2.2 The style of images: photography and colour

Changes in lighting, or in the use of colour (i.e., the use of colour vs. black and
white, intentional use of certain colours, conventional meaning of colours, etc.)
can also be relevant to the translator. Changes in lighting, such as a darkened shot
that prevents us from seeing the actor’s mouth, can be accompanied by the use
of the symbols OFF/FC (off screen), even though the character is on screen. They
can also be signalled by the use of other symbols indicating that the character is
on screen, but his/her mouth is not seen (see Chapter 3), with a corresponding
relaxation of the synchronization (lip synchrony and isochrony) on the part of
the translator/dialogue writer and the actors. In other words, the translator has
considerably more freedom when translating the OFF segments. In the following
example, attention has to be paid to the fact that no lip-sync is needed – although
characters are in close-up – and also to the interaction of the linguistic code and
the photographic code in the phrase “This is a blind date”:
The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual dimensions 113

Example 6.13. The photographic code

Nadia: Here it goes, Walter, ready or not. (The light goes out) Oh, damn it,
this has been quite a long night. There must be some matches right
over there somewhere.
Walter: Where?
Nadia: They may be over there.
Walter: Here.
Nadia: (She lights a match) This is a blind date, here’s your chance to run
from it, your very last chance. (Kim Basinger’s face is lit by the match)
You’ve missed your chance.
Walter: I’m glad.
Blind Date, Blake Edwards 1987

In the example, the phrase “a blind date” has two meanings: the metaphori-
cal, predictable one, indeed the film depicts a social meeting or engagement
arranged by a mutual acquaintance between two people who do not know each
other; but also the literal, unpredictable one – a date in a darkened room, where
the characters are momentarily blind. In some languages, the same metaphor
is used, but in others, there is no equivalent that includes the word blind, or
its meaning, that makes sense in this scene. Again, the interaction between a
photographic sign from the photographic code and the linguistic code puts the
translator in a hard spot.
The deliberate use of black and white, rather than colour, for example, can
imply changes from the real world to the imaginary world, as in the case of The
Wizard of Oz (Victor Fleming �939), or the desire to narrate a story stripped of
all artifice, like in certain Woody Allen films. The use of a certain colour as a
microsign or culture-bound element can also impact directly on the translation.
A colour that has certain associations in one culture might not have the same
associations in another, such as the different colours associated with mourning,
or a pun based on the name of a colour that is included as a visual gag on screen.
In these cases the translation will then be necessarily restricted or subordinated
to this visual code.

6.2.3 Types of shots and their incidence on translation operations

The planning code is especially significant in translation for dubbing. As we saw

in Chapter 4, in close-ups and extreme close-ups, the convention is that the
translator usually has to find a text that respects the opening and closing of the
character’s lips on screen. This is known, as we saw, as phonetic or lip synchrony,
or simply lip-sync. This exercise requires a similar type of creativity to that
required for choosing rhymes. The translator should maintain the impression
of verisimilitude by fitting the open vowels and bilabial consonants into those
instants in which the on-screen character in a close-up shot visibly opens his/her
mouth or closes his/her lips in order to articulate a bilabial vowel or consonant,
114 Frederic Chaume

respectively. On these occasions, the need to achieve good lip synchrony condi-
tions the translation solutions.
To turn again to film theory, three different codes are involved in lip-sync:
the linguistic code – words containing a bilabial phoneme or an open vowel; the
mobility code (see §6.2.4) – actors mouthing these words on screen; and the
shot code – close-ups and extreme close-ups. Again, the interaction among these
codes is the source of the translation problem. In the following example, Andrew,
a Scottish teenager, has to recite to his mother a kind of a nursery rhyme when
he goes off to school every morning:

Example 6.14. The planning code (types of shots)

MOTHER: Andrew, aren’t you forgetting something? (pause) Come back

here.

Cut to two shot close-up of Andrew and his mother

MOTHER: Who’s your favourite girl?

ANDREW: Mum, I’m going to be late.
MOTHER: Who’s your favourite girl?

Andrew turns to look at John then turns back to his mother. Close-up on
Andrew’s lips.

ANDREW: My mummy is my favourite girl, my mummy is my favourite girl,

I’ll always love my mummy ‘cause she kept me in her tummy.
MOTHER: That’s right and don’t you forget about your old mum (pause).

Who’s your favourite girl?, Adrian J. MacDowall 1999

http://www.videosurf.com/who%27s-my-favourite-girl-307484

The director also highlights the fact that there is a close-up of Andrew’s lips at
that moment. It is a meaningful close-up, since all the attention focuses on how
Andrew pronounces the nursery rhyme and on his lips. The underlined dialogue
line has then to be translated taking into account: (a) the meaning of the sentence
(linguistic code), (b) the shot, a close-up, which makes lip-sync mandatory, and
(c) Andrew’s mouth articulation, i.e., a mouth articulating words with bilabials and
open vowels. In this case, fortunately for the Western translator, many of these
words are common to many languages (mummy, favourite, my, etc.), because of
the Indo-European and Latin roots of most Western languages, although others
are not (love, kept, etc.). However there are many languages that cannot take
advantage of these Latin and Indo-European roots.
The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual dimensions 115

6.2.4 Body language: proxemics, kinesics and mouth articulation

The mobility codes of special interest to the translator are proxemic signs, kinesic
signs and the screen characters’ mouth articulation, which are indeed a special
kind of kinesic signs. In the case of audiovisual texts, proxemic signs concern
the distance of the characters to each other, as well as the distance from the
characters to the camera. This latter aspect is partly dealt with in �6.2.3, the sec-
tion on close-ups and extreme close-ups, but it also covers mid-shots, American
shots, general shots, group shots and shots in which the character or characters
are photographed from afar. In these latter cases, either a conventional dubbing
symbol is used or an explicitation of the shot is given in the translation (such as
from a distance, from far away, thus advising the dubbing actor or actress that a
perfect isochronic synchronization (i.e. number of syllables) is not required – the
duration of the original utterance does not have to be exactly the same length
as the dubbed utterance.
Some dubbing symbols – such as the Spanish (DE) or the Italian (DS) – indicate
with back turned, from behind, which are used when the character has his or
her back to the camera, and have the same function as the above. In this Ital-
ian example, (DS) means that Alice has her back to the camera when she says
“Sei pronto?” (Are you ready?), thus signalling Alice’s position in relation to the
audience:

Example 6.15. Mobility codes: proxemics

Cuore d’Africa 5 – Ep. 4

00:35 �06
ALICE (FC) Conterò fino a tre. / (IC) Danny! / (DS) Sei pronto?
DANNY (da CL) Scusa… sì, pronto.
ALICE Okay? / (da FC) Uno / due / tre!
CHARLOTTE (da FC) Corri, Ngozi, corri! (FIN. FC)
DANNY (0�:09) (FC) Fila dentro. / (IC) (fiato)

With respect to the representation of kinesic signs, the translator must ob-
serve the movements of the characters on screen so that the translation adapts
to the conventional meaning transmitted by these signs. This is the case in the
following example: In Bob’s Beach (Sophia Kolokouri 2002-2005), Bob, a New
York City dog, suddenly finds himself stranded on a paradise island – a place full
of secrets, fun and quite unique inhabitants. In this episode, he is at the beach
talking to his friend Nel. Behind them, a giant wave approaches the shore, but
they cannot see it. Montego, a crab friend of theirs, sees the danger and warns
them of the approaching giant wave. But he only says “Wave” and they under-
stand that he is asking them to wave their hands, as if in greeting:
116 Frederic Chaume

Example 6.16. Mobility codes: kinesics

(Montego looks beyond Nel and Bob, he can see a huge wave approaching.
He waves his pincers frantically).
Montego: Wave.
Bob and Nel: Huh?
Montego: Wave!
(Nel and Bob look at one another as if to say this really does confirm he’s
mad and they wave at Montego).
Bob, Nel: (Chuckle nervously).
(A huge wave comes in from the shore and covers the screen).
Bob, Nel (cont’d): (Impact Noise).

Bob’s Beach (Sophia Kolokouri 2002-2005)

Once more, the translation problem arises when the linguistic code interacts
with the mobility code. The kinesic sign shows a character waving his hand. The
linguistic sign means both the waving action and a sea wave. Polysemic words
and phrases are a nightmare for any translator, but they are even worse for
audiovisual translators when one or both meanings of the word are iconically
represented on screen.
More examples are available: the kinesic sign representing the shaking head
should be accompanied by a negative phrase in the translation in most European
languages –except for Bulgarian and Greek.
In other cases, topicalizing some element in the translation is advisable to
make it appear simultaneously with the gesture made by the character:

Example 6.17. Mobility codes: kinesics

Amedeo: Si vergogna va bene, adesso glielo dico io. Puoi andare, si

vergogna
Tom: Si vergogna? Ma, ma che mi hai chiamato a fare, vieni, vieni, poi
questo si vergogna

Pensavo fosse amore invece era un calesse, Massimo Troisi 1991.

When Tom says “mi hai chiamato a fare” (you’ve phoned me to tell me to
come), he makes the sign of holding a telephone and moves it closer up to his ear.
The Spanish translation did not take this into account and rearranged the word
order of this sentence, in such a way that when Tom makes the sign of holding
a telephone, he is not saying anything about “calling” or “phoning”, and when
he finally says these words in Spanish, the character on screen was no longer
making the kinesic sign.
Phonetic articulation is indeed a kind of kinesic sign: the mouthing of con-
sonants and vowels is meaningful in all cultures (read my lips). It is even more
relevant in dubbing, where the opening and closing of the on-screen characters’
The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual dimensions 117

mouths indicate the duration and the approximate number of syllables in the
utterances of the target text. As we have seen, this kind of synchrony is known
as isochrony, or equivalent duration of the source text utterances and the ut-
terances of the target text (see Chapter 3 for examples, and also example 6.13,
where an effort has to be made to both respect lip-sync and isochrony). Again,
observance of isochrony in dubbing is an endeavour to maintain a realistic effect
and make the product more credible.

6.2.5 The language we watch: text on screen

Conventions and translation norms exist to represent any written language that
appears on the screen. The spectator sees written language (captions) in the
form of titles, intertitles, texts, and subtitles: what may be termed graphic codes
in Film Studies. The presence in a film of these four conventional genres directly
influences the translation, since most of the time the translator needs to transfer
their meaning to the target text, within the formal constraints that each one of
them entails. The following possibilities summarize the technical conventions
for the transfer of graphic codes in dubbing:

 Recording the target title with a voice-off and inserting the voice-off
when the audience can see the original title
 Subtitling the original title
 Editing and inserting a new title in place of the original, and deleting the
original title from the film
 Keeping the original title (No translation)

The translation of graphic codes will be conditioned both by instructions from

the client, who might or might not want to translate the information conveyed
by certain codes, and by the relevance in the film of the caption in question,
something that will also be related to the shot in which it appears (planning code),
the icon or icons, indices or symbols that appear simultaneously (iconographic
codes), the lighting used in the scene (photographic code), etc. But as this is a
translation problem that affects the linguistic code (written, this time), it will be
dealt with in Chapter 7, which is devoted to some special translation issues.

6.2.6 Editing: implications for translation

Being aware of iconic associations can help the translator to better understand
the audiovisual text, the relationship of one scene to another and the position
of the scene within the development of the plot and the narrative. The process
of shot associations chosen by the director is known as editing; it constitutes
another filmic code – the syntactic code – and can have a direct bearing on the
translation. In cases such as the visual and verbal repetition of an icon, problems
caused by the excessive length of the translation (problems of isochrony) might
be solved by the use of a pronoun, a synonym or an ellipsis in the translated
118 Frederic Chaume

text. A translation problem in a certain scene might be solved by watching the

whole scene or later scenes, because the montage, as an operation that creates
meaning, may reveal appropriate solutions to the problem in question. In other
words, when the translator knows what procedure is being used in associating
images, s/he can then select the most appropriate term based on the visual in-
formation that the viewer will see a few seconds or minutes later, thus avoiding
incoherent or politically incorrect solutions, etc.
For example, in Sarafina (Darrell James Roodt 1992), a musical on South-
African apartheid, a white soldier refers to a black teacher as a rotten apple
who is encouraging her students to rebel against the apartheid regime. Spanish
bilingual dictionaries offer two possibilities for the translation into Spanish of
rotten apple: manzana podrida (rotten apple) and oveja negra (black sheep).
When the soldier finishes his speech, the spectator sees a scene change after
which the black teacher – Whoopi Goldberg – is actually inciting her students
to rebel. Before the teacher appears, the translator could have opted for either
translation solution in Spanish. After watching the next scene, political correct-
ness advises opting for the first solution, as the second one may be offensive to
the audience and adds more gratuitous violence to the soldier and the scene
itself. The overwhelming presence of a close-up of the teacher just after the scene
change would add an unwarranted extra meaning to the scene.
Also of special interest are what are known as audiovisual punctuation marks,
such as fade to black or fade-outs, wipe-offs, iris, juxtapositions. When faced with
these signs in translation for dubbing, the translator / dialogue writer / dubbing
assistant generally segments the text into a new take; in other words, dialogues
uttered after the audiovisual punctuation mark will be included in a new take or
loop, as the filmic mark involves a narrative change.
The approach to audiovisual translation in this book is, therefore, an effort to
combine Translation Studies with Film Studies. This approach leads us to conclude
that the linguistic code, despite its predominant role in any audiovisual text, is
but one more code at work in the construction and later transfer of meaning
in audiovisual texts. It is especially of interest for the translator to observe the
interaction between all the signifying codes, since this interaction singles out the
semantic potential of the audiovisual text and its texture or grammaticality. Being
conscious of all the filmic codes involved in the audiovisual text is extremely help-
ful, especially when the linguistic code is the only code that can be manipulated
in any way. A translation that does not take all the codes into account can only
be regarded as a partial translation.
The relationship between image and word – the interplay of the signification
systems of audiovisual texts – materializes in terms of cohesion and coherence
between the two simultaneous narratives, the visual and the acoustic, in such
a way that the translator is obliged to employ translation strategies that can
transmit not only the information contained in each narrative and each code
– as noted throughout this chapter – but the meaning that emerges as a result
of this interaction: an added value (Chion 1993) or an extra meaning (Fowler
1986:69) that goes beyond the mere sum of the two narratives.
The specific nature of AVT: acoustic and visual dimensions 119

6.3 Exercises

6.3.1 Translate the excerpt in example 6.3 into your working

language:
 How did you translate the alternant “huh”? Why?
 Remember to translate Wyleen’s crying at the end of her sentence
in brackets.

6.3.2 Go back to example 6.4.

 What is the most appropriate interjection to translate the English
“Oh” –with the meaning it has in this sentence– into your working
language?
 Is topicalization possible to translate the adverbial “in this one” in your
working language? Would it help to convey the paralinguistic meaning
in the original sentence (i.e., would it be useful to indicate that Darrin is
speaking more loudly)?

6.3.3 Search the Internet for the Ghostbusters’ theme song (for exam-
ple in www. youtube.com/watch?v=bPiZptATdGc). Try to translate the
lyrics of the song into your working language, taking into account the
four rhythms explained in this chapter.

6.3.4 Go back to example 6.9 and find a solution in your working lan-
guage, with reference to the sound of the whistle. As a hint, you can
associate the whistle with other idioms in your language, not necessar-
ily about whistles.

6.3.5 Go back to example 6.12 and translate Brando’s dialogue lines

into your working language, taking into account that he shows his open
hand to the camera, displaying his five fingers when he refers to five-
legged horses.

6.3.6 Go back to example 6.13 and find a solution in your working lan-
guage. Does it also refer to the dark room?

6.3.7 Go back to example 6.14 and find a solution in your working

language. Were you able to successfully substitute the bilabials and
labiodentals? Go back to Chapter 4 if you need to revise lip-sync.

6.3.8 Go back to example 6.16 and translate the dialogue exchanges

into your mother tongue, taking into account the double meaning of
‘wave’, the fact that this word is monosyllabic, and that, eventually, a
big wave covers the screen, completely soaking Bob and Nel. For an
extensive discussion on the translation of jokes and humour, see Za-
balbeascoa (1996), Díaz Cintas (2003:253-263) and Martínez Sierra
(2008, 2009a).
7. Translation Issues

7.0 Preliminary discussion

(a) It is well known that translation challenges are posed either by the
grammatical and lexical peculiarities of the language pair, or by the
cultural references in both the source and the target culture. We have
also seen that in AVT, translation challenges can also arise from a third
source: the interaction between filmic codes, the very nature of AVT
(see Chapter 6).
 Give an example of a culture-bound reference in a film and discuss
the difficulties it poses.
 Give an example of a linguistic problem (grammatical, lexical) in a
film and discuss the difficulties it poses.
(b) Are film titles translated in your country? If so, in which medium (TV,
cinema)? What happens in the case of cartoons? Are they close or di-
rect translations of the original title? If not, why do you think film titles
change?
(c) Are you in favour of dubbing multilingual films? Or do you think they
should always be subtitled? Why?
(d) Think of an example of a TV series with non-standard registers.
 What is it?
 Is the non-standard register associated with members of the working
class, domestic staff or immigrants?
 What are the most striking features of these registers?
 How would you translate them for dubbing?
(e) Watch a dubbed TV comedy clip with canned laughter. Has the dubbing
managed to reproduce synchronous jokes?
(f) Read the quotation below and then answer the questions that follow:

A special case requiring the use of quotation marks is when a “second

foreign language” is used in the film or programme. Such cases call for
judgement. Does the original audience understand, more or less, what
is being said? Elementary Spanish in an American film or Italian in a
French TV programme should normally be translated into e.g. Dutch
and quotation marks (or italics) used to indicate that another language
is being spoken, but the audience is certainly not supposed to under-
stand two foreigners conversing in Japanese in a Norwegian film. Even
the most ambitious subtitlers should refrain from translating such con-
versations. (Ivarsson and Carroll 1998:114)

 Do you agree with this sentiment?

 Is it applicable to dubbing?
 What other possibilities can you suggest? This raises the important
point that not all language in film ‘works’ according to comprehensibil-
Translation Issues 121

ity. Much of the power of the film, Midnight Express (Alan Parker 1978),
for example, comes from long, torturous passages spoken by prison
guards in Turkish. Here it would not merely be ambitious to translate
this, but work against the effect of estrangement (we’re not supposed
to understand).

Some challenges require the translator / dialogue writer to use every trick in
the book. In the previous chapter we looked at some examples dealing with the
semiotic interaction of filmic codes. In this chapter, general translation problems
will be examined, together with others typical of audiovisual texts, such as film
titles, or multilingual movies. Some of these (such as film titles) are part of the
audiovisual translator’s daily brief or are characteristic of dubbing language
(dubbese); others (for example, cultural references) can be found in any text
and translation type, but have to be analyzed differently because of the specific
constraints of AVT (Zhang 2009, Martí Ferriol 2010), such as code interaction
(see Chapter 6), i.e., when a cultural reference is transmitted linguistically and
iconically at the same time. Still others, such as multilingual movies, are specific
to the translation brief and the particular source text to be translated. Humour,
marked speech and ideological issues also require the translator to come up with
creative solutions, especially when dealing with code interaction.
This chapter does not set out to prescribe the best way to translate certain
elements, since in the end, this decision depends on the translator and the trans-
lation brief. More in the line of the mainstream descriptive paradigm, we will
examine the norms on how to overcome these problems, and show the range
of possibilities available in each case.

7.1 An initial look at original scripts

7.1.1 Dialogue lists

Before diving headlong into the ocean of translation problems, it is worth taking a
look at the ocean itself. Chapter 2 explored the process of audiovisual translation,
together with the details of the translator’s task. The translator usually receives
a script accompanied by images from which to work. But what does a script look
like? Scripts are also known as screenplays, annotated master dialogue/dub-
bing list, dialogue lists, dialogue transcripts, combined continuity and dialogue,
combined continuity and dialogue lists, etc. They fall into two main types:

 Pre-production scripts: the screenplay used to shoot a film, which is

broken down into individual scenes and identifies all the locations,
props, cast members, costumes, special effects and visual effects. Not
only may the writer still be working on it during the shooting, but more
importantly, the film director and actors can change scenes, dialogues
or even part of the plot.
122 Frederic Chaume

 Post-production scripts: A post-production script is the whole film on

paper, shot by shot and word by word. There are two general kinds:
dialogue lists and transcripts. Dialogue lists usually include all the dia-
logue exchanges uttered in a film, together with the description of what
happens on screen, the description of the visuals. For this reason they
are known as combined continuity and dialogue lists: they are a combi-
nation of the continuity of the film – a film term implying that a series
of shots should be physically continuous, as though the camera sim-
ply changed position in the course of a single event, i.e., the orderly
compilation of all images in the film, and the transcription of all the dia-
logues. A transcript is a verbatim transcription of all the dialogue lines
and includes hardly any information about the visuals or extra infor-
mation on implicit socio-cultural connotations, wordplay, connotative
meaning, polysemic terms, etc. This information is usually included in
an ideal dialogue list, although even ideal dialogue lists are not always
so complete and the qualified translator does not really need most of
the information it contains. Post-production scripts (dialogue lists and
transcripts) are a necessary part of the post-production process. They
can either be prepared in house with the distributor’s own production
team, or they may be outsourced to a specialist service. To summarize,
post-production scripts can vary in detail but will include:
 Vision – Full shot log describing the pictures, titles and on-screen
captions
 Audio – Transcribed version of all commentary and sync whether in
or out of vision
 Music – All music cues named by title
 Timecode – All of the above will be identified by a timecode

These documents come in many different layouts and vary enormously from
one to another, despite European Broadcasting Union (EBU) guidelines designed
to harmonize them. A good dialogue list makes the translator’s task much easier,
but it is important to remember that the audiovisual translation source text is
the screen, not the dialogue list. This does not mean that we have to transcribe
directly from screen; fortunately we usually have access to the dialogue list.
However, as stated before (see §6.1.1), even transcripts can have mistakes, or
they may simply differ from what is actually said on screen, perhaps because the
transcript or dialogue list was written before the audiovisual product was finally
completed. This is one of the reasons why students in many dubbing courses are
also trained to translate from screen (without scripts). The translator’s working
conditions have improved with the advent of the Internet, and scripts of some
films and popular TV series can easily be found on the web. In general though,
they are usually pre-production scripts that must be thoroughly checked before
setting down to work.
The following are examples of the three documents explained in this section:
Translation Issues 123

Example 7.1. Pre-production script: Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino 1994)

15. EXT. MARSELLUS WALLACE’S HOUSE - NIGHT     15.

        Vincent walks up to the driveway leading to Marsellus

        Wallace’s front door. When he gets to the door, he hears
        MUSIC on the other side, and a note in plain view taped to it.
He rips it off.

CU - NOTE
“Hi Vincent, I’m getting dressed.
The door’s open.
Come inside and make yourself a drink.
Mia”

        Vincent neatly folds the note up, sticks it in his pocket,
        takes a here-goes-nothing breath and turns the knob.

16. INT. MARSELLUS WALLACE’S HOUSE - NIGHT   16.

        As Vincent steps inside, the MUSIC that was behind the door,
        SWELLS drastically. Vincent, hands in pockets, strolls
        inside, checking out his boss’ home.

                                  VINCENT (yelling)

    Hello!  I’m here!

        We hear a DOOR OPEN, Vincent turns in its direction.

17. INT. DRESSING ROOM - NIGHT    17.

        We’re inside the room where the MUSIC is PLAYING. In the f.g.
        MIA WALLACE, naked with her back to us, talks to Vincent
        through a crack in the door. The door shields the front of
        her body from Vincent.

                                  �������������������
MIA Vincent Vega?
 
                                  VINCENT I’m Vincent, you Mia?
                          
      MIA                ������������������������������������
That’s me, pleased to meetcha.  I’m
                       still getting dressed. To your
                       left, past the kitchen, is a bar.
                       Why don’t you make yourself a
                       drink, have a seat in the living
                       room, and I’ll be out within three
                       shakes of a lamb’s tail.
124 Frederic Chaume

                                  VINCENT Take your time.

                      
        Mia closes the door. Before she can fully turn around and
        show us her face...
WE CUT:
BACK TO VINCENT
        standing where he was, MUSIC beating, looking at the closed door.
     We slowly ZOOM to the door.
We slowly ZOOM from a MEDIUM SHOT to CU on Vincent as he
        contemplates what’s on the other side of the door. When we
        reach a CU, he walks OUT OF FRAME, breaking the spell.
Vincent walks to the bar and pours himself a drink.
WE JUXTAPOSE as the MUSIC plays.

This is a good example of a pre-production script, since scenes 16 and 17

(and many more) were eliminated from the final edited version. Translators
must therefore always check that the audiovisual text corresponds exactly to
the dialogue list they have received, and if there are any differences, they must
always follow the audiovisual text, not the script.
We can also see that the script includes both the visual continuity (numbering
of scenes, explanations of what is happening on screen, types of shots, music
effects, camera movements, characters’ body movements, etc.) and the sound
continuity. Audiovisual translators only translate the dialogues, not the visual
indications, following the layouts and patterns explained in Chapter 3.

Example 7.2. Combined continuity and dialogue list (post-production script):

Bob’s Beach (Sophia Kolokouri 2002-2005)

This is an example of a post-production script, i.e., one which reproduces ver-

batim what is happening on screen, scene by scene. Note the visual continuity
(scenes, camera movements, characters’ body movements, and the like) and the
dialogues in bold type. There are some interesting clues for the dialogue writer,
such as the symbol (O.S.), meaning OFF SCENE, i.e., the character speaking is not
on screen, rendered in the translation as (OFF) or (FC) in the Italian tradition.
Or the (CONT’D) symbol, which alerts us to a possible silence or pause before
the following dialogue line. If this is the case, the translator will use the slash
symbol to indicate the pause between the character’s lines. Or the linguistic rep-
resentation of paralinguistic signs, such as (snores) or (sighs), indicated with the
conventional symbols in each country (G, Verso, reac, etc.) or simply translated
with the corresponding verbs in each target language in brackets.
Translation Issues 125

“Zulu’s Second Chance”

EST. SHOT OF THE ISLAND EXT. MORNING.
Early morning. Sunny and idyllic as usual. SFX: VIGOROUS/LOUD HAM-
MERING. ANGLE ON a beautiful PALM TREE as a startled FLOCK OF
HUMMINGBIRDS fly from it and take to the sky.
1. Irie BEACH. EXT. DAY.
SFX:CONTINUOUS LOUD HAMMERING/BANGING/SAWING.
MLS of NEL’S palm tree. The fronds are vibrating with the noise. TRACK IN
as a book is shaken from the tree and falls. QUICK PAN DOWN as the book
hits a sleeping NEL on the head, sending him spinning from his hammock
and into the sand.
1. NEL
(snores).
2. BOB (O.S)
(strains).

3. NEL
Ow. (impact noise).(groans).
MS of NEL as he picks himself up and dusts himself off – it’s clear that
this is not the first time this has happened to him.

4. NEL (Cont’d)
(sighs). Noise and stress! It’s no wonder I’m covered in wrinkles?!
(shouting to Bob)
Hey, how about a little peace and quiet around here?

PAN across the beach. Two suitcases are packed and ready to go, Bob’s
guitar is next to them. PULL OUT to see BOB, busily hammering on a ridicu-
lous, wobbly, self-made raft. A huge whale rib serves as his sailing mast.
BOB stands back to admire his work.

Example 7.3. Transcript: The Clay Pigeon (Richard Fleischer 1949)

THE CLAY PIGEON

UNITED STATES NAVAL HOSPITAL

NURSE: Danny! What are you doing? You know you are not supposed
to be in this room!
DANNY: I just wanted to find out what a dirty traitor looks like.
NURSE: Now, Danny.
DANNY: The Doc says I’ll never see again. I wouldn’t mind so much if I
could only watch him hang. A guy like that…..
NURSE: Oh, Doctor Matheson, the patient in 54 has come out of his
coma again.
126 Frederic Chaume

DOCTOR: I’ll have look at him.

DANNY: Yeah, may be now they can give him what’s coming to him.
DOCTOR: Hello there. How do you feel?
JIM: Okay, I guess.
DOCTOR: What’s your name?
JIM: Fletcher, James. Seaman, first class.
DOCTOR: Well, we’re making progress. Do you know where you are?
JIM: Hospital?
DOCTOR: That’s right. Long Beach Naval Hospital. Do you remember be-
ing brought to this hospital?
JIM: No.
DOCTOR: You don’t remember ever seeing me before?
JIM: Should I? No.
DOCTOR: But you do remember who you are now?
JIM: Yes. Is the war over?
NURSE: For some people it will never be over.
DOCTOR: You can have something to eat now.

Example 7.3 is simply a transcript of the dialogues, without any visual indica-
tions. Transcripts are provided for clients (TV station, distributor) who want to
buy the broadcasting license for a film (or any audiovisual text) and require the
script for dubbing or subtitling purposes.
Finally, dubbing translators may also receive a master titles list, i.e., a dialogue
list containing the subtitles in the original language (see Díaz Cintas and Remael
2007:76, for an example), and even a subtitle file in the target language – a case
of intralinguistic translation, which is more usual in the reverse direction, from
dubbing to subtitling. In these cases, the translator’s task is not to translate the
subtitles, since many dialogue lines and words will be missing due to the intrin-
sic nature of subtitling, but to either look for the complete script or translate it
directly from the screen, with the help of the subtitles.
As Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007:78-79) explain:

Dialogue lists, like dictionaries, are not infallible, and neither are their
compilers. So, in the lucky event that one of these lists is provided by the
distribution or production company, subtitlers ought to be careful since
these documents usually forget to include texts that are not dialogue – i.e.
newspapers, captions, songs, radio voices, and the like. On occasions they
transcribe phonetically terms and expressions that have not been fully
understood, and the spelling of loan words that come from a language
different to the two in play can also be a source of problem.
Finally, a good dialogue list should be compiled by a professional with
a flair for the sort of problems involved in linguistic transfer and should
contain as many relevant details as possible. Some translators may, and
in fact do, find these explanations irritating, and often too basic, but it
cannot be forgotten that the ultimate aim of the list is to be useful to as
Translation Issues 127

many translators as possible, in different countries, and from very differ-

ent cultural backgrounds.

7.1.2 Dubbing bibles

Dialogue lists may be complemented by dubbing bibles, which are a compilation

of indications for the dubbing director and voice talents. Although not aimed
specifically at translators, they may find dubbing bibles useful since they contain
information on the series, voice casting guidelines, character descriptions, title,
logo and episode titles and some translation guidelines. This is an example of a
dubbing bible:

Example 7.4. Dubbing Bible

Big Time Rush

Nickleodeon Dubbing Bible
Updated January, 2010

Table of contents:
Airing order
The series
Voice casting guidelines
Title, logo and episode titles
Technical Specs
Approval process
Songs
Lyrics

The airing order is the order the distributor recommends for broadcasting the
episodes. In this case, there were twenty stand-alone episodes, so the recom-
mended airing order was optional. An explanation of the series plot is provided
in The Series section: this particular series is a show about four best friends from
Minnesota who unexpectedly fall into potential pop stardom. The voice casting
guidelines section gives advice such as: “Maintain integrity of the individual vocal
‘personalities’ as written and performed in the original series as much as possible
with vocal matching as a secondary concern”. This guideline is particularly inter-
esting, since it favours interpretation over vocal matching. This should prompt
us to reflect on the overall importance of vocal matching. Another guideline is
“If original series is bi-lingual, consider maintaining some language from the ori-
ginal series: target words, common phrases, primary character names, primary
locations and numbers”. The Character description section is self-explanatory:
each character is described in terms of his or her vocal attributes, age, gender
and singing requirements. This is what it looks like:
128 Frederic Chaume

Example 7.5. Dubbing Bible: Character description

Character Kendall (played by Kendall Smith)

Description He’s got enough music and dance stuffed in his soul that he
could carry the group on stage by himself and he just may
have to. Kendall looks at life as a series of roads that connect
to other roads.
Vocal attributes Medium pitch
Late teen/ early 20s male
No accent
Confident, leader of the pack, a guy’s guy
Singing Yes
requirements
Age/Gender Male (late teens/early 20s)

This information is highly relevant to the dubbing director and the voice tal-
ents. For the translator it is important to know what the on-screen actor is like,
to match his or her translation register to what is expected by the distributor.
But the important section for translators is the translation guidelines section. In
this same example, it includes the following information:

Example 7.6. Dubbing Bible: Translation guidelines

Episode titles: The individual episode titles should be translated as directly

as possible to preserve their original meaning. These translations (if any) must
be submitted in writing to Nickleodeon for approval with a detailed description
of the meaning of the translation included.

Primary and secondary character names: This show is distributed in many

diverse markets and dubbed into many languages. In some cases, the charac-
ter names may have to change to accommodate local markets. However, the
original character names were very carefully chosen and there are a few guide-
lines for translation that should be considered to help preserve the important
qualities of each name. We prefer to keep character names as is, unless there
is a particular country that has a concern or issue.
****Please Note: All proposed changes to the names of any characters must
be submitted in writing to Nickelodeon for approval with a detailed description
of the meaning of the translation included.

These distributors therefore propose a foreignizing translation, and one

gets the impression that they are wary of strategies that over-domesticate the
translation. The final note is indeed very revealing.
The bible continues with a section on Logo and Episode Titles, stating: “The
name of the series and the band is Big Time Rush. The English title should be
Translation Issues 129

used internationally. If there are concerns with this title for local markets, please
contact the International Property Manager”. Again, a foreignizing strategy is
proposed for questions of trade mark, copyright issues and merchandizing. Other
sections include technical questions and song lyrics.

7.2 Translating film titles

7.2.1 Why are film titles translated?

These guidelines inevitably lead us to one the thorniest issues in translation for
dubbing: that of the translation of film titles. Nowadays film titles are usually
required to be kept in the original language, because of issues of merchandiz-
ing and copyright. The distributor prefers its film to be known by the same title
all over the world. It is also a matter of coherence. This has not always been
the trend, however, and even today it is not universally applied, as the final
decision depends on local markets, audiovisual genres and the audiovisual
translation mode.
On the one hand, some local markets are more domesticating than others.
The reason for translating titles was that local distributors thought foreign
titles would not appeal to their target audience, whereas a translation that also
included some local ideological, religious, sexual, gender or cultural reference
would be more captivating. Some signs now seem to indicate a reverse in the
norm and that local audiences prefer foreign titles, because they seem more
contemporary and fashionable.
On the other hand, translating titles is easier in less canonical genres. Ori-
ginal film titles and modern TV series titles are now more frequently retained
than in the past. Cartoon titles tend to be translated, sometimes quite freely.
Documentaries are usually translated literally.
And finally the audiovisual mode also influences the choice. Subtitled films
are more likely to keep their original titles, whereas dubbing has historically
preferred translated titles.

7.2.2 Retranslations and premieres

Before dealing with the five techniques for translating film titles, it is important
to distinguish films that have been previously released in the local market from
those that have not (premieres). In the case of previously broadcast films, the
translator has to find the target language film title that was used for its first
showing.
Professional translators generally refer to the International Movie Data Base,
imdb, which has a huge collection of film and TV series titles in many languages.
The website www.imdb.com has a searcher where titles can be looked for. Once
the film has been found, the page containing the film (section Details  Also
130 Frederic Chaume

known as) provides film titles in other languages, and the website akas.imdb.
com contains all the languages and countries a film has been shown in with their
respective target titles (see Chapter 5, Figure 5.6, for an example). Once a film
has been translated into a given country, the subsequent retranslations for dif-
ferent media must always keep the same target title so the audience (or at least
film buffs) can recognize it immediately.
This raises another issue: why are films sometimes retranslated in dubbing
(and sometimes subtitling) countries? This is because each new medium (cinema,
TV, DVD, etc.) has its own translation brief (e.g. a translation of a film released
on the cinema circuit is then commissioned by a TV station). Distributors and TV
stations cannot easily get hold of older translations, either because of copyright
issues or availability. It is often simpler for them to commission a new transla-
tion and avoid copyright issues, or embark on what might be a fruitless search
for the original translation. In remakes (and sequels) the same title must also
be retained.
But when a film has not been broadcast or shown in the target country, i.e.,
in the case of a premiere, especially in cinemas, translators should offer three
alternatives to their clients, who decide which one will be most successful. These
alternatives have to follow some strategic marketing directions. The translator
is encouraged to use:

 short titles
 creative strategies
 direct language
 and thrilling, sexual, epic, romantic etc., connotations

The client therefore ensures that the film title in the target language will ap-
peal to the target audience. This may frequently be irritating for many viewers,
even for those who are not bilingual and can understand the differences between
both titles, but for the moment, it is still the norm with many blockbusters, teen
pics and telefilms.

7.2.3 Translation techniques

The translator has five translation techniques s/he can use:

 to make a direct translation of the original film title: Lorenzo’s Oil was
translated into Italian as L’olio di Lorenzo; Home Alone was translated
into Spanish as Solo en casa; The virgin suicides as Virgens Suicidas in
Brazil, etc.
 to make a partial translation of the original film title: Lorenzo’s Oil was
translated into Spanish as El aceite de la vida [The oil of life], retaining
the word “oil”, but not Lorenzo, and also adds a new concept, life, that
was not in the original title. The virgin suicides was rendered in Italian
Translation Issues 131

as Il giardino delle vergini suicide [The garden of the virgin suicides],

thus adding new information to the title.
 to produce a catchy new translation of the original film title: in Spanish,
the teen pic The Frighteners was translated as Agárrame esos fantas-
mas [Grab those ghosts for me], for some a funny – or an irritating
– title that has nothing to do with the original. In France the final ti-
tle was Fantômes contre fantômes, in Canada (Quebec) Chasseurs de
fantômes. Home alone was translated into Italian as Mamma, ho perso
l’aereo [Mummy, I’ve missed my plane], a title which has nothing to do
with the original (but maybe it follows the client’s instructions). Loren-
zo’s Oil was translated as Acto de amor [An act of love] in Portugal.
 no translation, i.e. to keep the film title in the original language: Pulp
Fiction, or Inception, have been left in English in many dubbing coun-
tries (although not in many others, such as Brazil, Slovakia, Hungary,
etc.)
 and finally, to keep the film title in the original language, followed
by a new explanatory title, i.e. no translation plus a catchy explana-
tion: Snatch was translated into Spanish as Snatch, cerdos y diamantes
[Snatch, pigs and diamonds]; Italian examples include Snatch. Lo strap-
po; Lost in translation as Lost in translation. L’amore tradotto or Die
Hard, translated as Die Hard. Trappola di cristallo.

The client’s decision on a final title is often guided by economic motives.

These techniques will be put into practice in the exercises (§7.8).
The technical ways to translate and edit a new target title in a film are dealt
with in §6.2.5 on graphic codes.

7.3 Translating multilingual movies

As De Higes Andino et al. (forthcoming) have stated, cinema is an art form that
relentlessly explores social changes and the concerns that arise from them.
One of the latest issues it addresses is the global phenomenon of immigration,
together with the mass movements of people travelling all over the globe for
business, holidays, leisure or studies. The number of films produced over re-
cent decades depicting characters in multi-cultural settings bears testimony to
these demographic changes that are re-shaping contemporary societies. From
a sociolinguistic and translational point of view, the interest of these films lies in
the presence of immigrant or foreign characters who use their mother tongue
in addition to the language(s) of their host society. This willingness to present
hybrid characters in multicultural settings has led to the emergence of a genre
known as polyglot films, in which for the first time, plurilingualism appears as “a
discrete mode of narrative and aesthetic expression” (Wahl 2008:349).
Multilingual or polyglot films are those in which more than one language can
be heard in their original version. Babel (Alejandro González Iñárritu 2006), It’s
a Free World (Ken Loach 2007), or L’auberge espagnole (Cédric Klapisch 2002)
132 Frederic Chaume

are good examples of multilingual films. These films constitute a challenge for
the translator, who must decide what to do with dialogues in the so-called third
language (the first language being the main language of the film and the second
language the dubbing language). This issue becomes even more complicated
when this third language (L3) is the dubbing language, i.e. the language into
which the translator has to translate.
De Higes Andino et al. (forthcoming) propose a taxonomy of translation
techniques based on two general strategies: the translator chooses either
to indicate, in the dubbed version, the presence of foreign languages in the
source version, or not to indicate it, e.g. by dubbing the whole film regardless
of the language spoken by each character. Once this decision has been taken,
the translator then selects the techniques with which to convey the content of
those dialogues to the target audience. This classification is as follows (adapted
from Martínez-Sierra et al. 2010, and de Higes Andino et al. forthcoming, to the
particular case of dubbing):

 subtitling L3 dialogue lines into standard L2

 subtitling L3 dialogue lines into non-standard L2
 subtitling L3 dialogue lines into L3
 dubbing L3 dialogue lines into standard L2
 dubbing L3 dialogue lines into non-standard L2
 (re)dubbing L3 dialogue lines into L3, to comply with sound quality con-
ditions, since by leaving them in the original L3 the audience would be
aware that they are watching a translation
 self-translation (L3 into L2). Self-translation occurs when a polyglot
character can speak both his or her native language (L3) and also the
target language (L2).
 liaison interpreting (L3 into L2). Liaison interpreting usually occurs when
a character can only speak his or her native language and then needs
someone else to translate his or her lines of dialogue into L2.
 voice-over (L3 into L2). This is quite an unusual strategy for fiction films
in countries with a dubbing tradition.
 no-translation. Broadly speaking, dialogue exchanges in a third lan-
guage that are simply part of the setting and have no filmic function do
not need to be translated, as in the case of dialogue exchanges that can
be easily understood from their context and setting.

When L3 is the same as L2, i.e. when the polyglot character speaks the dub-
bing language – for instance a character speaking German in a Hollywood film
that has to be dubbed into German – the dialogue lines uttered in L3/L2 may
be left untranslated, or redubbed if sound conditions require it. In a dubbed
version, this solution may strike the viewer as odd, since s/he will be listening
to an on-screen actor originally speaking in a foreign language and to another
actor speaking the target language, but both speaking the same language in
the dubbed version in a scene in which they might not be able to understand
each other in the original film. However, it can also be argued that this entire
Translation Issues 133

muddle is part of the suspension of disbelief so typical of dubbing, and univer-

sally accepted in dubbing countries (in cinema it refers to the spectator’s ability
or desire to ignore, distort or underplay realism in order to feel more involved
with the film, see §1.5.2).
Another possible solution is to translate these L3 dialogue lines into a dif-
ferent language, as in the Spanish dubbed version of the film Pulp Fiction when
Bruce Willis tries to teach Maria de Medeiros a bit of Spanish, and translates
his sentences from Spanish to English so that she can understand what he’s say-
ing. The Spanish dubbed version showed them speaking Portuguese instead of
Spanish, so that particular scene would make sense to the Spanish audience. If,
like the rest of the film, those dialogues had been left in Spanish, the resulting
situation would have been nonsensical. This solution is only possible when the
character does not mention where he or she is from, and when there are no
visual signs of his or her origin.
Finally, a character can speak L3 with a different accent; for example, a char-
acter speaking Canadian French in a Hollywood film that has to be dubbed into
French for France, or a character speaking Latin American Spanish in a Hollywood
film dubbed into European Spanish. Again, no translation and redubbing with or
without an accent are the usual options in these cases.
Choosing one particular technique over another not only depends on the
translator, but also on the client. While it is true that the translator knows the
film and the translation strategies and techniques to follow in each case, in the
case of film titles, the final decision is always the client’s.

7.4 Translating language variation

Although language variation is not exclusive to audiovisual translation but is found

in most genres and text types, and therefore, in most translation types, it is more
visible in oral discourse than in written discourses in literary texts, for example.
Although there is no univocal taxonomy of language variation, marked speech
might be classified under three broad umbrellas: stylistic varieties, dialectal or
user-related varieties and register or use-related language varieties.

7.4.1 Style

Marco (2002:45) graphically defines stylistics as the meeting point of linguistics

and literary studies. Linguistic analysis and interpretation are not the same thing;
they are complementary and interdependent. This complementary relation has
been referred to as the hermeneutic circle: the dialectic relationship between a
detailed (linguistic) description and a subjective (literary) intuition, and is at the
root of the linguistic criticism paradigm, for example.
Style is the manner of speaking or writing, and will always be intentional, since
each speaker decides when to use an ornate style, a comic style, a monotonous
style, etc. Therefore, a particular style is constituted by certain linguistic and
134 Frederic Chaume

textual features from one or more conventional genres that perform a literary
function in the broad sense. Ideally, dubbing translators are expected to respect
and convey the way on-screen characters speak, their intentional choice of words,
grammatical structures and literary resources.

Example 7.7. Style: nursery rhyme

There are many examples of uses of intentional stylistic features in

films. In the short film Who’s my favourite girl? (Adrian J. MacDowall
1999, http://www.videosurf.com/who%27s-my-favourite-girl-307484), An-
drew has to recite a nursery rhyme that his mother taught him when he
was a little boy:

ANDREW: My mummy is my favourite girl, my mummy is my favourite

girl, I’ll always love my mummy ’cause she kept me in her
tummy.
MOTHER: That’s right and don’t you forget about your old mum
(pause).

The translator not only has to take into account the lip-sync of the
detailed shot of Andrew’s lips (see §6.2.3), but also the fact that it is a
kind of a nursery rhyme, with alliterative verse, consonantal rhyme, iambic
and anapaestic feet, and other features of this kind of metrical poetry.
This does not mean that the s/he has to find an equivalent in the target
language which respects all these prosodic features, but s/he must emu-
late a nursery rhyme that complies with the usual patterns of this genre
in the target language.

Intertextuality is also a feature of intentional style. Intertexts are usually

difficult to detect, since they are not always explicit. If they are explicit, then
the translator usually finds the target text equivalent in his or her language and
culture (see § 7.5.2).

Example 7.8. Style: quotes

This is the case in the film Pulp Fiction, where Samuel Lee Jackson recites a
supposed biblical quote before killing someone or going into action. The actor
claims to be quoting Ezekiel 25:17, but his quote is a miscellaneous potpourri
of various lines from the Bible and others he has invented. Only part of the last
verse is found in Ezekiel 25:17, whereas other phrases come from Psalm 23.
Most of this passage was made up by Quentin Tarantino and Samuel L. Jackson,
and therefore, the translator will have to consult the Bible (maybe not only one
version), find the bits and pieces that are really intertexts, keep the sanctioned
version of these lines in his or her language, and then translate the rest of the
Translation Issues 135

text imitating the biblical style. Another possibility is considering a biblical

concordance. This is the passage:
“The path of the righteous man is beset on all sides by the inequities of
the selfish and the tyranny of evil men. Blessed is he who, in the name
of charity and good will, shepherds the weak through the valley of the
darkness. For he is truly his brother’s keeper and the finder of lost chil-
dren. And I will strike down upon thee with great vengeance and furious
anger those who attempt to poison and destroy my brothers. And you
will know I am the Lord when I lay my vengeance upon you.”

Levelling and flattening the style in the original film or audiovisual text does
not seem to be at all advisable (unless the translation’s brief recommends oth-
erwise), since style constitutes an inherent part of the meaning of the text, and
sets it apart from other texts. Every effort is usually made to emulate the style
of the original text, since its use is never gratuitous.

Example 7.9. Style: sci-fi jargon

Even in cartoons some characters have their own particular way of speaking. In
The Real Ghostbusters (David Landers 1986-1991), Egon, the scientist, always
speaks in his own personal sci-fi fashion. His dialogue exchanges are marked
by the science-fiction register, but his style is also always very ornate and even
ludicrous. These are some examples:

EGON: No need to worry, ma’am. If there’s a spirit here, we’ll find

it. Strange. Preliminary scan indicates negative supernatural
residue. […]
EGON: This is a transdimensional portal. It’ll allow us direct access to the
nether world. […]
EGON: Peter, wait. The situation is under control. The building is now
secure. I installed shutters impervious to ectoplasm throughout
the fire‑house. […]
RAY: How did the terror dog get out, Egon? And don’t say just because.
EGON: A major blunder on my part.

It is thus not only a question of lexis and syntax, but also of imitating an
artificial and false ornate style parodying the discourse of science. After con-
sulting the specific terms (field of discourse) Egon uses, the translator should
imitate his speech using these terms in his or her target language, but also
making use of irony and inventing new words when necessary to convey both
the same style and function.

Finally, some characters can also imitate particular styles in their speech. In
example 7.10, Zan in the American TV series Monsters (Richard P. Rubinstein
1988-1991) imitates the style of romantic novels (in italics) when she tries to
136 Frederic Chaume

make a living out of her creative skills:

Example 7.10. Style: romantic vein

ZAN: Those things grow in your stomach, you know. One of these days you
gonna explode. It was high tide in her heart. I got it. Surf is up ‑her
heart seemed to say. It’s in the mail. Nobody’s home. I’m doing the
best I can. I don’t buy myself clothes. I don’t have jewelry, furs. We’re
vegetarians because I can’t afford meat. Something tells me you’re
not a bill collector. Stay away or I’ll spoon you.
In this case, Zan uses a couple of sentences that can easily be associated
with the style of bad romantic novels in English. Watch the whole scene at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=av6nhycZr_8

7.4.2 Dialects (user-related language varieties)

The concept of a whole language is so vast and heterogeneous that it is

not operationally useful for many linguistic purposes, descriptive, com-
parative and pedagogical. It is therefore desirable to have a framework
of categories for the classification of ‘sub-languages’ or varieties within
a total language. (Catford 1965:63)

As early as 1965, in the field of Translation Studies, Catford noted the need to
focus on language varieties rather than on a language as a whole. These language
varieties, later called dialects and registers, have flooded research on Sociolin-
guistics, Applied Linguistics, Language Teaching and Translation Studies. Hatim
and Mason (1990) successfully applied these linguistic categories to translation
and since then many authors have used them to analyze translation problems.
In line with the predominant functional systemic paradigm of that period,
these authors distinguish between language varieties that are directly con-
nected with the user (speaker/writer) in any particular event, i.e. dialects, and
the use to which a speaker/writer puts language, called registers, which – unlike
dialects – differ from each other primarily in language form (Hatim and Mason
1990:39).
Dialects have traditionally been divided into five types: geographical dia-
lects, temporal dialects, social dialects, standard/non-standard dialects, and
idiolects.

7.4.2.1 Geographical dialects

Diatopic variation, or the different forms of language according to geographical
variation, constitutes geographical dialects. Isoglosses that separate territories
according to dialects are not always easy to draw, since they are not divided
by clear-cut demarcation lines. Moreover, these lines are not always drawn on
linguistic grounds, but also according to sociological and political factors. How-
Translation Issues 137

ever there is no doubt that the Scottish English in which Trainspotting (Danny
Boyle 1996) or Who’s my favourite girl (Adrian J. MacDowall 1999) were shot
can pose a translation problem. And not only a translation problem, but a com-
munication problem (as translation is simply a type of communicative event),
since Trainspotting was in fact dubbed into American English for the US market
(see Chapter 1).
In principle, when a film is shot entirely in one dialect it is usually translated
into standard language in the target culture. Since there is no language variation
within the film, and language is consistent throughout, no language variation is
shown in the translation. There are exceptions to the rule (Ranzato 2010), but
the general trend is to use standard language. A film shot in Quebecois in Canada
will be then translated into standard German, Spanish or Czech, since Quebecois
is not considered a dialect in Canada, but standard French. For the same reason,
a film shot in Flemish would be translated into standard French, Turkish or Portu-
guese, since the whole film is shot in the same language variety. Therefore, the
Scottish films mentioned above would be translated into the standard variety of
the target language in dubbing countries – although the case of Trainspotting is
a bit more controversial, as we will see in §7.4.2.1. In cases where there is more
than one standard, the choice will depend on the target country (i.e. UK/US
English, European and Brazilian Portuguese).
A different situation arises when two dialects of the same language are used
in the same film. Most authors agree that dialects have no equivalents in other
languages, and that equating the dialect of a source language in the source film
to another dialect from the target language in the target version can be polit-
ically incorrect. Hatim and Mason (1990:40) recall the controversy in Scotland
over the use of Scottish accents to represent the speech of Russian peasants in
the TV dramatization of a foreign play.
Since no equivalents exist, translators do not usually substitute one dialect
for another one. They would be better advised to use a non-standard register
in the target language, thus showing that the character in question is speaking
a non-standard variety of the language (see Ranzato 2010). In any event, dia-
lectal varieties that could be somehow associated with low status or any other
unintended effect should be avoided. This solution is far from perfect; rather, it
is more of a compromise, since the difficulty of achieving dialectal equivalence
in translation is a notorious hurdle for any professional translator, but it is also
apparent that translating a source language dialect with the standard target
language variety inevitably loses the particular effect evoked by the dialect in
the original film.

Example 7.11. Geographical dialects

In the film Bienvenue chez les Ch’tis (Dany Boon 2008) some characters
speak standard French, whereas others speak Chti or Chtimi, a dialect of Picard,
since the film is set in Nord-Pas-de-Calais. Much of the humour is based on
dialectal differences between the southern and the northern characters, and as
138 Frederic Chaume

such, these differences have to be indicated in the translation. Dubbed versions

have usually resorted to non-standard lexis, to mimic the feeling of strangeness
produced by this dialect in the southern characters (Grosse, 2010).

Translating accents and pronunciation is another common pitfall in films.

In many Hollywood films we find Latin American, Italian, or Chinese characters
speaking English with conspicuous Spanish, Italian, or Chinese accents. In most
multilingual or polyglot films, especially those dealing with migration issues,
foreign characters often speak with an accent. Again, the translator has to
find out whether all the characters speak with an accent (and whether it is the
same one), or only some of them do so. In the former case, translators tend to
translate the film into the standard target language, since no variation is shown
in the original. In the latter case, there are three possibilities: a) to imitate the
same accent in the dubbing, since foreign characters will also have an accent
when they speak the target language; b) when the accent is that of the target
language, translators may substitute it for another accent, or c) to leave it in the
standard target language, thus losing the connotations of the foreign accent in
the original film.

7.4.2.2 Temporal dialects

Temporal dialects show language variation through time and linguistic fashions
from one period or another. Translators of historical texts encounter serious
problems when dealing with heritage films, or literary films, involving morpho-
logical, syntactic or lexical features from an early period. The relevance of such
linguistic and stylistic features varies from film to film. The issue of what to do
in these cases is taken up by Reid (1996:106-107) and Díaz Cintas and Remael
(2007:187-189). Generally speaking, and leaving instructions from the TV station
or client aside, translators have three options or strategies to fall back on when
dealing with historical films:
Strategy 1: look for the literary translation. When a film is based on a novel,
poem or play, and some passages are rendered in the film or uttered by char-
acters on screen, it seems wise to look for the literary translation in the target
language and reproduce this authorized translation, with due reference to it in
the final credits. Viewers may or may not be familiar with the target text, but if
they are, they will be able to recognize the translation;
Strategy 2: render a touch of the literary style of the source text in the transla-
tion by means of syntactic and lexical embellishments. This enables translators
to reproduce easy-to-understand lexical terms that sound archaic and literary in
their target language, as well as word order patterns and noun and verb inflec-
tions from the period in question;
Strategy 3: compensation. Translators can include noun or verb inflections,
archaic word orders or obsolete lexical terms in a particular dialogue exchange,
to compensate for the loss of a marked historical linguistic feature in another
dialogue line.
Translation Issues 139

7.4.2.3 Standard/non-standard dialects

According to Hatim and Mason (1990:42):

Range of intelligibility is defined in terms of the distinction between

‘standard’ and ‘non-standard’ dialect. Although the notion of ‘standard/
non-standard’ is a function of prestige, like social dialect, it should not
be understood as implying any linguistic value judgement.

Problems arise when we come across an audiovisual text where non-standard

language has been used, sometimes coexisting with standard language, and
other times on its own (see example 7.12 in §7.4.2.4). For these authors, the
solution to the problems posed by non-standard language is to reflect the user’s
status by non-standard handling of the grammar or by a deliberate variation of
the lexis in the target language (1991:43), and not necessarily by resorting to
mispronunciation or finding a particular regional variety in the target culture
(for an extensive discussion on regional accents and translation see Armstrong
and Federici 2006).

7.4.2.4 Social dialects or jargons

Evoked or connotative meaning is also inferred from social dialects or sociolects.
These reflect social stratification in a particular linguistic community and are
associated with socio-economic status (Wales 1989:119-120). The challenge
for the translator is to understand the political and ideological connotations of
a particular social dialect. Slang is a typical example of social dialect, a jargon
in which “standard lexical items are replaced by re-lexicalizations that are very
informal, and purposefully designed, like a secret language” (Díaz Cintas and Re-
mael 2007:191). As mentioned in §7.4.2.1, the first step is to detect the dialectal
feature and its function in the source text, and then to assess whether this feature
or features are used throughout the film or audiovisual text, or only by particular
characters in the film, and use one strategy or another accordingly.
For example, in the film Kids (Larry Clark 1995), an independent film about
teenagers growing up in poverty in New York City, the characters constantly use
teenage slang to communicate with each other. This is the information we find
in the imdb webpage (section Parent’s Guide): “Constant, extremely frank and
explicit sexual talk between adults, teens and preteens, with lots of vulgar slang
and discussions of references to seemingly every sex act imaginable […] Nearly
150 F-words, among other non-stop crude, vulgar, and sexual language” (my
emphasis) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0113540/parentalguide]. Leaving aside
the biased discourse of this quote, it is true that the teenagers’ social dialogue
is clearly visible in the film, and will pose a translation problem. This is how the
film begins:
140 Frederic Chaume

Example 7.12. Social dialects: teenagers

TELLY
Know what I want to do?
GIRL
Yeah.
TELLY
What do I want to do?
GIRL
You want to fuck me. But you can’t fuck me.
TELLY(smiling)
Why?
GIRL
‘Cause, you know why. You know.
TELLY
‘Cause you’re a virgin?
GIRL
‘Cause I’m a virgin and I don’t want no baby.
TELLY
You think I want a baby? When you’re with me, you don’t have to worry
about that kinda shit.
GIRL
Why is that?
TELLY
‘Cause I like you. I think you’re beautiful. I think if we fucked you would
love it. You wouldn’t believe it.
GIRL
I wouldn’t believe it?
TELLY
I don’t know. I just think that you would love it.
GIRL
But, I don’t know. I’m just scared that things would change. Between
us.
TELLY
What things? I’m telling you, nothing’s going to change.(He begins to
caress her cheek and hair)
I want to make you happy. That’s all.
Telly scoots up to the girl and starts to kiss her. He sticks his tongue in her
mouth. They kiss.
TELLY(whispering)
You know it won’t hurt. I’ll be gentle. I promise.
GIRL (whispering)
Do you care about me?
TELLY(whispering)
Of course I do.
Translation Issues 141

RAPID CUT TO BLACK

AN EXTREME CLOSEUP OF THE GIRL’S FACE

As she screams in total agony. Telly and the girl are on the bed having sex.
All the lights are on. This scene should look very white and bleached out,
very electric and shocking. Everything should be exposed as Telly takes
advantage of the virgin girl.

TELLY (V.O.) (slowly)

Virgins. I love ‘em. No diseases, no loose as a goose pussy, no skank. No
nothin. Just pure pleasure.

Kids, Larry Clarke 1995 (my emphasis)

The film is full of taboo and colloquial words (lexis), double negatives, sentences
with no subject, interrogatives without the auxiliary “do” and interrogatives with-
out inverted word order (syntax), elisions, close junctures and loss of nasalization
(phonetics) and other linguistic features that indicate non-standard language and
also a particular social dialect, that of the teenagers in a poor borough of New
York. In these cases, it seems advisable to emulate the teenagers’ social dialect
in the target language, but not necessarily by retaining all deviations from the
standard. Equivalence can be obtained through lexical choice where a phonetic
deviation was found, or through non-canonical word order to mirror a lexical
deviation, i.e. juggling phonetics, grammar and lexis when necessary and even
making use of compensation throughout the film. The norm seems to substitute
any linguistic deviation – be it phonetic, morphologic, syntactic or lexical – for a
colloquial or even vulgar word (lexical level only), and avoid the introduction of
non-standard phonetic or grammar features in the translation.
Dialectal equivalents between languages were more commonly found in
dubbed films in the past. In Gone with the Wind (Victor Fleming 1939), Mammy,
the house servant, speaks Black Vernacular English (African American Vernacular
English), an ethnolect and sociolect spoken by many African Americans and many
non-African Americans in the United States. In the Spanish translation, Mammy
was dubbed with a Cuban accent, an accent reminiscent of the last Spanish
colony in America at that time. In this case, a social dialect (and ethnolect) was
translated as a geographical dialect, a decision not without its dangers. The fol-
lowing excerpt shows the way she speaks in the original film:

Example 7.13. Social dialects: African American Vernacular English

Scarlett: Atlanta!
Mammy: Savannah would be better for ya. You’d just get in trouble in Atlanta.
Scarlett: What trouble are you talking about?
Mammy: You know what trouble I’s talkin’ ‘bout. I’s talking ‘bout Mr. Ashley
Wilkes. He’ll be comin’ to Atlanta when he gets his leave, and you sittin’
142 Frederic Chaume

there waitin’ for him, just like a spider. He belongs to Miss Melanie...

Gone with the Wind, Victor Fleming 1939 (my emphasis)

Register would seem to offer a much better solution than dialect in these
cases. Substituting her non-standard and social linguistic features for non-
standard and social equivalents in the target language does not run the risk of
equating a social dialect with a geographical one.

7.4.2.5 Idiolects
Idiolects are “idiosyncratic ways of using language” (Hatim and Mason 1990:43),
“the speech habits of an individual in a speech community, as distinct from those
of a group of people” (Wales 1989:230), i.e. “favourite expressions, different
pronunciations of particular words as well as a tendency to over-use specific
syntactic structures” (Hatim and Mason 1990:44). Idiolects are a melting pot
of all the other user-related varieties: they share features of geographical, tem-
poral, social and standard/non-standard dialects, together with idiosyncratic
features, such as phonetic mispronunciations or insistent repetitions of words
or structures.
The Coen brothers’ films are well known for the idiolects of their main char-
acters. Their involuntary repetitive linguistic features (voluntary since a script
is always planned, but involuntary in the world of suspended disbelief) make
dialogues sound arcane, folksy, funny and erudite at the same time (Lavery
2008, online). This Coenesque speech is usually levelled in most dubbings and
subtitlings, since dubbing, generally speaking, like subtitling, “always corrects
grammar mistakes or dialectal grammar” (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007:192),
in spite of the fact that ungrammatical TL structures would be a perfectly good
part of the dubbers’ and subtitlers’ repertoire. Anyway, this is not the case in
general terms. And when non-standard features must be used, because they
are part of the plot or they are distinctive of a particular character, translators
usually choose colloquial and vulgar lexis.
Constructing a new idiolect in the target language is not, however, such a
preposterous idea, since translators can choose geographical, temporal and
social linguistic features that are coherent with the on-screen character and re-
peat these features in the character’s target language dialogue lines throughout
the film (García de Toro 2009). In True Grit (Ethan and Joel Coen 2010), Matt
Damon’s tongue is hurt and for the rest of the film he speaks with a speech
defect. His mumbling is part of the film. In the Italian dubbing, after Damon has
been injured, his speech remains completely unchanged, again following the
tacit norm of correcting phonetic and grammar mistakes in the translation. In
this case, his idiolect – now especially marked by his defective articulation – is
lost in translation.
Once the translator has selected the particular phonetic, grammatical and
lexical features that fit the character’s role and function in the film, they can be
Translation Issues 143

repeated in dialogue lines all through the film, so that the audience can eventu-
ally deduce that these features are part of his personality. These features do not
have to mirror those of the source text, since each language will have its own
resources to convey humour, linguistic defects, level of education, or whatever
the function of the idiolect may be.

7.4.3 Registers (use-related language varieties)

Baker (1992:51) defines register as “a variety of language that a language user

considers appropriate to a specific situation”. Registers are, therefore, the prod-
uct of conscious linguistic and stylistic choices made by speakers and writers.
Particularly since Halliday et al. (1964), this concept has proven extremely useful
in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics alike, including Sociolinguistics, Ethnolin-
guistics, Textual Linguistics, Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis,
but also in translation theory and especially in translation training. Translation
training programmes are usually based on situational syllabuses, which organ-
ize courses by domains, for example, medical translation, legal translation, or
technical translation.
A register has three distinctive features:

 Field of discourse: This is the field of activity in a given situation, what is

going on, something closely related to the subject matter of an interac-
tion. In many languages registers are determined by lexis but also by
certain syntactic structures, as is the case in administrative and legal
registers, for example. House M.D. (David Shore 2004-) provides a good
example of the medical profession’s field of discourse. In this TV se-
ries, the subject matter is highly predictable, but plots include a range
of subject matters and various personal conflicts. Translators have to
find the equivalent medical terms in the target language by taking full
advantage of documentation strategies, and must bear in mind that
language also varies according to whether the speaker is performing an
operation or discussing medicine (Baker 1992:16).
 Mode of discourse: This refers to the medium of the language activity,
the way language is transmitted. Traditionally, the dichotomy between
written and spoken registers has been seen in very black and white
terms. Many authors have substituted this disjunction for a continuum
where the two poles (spoken and written discourse) are represented
at two ends of the continuum. Modes of discourse are no longer only
written and spoken, but involve all the possibilities between these two
poles. Indeed, the language of dubbing or dubbese, extensively dis-
cussed in Chapter 5, is located somewhere between these two poles,
unequivocally placed nearer to oral than written registers. Nonetheless,
audiovisual texts contain all kinds of modes of discourse, from passages
from the Bible, to real spoken conversations shot while their speakers
are oblivious to the camera.
 Tenor of discourse: This indicates the relationship between the speak-
ers involved in the discourse. Tenor tends to be analyzed in terms of
144 Frederic Chaume

formal/informal, or polite/colloquial/intimate, depending on the in-

teraction between the speakers (mother and child, lawyer and client,
king and vassals, lovers, etc.). Ignoring for the moment the category
of functional tenor (Gregory and Carroll 1978:53, Hatim and Mason
1990:50-51) or the speaker’s intention (persuasion, exhortation, etc.),
tenor of discourse shows the power relations among speakers.

One typical example of tenor of discourse is the use of formal versus informal
second person forms of address, “such as vous versus tu in French, Sie versus du
in German, usted versus tú in Spanish, u versus je/ge in Dutch, etc.” (Díaz Cintas
and Remael 2007:189-190). Mason (2001) and Hatim and Mason (1997) have
addressed this thorny question, claiming that power relations can be changed
in the translation if the wrong form of address is chosen. Anderman (1993),
Mailhac (2000) and Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007) have also explored this issue,
concluding that each case has to be assessed carefully, since choosing the right
form depends on many factors. Visual, narrative and linguistic clues will help
the translator to choose the right form of address in each case, even between
languages that have both forms, since the degree of formality attached to each
form varies from language to language – for example, Sie in German cannot al-
ways be equated to usted in Spanish, since the latter is increasingly being taken
over by tú in many settings and contexts. In English, the formula “Mr. + family
name” is the obvious solution to translate the formal second person forms of
address in other languages (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007:190).
Taboo words are representative of colloquial settings. As in the case of subti-
tling (ibid.:195), swearwords and taboo words are often toned down in dubbing,
but in this case the reason lies in a historical trend to show political correctness
and appeal to all audiences. Taboo words and swearwords help shape all the
characters’ roles in the film and should not be deleted or toned down. Even
when there is no equivalence between languages in terms of the strength and
the connotative meaning of two words or expressions, translators have to assess
whether the two cultures have the same sensibility to the literal translations of
these words and then find the word with the same emotional value. Empirical
studies show, however, that the general trend seems to tone them down, instead
of rendering their equivalents in the target languages (Soler Pardo 2011).
These three features are combined in a register, and this combination con-
stitutes a variety of language that changes according to the situation. This Land
is Mine (Jean Renoir 1943) is a film about the Second World War in which a trial
takes place. Charles Laughton delivers one of the finest courtroom speeches in
film history, involving legal discourse, politics and ethics. His tone or tenor of
speech is formal and appropriate for the occasion, and there are traits of both
spoken and written discourse. His register in a particular target language must
combine all these features, following the target language and culture norms gov-
erning specialized terminology, the balance between oral and written discourse,
and the appropriate formality for the occasion.
Translation Issues 145

7.5 Translating cultural and intertextual references

7.5.1 Cultural references

The issue of cultural references is always a complex element in translation. In

Translation Studies, cultural references (CR) have variously been termed micro-
signs, extralinguistic references, culture-bound elements, culture-specific items,
culturemes, realia, and culture entities. Audiovisual translation professionals
have to deal with cultural references that are shown on screen at the same time.
Code interaction, as seen in Chapter 6, can pose true translation problems, espe-
cially when the linguistic code interacts with acoustic and visual codes to create
meaning. Sometimes it is the other way round: the visuals or the acoustic signs
help the translator find a solution by clarifying his or her understanding of the
cultural reference (Martínez-Sierra 2009, online).
Whatever the case, translators can choose from a range of techniques that
fall on a continuum from the most foreignizing to the most domesticating:

 Repetition of the CR without translation, i.e. retaining the cultural ref-

erence in the original language. One example is the way Halloween is
dealt with in dubbings of American movies into many target languages;
the term Halloween is usually kept in English in several languages.
 Orthographic adaptation of the CR, without a translation, in the case
of cultural references from languages with different alphabets (such
as manga in many Western languages), or in the case of sanctioned
proper names (London is Londra in Italian, Londres in Spanish, etc.), as
well as in some neologisms.
 Literal translation, such as Giorno del ringraziamento (Italian) or Día de
Acción de Gracias (Spanish) for Thanksgiving Day
 Glosses, when the meaning of the CR is explicit in the translation. Trans-
lating haggis as “schottisches Gericht aus gehackten Schafsinnereien
und Hafer im Schafsmagen” (German), “prato escocês de miúdos de
carneiro” (Portuguese), “insaccato scozzese di pecora” (Italian) or “mor-
cilla de cordero, avena y especias” (Spanish) would be good examples of
a gloss. However, this technique is not always possible in dubbing, since
glosses and paraphrases make the translation longer and, as stated in
Chapter 4, isochrony is one of the top priorities in translation for dub-
bing. The gloss may not match the character’s lips and may therefore
not be the best option. When characters are off screen or their mouth
is not visible, this technique can be used more easily.
 Cultural adaptation or substitution, a technique that neutralizes the
strangeness or exoticism of the CR when it is unknown in the target
culture and when the genre or text type allow for substitution (for ex-
ample, the translation of cartoons permits this technique much more
readily than art films, where it would not be considered). There are
three ways to implement cultural adaptation: limited adaptation, ab-
solute universalization and cultural substitution. Limited adaptation
146 Frederic Chaume

occurs when the CR is replaced by another from the source culture, i.e.,
substituting a little known pop group for a well-known pop group from
the same source culture, thus making it accessible to the target culture.
Absolute universalization takes place when the new CR is universal but
it is not culturally marked, such as target culture food, singers or sports-
men very well known all over the world substituting food, singers or
sportsmen known in the source culture but not so much in the target
culture. Cultural substitution or naturalization occurs when the new CR
belongs to the target culture, such as translating baseball with football
in many European languages where football is the most popular sport.
Obviously, cultural substitution is only possible in certain specific oc-
casions and genres: cartoons and sitcoms are more open to cultural
substitution, and in any case, the visuals might preclude this technique,
especially when the CR is visible on screen, or when the CR is not simply
an anecdote in the plot.
 Omission of the CR, by deleting it from the translation, because the CR
is repeated, because it is dark, because the translation has to be con-
densed or because the translator does not know how to translate it.
 Creation of a new CR, when a CR is added even though it was not in
the source text, maybe as a compensation strategy for a loss in another
part of the film or because of a strong domesticating agenda (adapted
from Franco Aixelà 2000 and Sánchez Palomo 2007).

The final choice of one or another technique will depend on the particular
source text, the translation’s brief, the translation skopos, and the target language
norms. Sometimes a client wants a very domesticating translation, especially
where humour is involved, such as comedies, sitcoms, or some TV series. Constant
adaptations, new discursive creations, and domesticating techniques pervade
the target text, as in the case of so-called Goblin translation (see Chapter 1), or
in the dubbings of some comedy films such as Austin Powers (Jay Roach 1997) or
sitcoms such as Sabrina (Nell Scovell 1996-2003). In the Italian dubbing of Austin
Powers, Mike Myers interprets a character called Cicciobastardo, a Scottish secret
agent who speaks with a strong Neapolitan accent in the Italian dubbing. In the
Spanish dubbing of Sabrina references are made to popular Spanish celebrities.
Translators and dialogue writers try to find a balance between the audience’s
shared knowledge and their threshold of tolerance to domestic culture refer-
ences. There is an urgent need for reception studies to ascertain the extent
to which certain domesticating (or foreignizing) operations are well or badly
received (Antonini 2009).
Cartoons lie at one end of the foreignization-domestication continuum (De
Rosa 2010). The cartoon genre is distinctive because of the linguistic register used
and the way CRs are translated. Language comes particularly close to real oral
discourse since extremely domesticating translation solutions are found – and
even preferred – in an attempt to bring the product closer to the young audience.
Together with the extensive use of phraseology and stereotypical conversational
exchanges, CRs are frequently adapted to the universe of the target culture,
Translation Issues 147

especially in the fields of measures, food and childhood games (Katan 2010).
The work of Santamaria (2001, for example) is of particular significance in
analyzing cultural references in screen translation, as is the work of Nedergaard-
Larsen (1993), Ramière (2004), Vandeweghe (2005), Díaz Cintas and Remael
(2007) and Pedersen (2011), who propose various taxonomies to analyze transla-
tions of CRs to different target cultures, and provide researchers with valuable
analytical frameworks for their work.

7.5.2 Intertextual references

Intertextuality is a discursive practice by means of which texts are recognized

in terms of their dependence to other usually relevant prior texts (Hatim and
Mason 1990:120). This textual standard was first introduced by Kristeva (1969)
and since then has proved very useful to explain how discourses are woven to-
gether. Marco (2002:268-270) distinguishes five dimensions in the relationship
between intertextuality and translation, but for the purposes of this book his
first dimension is the most pertinent: the allusion or reference to another text
– although it should not be understood only as the simple addition of a sporadic
reference to another text. As Marco suggests, it is a type of allusion whose effect
will depend upon the reader, since the receiver’s prior textual experience is what
will allow him or her to identify it.
In an audiovisual text intertextuality can be defined as the presence in a given
text of references to other texts, whether oral, written, or audiovisual (Martínez
Sierra 2010). Ideally translators must be trained to spot any intertextual element
and to translate it accordingly, usually by consulting the established or canonical
translation in their target languages, so that the target and the source audiences
enjoy the same conditions for recognizing those elements and interpreting them
accordingly. In many cases intertextuality is easy to detect, as it can occur in the
titles of books, films or songs, for example. However, sometimes it is camouflaged
behind wordplay, puns, literary allusions, or idioms (Martínez Sierra 2010). Hatim
and Mason (1990:132) offer the following taxonomy, based on Sebeok (1986):

 References, when the intertextual reference is disclosed by indicating a

title, chapter, author, etc.
 Clichés, stereotypical expressions that have become almost meaning-
less through excessive use.
 Literary allusions, citing a famous work (that could also be a film, TV
series, etc.).
 Self-quotations.
 Conventionalisms, an idea that has become source-less through re-
peated use.
 Proverbs, or memorable maxims.
 Meditations, or putting into words one’s hermeneutic experience of the
effects of a text.
148 Frederic Chaume

Botella (2010) applies this useful taxonomy in her consistent descriptive study
of intertextuality in the first five seasons of Family Guy (Seth MacFarlane 1999-)
and their dubbing into Spanish.
One kind of intertext is the direct quote. Famous quotes usually have a cor-
responding famous translation. As well as locating the famous translation of the
quote, audiovisual translators also have to deal with the characteristic restrictions
of dubbing, which essentially have to do with synchronization (see Chapter 4).
According to Zabalbeascoa, audiovisual programmes aimed at children are
expected to contain minimal levels of intertextuality than texts typically consid-
ered adult-oriented. However, this claim calls for thorough empirical research,
since many cartoons, children’s movies and teen pics make constant use of
intertextual references. A further case concerns animated series enjoyed by
both children and adults. Zabalbeascoa (2000:21) refers to cartoon texts that
make use of a “white background with black spots” strategy; in other words,
supposedly children’s texts (the white background) containing certain elements
(the black spots, i.e. cultural or intertextual references) specifically included for
adult amusement (Martínez Sierra 2010).
In audiovisual texts, however, intertextuality cannot be limited to words.
Icons, voices (imitations, characteristic ways of speaking, etc.), paralinguistic
signs, special effects, songs, editing techniques or captions can all create in-
tertextuality. The idea that the visual and acoustic elements can act as vehicles
of intertextual (and cultural) references seems crucial, and allows us to talk
of audiovisual intertextuality (Martínez Sierra 2010, and also Fowler and
Chozick 2007).
Finally, remakes and redubbings represent extreme cases of intertextuality.
In both cases, translators should consult the original translations of the film, to
ensure their translations maintain coherence. The first translation may have aged
and is now in need of an update. But some translated lines may have become
popular and are assimilated into the audience’s cultural background. To date
very little research has been done on remakes and redubbings from the point
of view of translation.

7.6 Translating humour

Chiaro, Fuentes Luque, Zabalbeascoa, Zanettin and Martínez Sierra, among oth-
ers, have specialized in the translation of humour in audiovisual texts. Martínez
Sierra (2006) has explored the dichotomy of foreignization and domestication in
the translation of humour and CR in AVT, and states that the function of a text is
the key element in defining what the translator should prioritize when translating
humour. In comedy, making the audience laugh is the highest priority of the text,
and if this is the case, translators may have to manipulate the source text, since
keeping the same humoristic element in the translation might be meaningless
to the target audience. In these cases, is it legitimate to manipulate the source
text in order to raise a smile in the target audience?
Translation Issues 149

Martínez Sierra states that all translation techniques described in §7.5.1 can
coexist in the same target text along the foreignization/domestication continuum.
However, in his view, both ends of the continuum entail some risks when one
is translating humour: a foreignization can imply a loss of the humoristic effect,
since the foreign reference and its effect can be lost in translation. By contrast,
a domestication might cause conflict between the translation and the suspen-
sion of disbelief, since the translation solution could sound artificial and alien to
the film plot and style and may not match audiences’ expectations of what the
characters should say.
Whitman-Linsen (1992) opts to make the humoristic element accessible by
substituting it for an element rooted in the source culture, not from the target
culture. Fuentes (2010) favours the adaptation of jokes, even in cases when the
source text should be reformulated, as Zabalbeascoa (1996) also suggests. Gil-
lies (1997), however, prefers to omit a joke rather than to decontextualize and
adapt it to the target culture. This lack of consensus should alert us to the fact
that prioritizing one technique over another is not the solution; rather we should
identify the function of the target text and then take an informed, conscious de-
cision. As Martínez Sierra wonders, translators have to assess whether laughter
really is the top priority of the target text and whether it is worth manipulating
the source text. The author also asks at what point translation ends and gives
way to creative writing when translators opt for a domestication.
Martínez Sierra (2008) also offers a taxonomy of humorous elements used
to analyze audiovisual jokes in the popular American animated series, The Simp-
sons (Matt Groening 1989-). His taxonomy is founded on that of Zabalbeascoa
(1993, 1996, 2005), a pioneer in the translation of jokes and wordplay. Depart-
ing from the idea that jokes tend to be hybrid and, thus, difficult to classify in
a clear-cut, straightforward taxonomy, the author does not use the concept of
the joke itself, but replaces it with the concept of humorous elements, which
– once combined – result in a joke. He proposes a classification of eight different
humorous elements:

 Community-and-Institution elements, which refer to cultural or in-

tertextual features tied to a particular culture such as politicians,
celebrities, organizations, newspapers, or films.
 Community-Sense-of-Humour elements, which seem to be more popu-
lar in certain communities than in others, such as the typical use of a
certain country or region as a subject to raise laughter in another coun-
try or region
 Linguistic elements, i.e. jokes based on wordplay, puns, etc.
 Visual elements that elicit humour through what can be seen on
screen
 Graphic elements, when a written text on screen is humorous
 Paralinguistic elements, such as non-verbal qualities of voice, certain
tones, pitches and ways of speaking associated with recognizable ex-
pressions of emotions as well as narrative silences
150 Frederic Chaume

 Sound or acoustic signs recorded on the soundtrack such as special ef-

fects that, by themselves or in combination with others, may raise a
smile or laughter
 Non-marked or miscellaneous elements that are not easily categorized
but are, nevertheless, humorous.

This useful classification helps the researcher to make a descriptive study

about how jokes (or humoristic elements, in isolation or combined) are translated
in a given corpus, delimited by genre, time, language pairs, medium of exhibi-
tion and the like. Once the norms have been described (i.e. how these elements
have been transformed in the target text), the translator can see the norm in the
corpus analyzed and will know what clients in the target language expect from
translators – obviously depending on the corpus composition –; they may follow
the norm or not, but they are able to make an informed choice.
Problems emerging from this taxonomy of humorous elements are manifold.
In example 7.14, a graphic code interacts with the linguistic code, making the
scene humorous. The graphic element is an acronym written on screen by a mon-
ster called Lagoon in the animated TV series The Mini-Monsters (Jimmy Autray
1987). In this cartoon, classic monsters – Dracula, Frankenstein, Wolfman, the
Mummy, the Wicked Witch and others – send their kids to a summer camp. Two
human children also come to the same camp, and teach the monsters how to
behave in normal life. In the following example, a monster called Lagoon explains
how difficult it is for him to have a girlfriend:

Example 7.14. Humour: graphic elements

[Mini-Monsters are summoned to their dormitory. Conversation covers

the different romantic relationships they have had in their lives. When
the turn comes to the submarine monster, Lagoon, a really ugly mon-
ster, tries to change the subject, but his mates insist on asking him how
many girlfriends he has had. He finally confesses that he has never had
a girlfriend because he needs a girlfriend from his own species, which he
calls “Yucs”. But since the invented word “yuc” immediately reminds the
other monsters of the word “yuck”, he has to write in on a glass bathtub
covered with steam in capital letters and explain its meaning]:
Merlin: What about your girlfriend, Lagoon?
Lagoon: Eh, ah... nice weather we’ve been having, eh...
Merlin: You’ve never had a girlfriend, pal?
Lagoon: Oh, no. Not me. See, my kind of girl’s gotta be a YUC.
Merlin: Yuck? You mean... a kind of repulsive?
Lagoon: No, no, no. Y-U-C. A Young Underwater Creature. See, I’m a
YUC, so I need a YUC girl.

Translating the humorous element is not an easy task. On the one hand,
translators cannot avoid making reference to the (invented) acronym, since it is
Translation Issues 151

written on screen. On the other hand, whatever the new meaning of this acronym
in the target culture – since translators can manipulate the meaning until they
find three words beginning with <y>, <u> and <c>, respectively, or an invented
clipping (i.e. a portion of a longer word is used to produce a clipped word) in
the target language – the target solution somehow will have to be consistent
with these letters (a monster from Yucatan may work in some target cultures,
for example).

7.7 Translating ideology

Following the cultural turn in Translation Studies, it is commonly accepted that

no translation is neutral and that translating inevitably involves taking decisions
that convey a certain ideology. Long before the cultural turn, Bourdieu (1982)
pointed out that illocutionary force is invested in an utterance not by the words
themselves or by any particular combination of them, but by the system of
social relations which influences the production and reception of utterances
in particular situations (Hatim and Mason, 1990:86). The notion of discourse
brought to Translation Studies by these authors can be defined as the ideological
orientation pervading a text, a concept established by Foucault (1972), which has
proved overtly useful in translation analysis. Discourses are ritualized ways of
talking, writing and thinking, such as the feminist discourse, the sexist discourse,
the communist discourse, the neo-con discourse, the colonial discourse, or the
nationalistic discourse.
Discourses then pervade a text and leave constant traces of their ideology
behind. Ideally, translators should spot the ideology within a text and then decide
whether or not to transmit it in the target text, where there is an option. This
will depend on the translation brief, the target culture translation norms, and
the translator’s status. But even more interesting than the ideology embedded
in the source text is the ideology within the translation norms of the target cul-
ture. Translators must be aware that their activity is subject to predetermined
practices that represent an instrument of social control. There are at least four
practices that condition the translator’s behaviour.

7.7.1 Censorship

In some countries and periods, censorship is or has been the order of the day
in translation (as well as in many other areas of communication). Institutional
control can be exerted at different levels. Films may be shortened or altered
to accommodate the prevailing ideology in some periods and countries. They
may not even be translated. In fact, this is the first step to take in any study on
censorship: which films or audiovisual texts were chosen to be translated and
which were not, and why. Merino and Rabadán (2002), Merino (2005), Rabadán
(2000), Ballester (1995), among others, have studied how censorship affected
152 Frederic Chaume

translation during Franco’s dictatorship in Spain. Rundle (2000) and Ranzato (2009
and 2011) have also explored the same issue in Italy in the field of audiovisual
translation, especially in fascist and post-fascist Italy.
In general terms, the censors’ pens were most heavily felt in the fields of
politics, religion, sex and physiological functions. Censors could manipulate the
target text to avoid uncomfortable references to the target culture regimes, to
the dominant religion in the country, to sexual freedom, or to hide politically
incorrect terms and taboo language. For example, in the film The Lady from
Shanghai (Orson Welles 1947), Spanish censors, at the height of the worst atroci-
ties of Franco’s dictatorship, replaced all the references to the Spanish Civil War
and post-war, which criticized Franco heavily, with references to Ethiopia and an
alleged dictator there at the time.
In spite of the fact that the effects of manipulation and censorship are more
easily spotted under totalitarian regimes, even in the most democratic contexts,
texts are rewritten until they are considered to be acceptable to the ideology
of the target culture.
Translators can even become so used to censorship that they eventually
practice self-censorship in their translations; in other words they are so familiar
with the censors’ manipulations or eliminations that they apply them themselves
in order to prevent further manipulations in the text, to save money and time,
and to protect themselves from punishments or threats. Translators may resist
censorship and try to leave (or hide) political, religious or sexual references in
their translation, and they may even refuse to do a translation that they know
will later be censored. If they can afford it, refusing to do a translation for a
dictatorial or censorial institution seems the best option.

7.7.2 Normalization

Standardization is a necessary process in all languages. Without standardization

languages would become chaotic and incomprehensible to their users. However,
standardization may be a desirable and necessary process, whereas linguistic
censorship, including self-censorship, is an undesirable and needless imposition.
Some TV stations have style guides for journalists, editors, drafters, and scriptwrit-
ers (and hence translators), explaining the linguistic model they want for all their
channels. These guides advise on language use, highlight the oral nuances of the
target language, insist on respecting standard grammar and standard phonetics (or
what they would like to see as standard), and often contain glossaries of specialized
terms including the source language (usually English) and their established equiva-
lents in the target language (military and legal terms, toponymy, etc.). Although
these guides are very useful for translators, they should not be considered as set-
in-stone instructions, but rather a tool to help translators (and communicators)
decide on the best option for the style the institution wants to see.
Linguistic supervisors sometimes ‘correct’ translations before they are
broadcast on TV. Problems can arise, particularly when these supervisors do not
know the source language and manipulate the text without taking into account
Translation Issues 153

the reasons behind the translators’ versions, or when they do not consider the
problems posed by synchronization or by the interaction of semiotic codes. And
in particular, problems are magnified when translators work in fear of potential
linguistic censorship and, as a result, apply prospective and predictable changes
to their translations in order to avoid corrections and threats.
Areas with a linguistic policy of differentiation between a certain dialect of
a language from what is considered to be the standard dialect are a fascinating,
much-needed field of research: for example, explorations of how linguistic cen-
sorship affects Flemish audiovisual translations (compared to Dutch translated
films, TV series or cartoons), Valencian audiovisual translations (compared to
Catalan translations), or Canadian French audiovisual translations (compared
to European French translations).
Toning down taboo words and swearwords also seems to be common dubbing
practice all over the world (Fong 2009:39-61). Research shows that these words
are surreptitiously toned down and even deleted from translations. Although
the reasons have to be sought in the target culture history, and in the way the
first dubbings were done, and in an effort to make films and audiovisual pro-
grammes accessible to all audiences, surely the time has come to leave linguistic
censorship out of audiovisual translation. Dubbing cannot reasonable serve as
the ‘watchdog’ or the filter of media; censorship in a free society should instead
play out at the individual or family level.
On other occasions dubbing’s only function is to teach a language. In these
cases, dubbing is only used for teaching purposes, especially in minority or
endangered (or allegedly endangered) languages, spoken in territories where
other majority languages are used and spoken. In these cases, standardization
is heavily imposed on all TV programmes, and thus, on translations.

7.7.3 Gender issues

Feminism and sexual liberation have radically changed the way we refer to mi-
norities. De Marco (2006) aptly reveals the presence of sexist language in some
dubbings (and subtitlings) of British films into Spanish and Italian, concluding that
some Spanish and particularly Italian translations tend to render derogatory re-
marks “through words and expressions associating the figure of the woman with
prostitution or sexual intercourse which do not exist in the original version” (ibid.:
online). She condemns the power of cinema and screen translation to shape the
audience’s conscience and subtly contribute to perpetuating clichés, patriarchal
stereotypes and discriminatory attitudes. More research is needed in this field
to find out whether this behaviour still pervades translation today.
But besides this fascinating issue, feminist translation theory is also concerned
with such issues as who translates, who speaks, who is translated, who is allowed
to speak, to whom translations are addressed, who pays for the translations
(see §7.7.4), which individuals or institutions commission the translation, and
what educational policy is implemented. Feminist translators see translation
as a political activity that must make female subjects visible through language.
154 Frederic Chaume

Equivalence is no longer the desideratum of the translation, but rather a rewrit-

ing that creates difference, makes the feminine presence visible and denounces
patriarchal discourse wherever it appears. Empirical research should explore
whether women (or gays or lesbians) translate differently and determine whether
feminist theories are applicable to audiovisual translation.

7.7.4 Patronage

The concept of patronage was brought into Translation Studies by Lefevere

(1992:11-25), who defined it as “the powers (persons, institutions) that can
further or hinder the reading, writing or rewriting of a literature”. Literature can
be equated here with films (or any audiovisual text), a system that imposes a
series of constraints on those who take part in the process of writing, reading
and rewriting (i.e. translating). These constraints determine to a large extent
what films are considered canonical (which in many parts of the world means
Hollywood films), and it is a fact that many universal films have gained recogni-
tion and have spread thanks to translation.
Reception of translated films is regulated by a system of patronage (critical
journals and reviews, TV programmes on film critics, academies, censorship
offices, dubbing companies, linguistic supervisors, etc.) that is usually highly
conservative and reluctant to support fringe or art films and fringe live-action or
animated TV series (see Cornu 2011). TV stations and distributors play a crucial
role in defining audiences’ tastes. A film will not have the same chances of be-
ing translated if it does not follow the current fashions in a target culture. The
availability of a (translated) film depends on patronage, and our chances to hear
other voices and get to know other cultures depends on these patrons and their
economic and political interests in bringing them to the fore, as well as on the
censorship they may impose on the translation.

7.8 Exercises

7.8.1 Go to DVD > Chapter 7 > Exercises > Exercise 7.8.1 > Charade
– Hotel, and then find the screenplay of the whole film, Charade, at
http://www.imsdb.com/scripts/Charade.html. Find the part of the script
that corresponds to this scene. Does the script match the images? Is it
then a pre-production or a post-production script?

7.8.2 Go to http://akas.imdb.com/
 Find the title of the following movies in your language: Some Like it
Hot, Bend of the River, Blacula, On Connaît la Chanson, Gazon Maudit,
Gegen die Wand, Sostiene Pereira, La Ciociara, Tacones Lejanos.
 Now classify all these titles in your working language according to
the five translation techniques mentioned in section 7.2
 What is the most common technique according to the results of the
classification?
Translation Issues 155

Remember that you can also visit your language on the imdb website:
french.imdb.com / spanish.imdb.com / german.imdb.com / italian.imdb.
com / portuguese.imdb.com, etc.
Have you found another technique not listed in the classification at
section 7.2?

7.8.3 Consider this idea for a research project (especially for final BA
project, but in some cases, for a MA project, or PhD thesis, according
to different educational systems): Select a corpus of films dubbed into
your working language with coherent criteria (a particular decade, dis-
tributor, dubbing company, genre – e.g., American independent films
from a particular decade, musicals, comedy, thrillers, or teen pics). De-
scribe the translation techniques used to translate the titles.

7.8.4 Go to DVD > Chapter 7 > Exercises > Exercise 7.8.4 > The Snows
of Kilimanjaro Shooting – English. Watch the scene Shooting, from the
film The Snows of Kilimanjaro
 How would you deal with this multilingual dialogue?
 What would you dub?
 What would you subtitle?

7.8.5 Go to http://www.imsdb.com/scripts/Inglourious-Basterds.html
and read all dialogue lines in scene number 3 of Inglourious Basterds
(Quentin Tarantino 2009), when Colonel Hans Landa and the farmer,
Monsieur Perrier LaPadite, switch from French to English and then from
English to French. How would you dub this film into your working lan-
guage? And how would you dub this film into French?

7.8.6 Consider this idea for a research project (MA project, final BA proj-
ect, PhD thesis): Select a corpus of multilingual films dubbed (or subtitled)
into your working language, in line with a coherent criteria (a particular de-
cade, distributor, dubbing company, genre – e.g. American independent
films in a particular decade, musicals, comedy, thrillers, or teen pics).
Describe the translation techniques used to translate the multilingual dia-
logue exchanges by referring to the taxonomy offered in section 7.3.

7.8.7 Go back to example 7.2 and translate (taking into account takes,
dubbing symbols and lip-sync) Samuel Lee Jackson’s quote into your
working language.

7.8.8 Go back to example 7.3 and translate (taking into account takes,
dubbing symbols and lip-sync) Egon’s sci-fi discourse.

7.8.9 Go back to example 7.4 and translate (taking into account takes,
dubbing symbols and lip-sync) Zan’s sentences into your working lan-
guage taking into account the imitation of the romantic novel style.
156 Frederic Chaume

7.8.10 Go to DVD > Chapter 7 > Exercises > Exercise 7.8.10 > Poem >
Clip. Watch the excerpt Poem from a documentary film on the Spanish
Civil War entitled Art in the Struggle for Freedom. Try to keep the style
of the original version in your translation of this excerpt.

7.8.11 Go to DVD > Chapter 7 > Exercises > Exercise 7.8.11 > Night of
the Living Dead > Prayer > Clip. Translate (taking into account takes,
dubbing symbols and lip-sync) the excerpt Prayer from Night of the Living
Dead from the DVD. This is a slow passage in which a priest or pastor is
saying prayers over a coffin. Try to respect his formal style.

7.8.12 In the film Bienvenue chez les Ch’tis (Dany Boon 2008) some
characters speak standard French, whereas others speak Chti or Chtimi,
a dialect of Picard, since the film is set in Nord-Pas-de-Calais. Find out
how this film was dubbed or subtitled into your working language.

7.8.13 Go back to example 7.9 and watch the clip at http://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=-69cDxF1a_M. What translation solution can you offer
for the joke?

7.8.14 Go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2hg27CVmoY&feature
=related and watch the clip of Anne Boleyn’s execution in the TV series
The Tudors. Translate her speech bearing in mind the strategies dis-
cussed in §7.4.2.2. This is the alleged historical quote: “Good Christian
people, I am come hither to die, for according to the law, and by the law
I am judged to die, and therefore I will speak nothing against it. I am
come hither to accuse no man, nor to speak anything of that, whereof
I am accused and condemned to die, but I pray God save the king and
send him long to reign over you, for a gentler nor a more merciful prince
was there never: and to me he was ever a good, a gentle and sovereign
lord. And if any person will meddle of my cause, I require them to judge
the best. And thus I take my leave of the world and of you all, and I
heartily desire you all to pray for me. O Lord have mercy on me, to God
I commend my soul.” After being blindfolded and kneeling at the block,
she repeated several times: “To Jesus Christ I commend my soul; Lord
Jesus receive my soul.”

7.8.15 Go back to example 7.7 and provide a translation that takes into
account the social dialect used by teenagers in this film.

7.8.16 Go to DVD > Chapter 7 > Exercises > Exercise 7.8.16 > Bang!
Bang! In Da Manor – Yardies. Watch the clip and read the dialogue
transcription. Then translate Dr. Lez Henry’s dialogue lines only, paying
attention to his register.

7.8.17 Look at the following excerpt from the iconic TV series Bewitched.
In this scene, Adam is confounded to see a lady in historical costume.
Translation Issues 157

She is one of Samantha’s aunts, Clara, who has been summoned there
by a spell. Adam is puzzled on seeing the lady and asks Samantha who
she might be. Clara wants to mislead Adam and answers using a cul-
tural reference. After reading the text, answer the following questions:
 Who and what is Whistler’s mother?
 This reference is no longer used in the rest of the episode. It only
makes sense in this scene, when Adam sees Clara. Would you
keep this CR in your translation? Give reasons.

Sam: We thought it’d be kind of fun for you to ride over. Well,
you’d better hurry up, Adam, we haven’t got much time...
Adam: Now, wait a minute! Wait just a darn minute! I want to...
I recognize that lady!
Clara: I’m Whistler’s Mother.
Adam: Whistler’s...??? Look, I want to know what all this is
about!
Sam: What is all this about?

See the clip at www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHF85Bk3YxE

8. Research in dubbing

8.0 Preliminary discussion

(a) What research topic would you like to investigate in the field of transla-
tion for dubbing? What is the main motivation for your choice?
(b) What hurdles do you think you will encounter in your translation for
dubbing research?
(c) Do you know of any dubbing companies that would provide you with
dubbing materials for your research? Do you know any professional
translators in the field of dubbing or AVT who could provide you with
these materials?

The aim of this chapter is twofold. Firstly, it reviews the kind of research carried
out in audiovisual translation and dubbing to date; secondly it presents a semi-
otic model of analysis of dubbed texts taking a descriptive approach addressed
to researchers, PhD students, MA students, and teachers of AVT. Audiovisual
translation, and thus dubbing, is a relatively new field of research in the discipline
of Translation Studies that has witnessed a growing interest over the last two
decades. A great deal has been published on this subject in the form of theses,
articles, books and research projects, in numerous attempts to define and de-
scribe audiovisual translation as compared to other translation modes.
However, some of these works are only concerned with the texts’ linguistic
codes, and few have reflected on the other semiotic codes that weave together
both the source and the target text. This chapter offers a semiotic model of
analysis that hopes to be useful to both researchers and teachers of this trans-
lation mode. The model is structured in three dimensions, taking into account
the extratextual factors that condition all translations, as well as the intratextual
problems of audiovisual translation – both of which are related to translation in
general – and those related to the specific characteristics of audiovisual texts.
However, in order to contextualize the model, it seems appropriate to begin with
a brief summary of the areas covered by researchers to date.

8.1 State of the art

There is now unquestionable interest in audiovisual translation and dubbing.

New books, prestigious international conferences (Languages and the Media,
Media for All, among others), academic and professional publications, audiovisual
translation courses, PhD theses and MA dissertations, professional software,
free software, as well as new technological devices and platforms such as DTV,
iPhones, iPads, tablets, and DVDs, all of which allow for multilingual audiovisual
Research in dubbing 159

transfer, have contributed to an unprecedented boom in audiovisual translation

and have made research in this field more interesting – as well as more necessary
to the industry – than ever before.
New research has extended seminal studies, making audiovisual translation
research a leading field in Translation Studies, where literary translation once
reigned. In what follows, a necessarily incomplete list of research lines in dub-
bing (and AVT, when they can be applied to dubbing) is presented, together with
the new promising paths that will be broadened and followed throughout the
21st century:

1. Intrinsic characteristics of audiovisual texts and AVT (constraints): Reiss

(1976); Mayoral et al. (1988); Luyken et al. (1991); Zabalbeascoa (1993, 1996);
Agost (1999); Chaves (2000); Karamitroglou (2000); Bartrina (2001); Díaz Cintas
(2001); Gambier and Gottlieb (2001); Chaume (2004a, 2004b); Sokoli (2005);
Zhang (2009); Martí Ferriol (2010)

2. Specific methodological frameworks for studying AVT: Delabastita (1990);

Karamitroglou (2000); Díaz Cintas (2003, based on Lambert and van Gorp 1985);
Chaume (2004a); Gutiérrez Lanza (2005); Barambones (forthcoming)

3. History of AVT: Marleau (1982); Brant (1984); Pommier (1988); Izard (1992);
Gottlieb (1997); Ivarsson (2002); Díaz Cintas (2003) and Díaz Cintas and Remael
(2007) ; Qian (2009); Lee (2009); Chaume (2010) ; Viviani (2011)

4. A description of professional dubbing: Fodor (1976); Pommier (1988); Luyken

et al. (1991);
�������������������������������������������������������������������������
Whitman-Linsen (1992); Chaves (2000); Chaume (2004a); Paolinelli
and di Fortunato (2005); Spadafora (2007); Jüngst (2010). ���������������������
Quality standards in
dubbing: Whitman-Linsen (1992); Chaume (2007a) (see § 1.5)

5. Linguistic approaches, loans and the threat posed by the omnipresent English
language on all European screens: Gottlieb (1997, 2001, etc.), Whitman-Linsen
(1992); or Gómez Capuz (1998)

6. Discursive and pragmatic approaches that aim to show how language selec-
tion reflects ideology: Mason (1989 and 2001) in subtitling and Martínez Sierra
(2008) in dubbing. Richart (2009) shows that translation for dubbing is, in fact,
a palimpsest, where new translations overwrite previous ones.

7. Ideology and censorship: Danan (1991); Zabalbeascoa (1993); Ballester

(2001); Santamaria (2001); Di Giovanni (2003); Gutiérrez Lanza (2005) and the
TRACE group (Rabadán 2000); Fuentes (2005); Marzà et al. (2006); Chiaro (2008);
Martínez Sierra (2008); De Marco (2009); Ranzato (2009 and 2011)

8. Relations among literary and cinematographic systems from a polysystemic

viewpoint: Alsina (2005) and Cañuelo (2005, 2009); Delabastita (1990); Cattrysse;
(1992); Baños-Piñero and Chaume (2009). Mapping of dubbing: Barambones
(2009)
160 Frederic Chaume

9. Relations between scriptwriting and audiovisual translation: Remael

(2004)

10. Audiovisual genres and translation: Luyken et al. (1991); Agost (1999); Franco
(2000); Espasa (2002); Di Giovanni (2003); Martí Ferriol (2010); Zabalbeascoa
(1996); Baños�Piñero and Chaume (2009); De Rosa (2010)

11. Translation concepts and notions applied to AVT: Goris (1993); Ballester
(2001); Pavesi (2005); Gutiérrez Lanza (2000 and 2005); Martínez Sierra (2008);
Martí Ferriol (2007, 2010) offer a classification of translation norms; Martí Ferriol
(2007, 2010) has studied translation methods in a quantitative and qualitative
comparison of dubbing and subtitling; He (2009) has adopted a similar approach
in Chinese; Chaves (2000); Pereira and Lorenzo (2005); Spadafora (2007) and
Martí Ferriol (2007, 2010) offer a classification of translation techniques in the
case of dubbing; Marzà (2009) applies the concept of patronage to the case
of dubbing in minority languages; Soh�Tatcha (2009) discusses the concept of
equivalence in dubbing; Espasa (2008) examines audience design in dubbing

12. The language of dubbing, or dubbese: Chaume (2004a); Izard (2004); Mata-
mala (2009); Bassols et al. (1997); Cuenca (2006); Marzà et al. (2006); Marzà and
Chaume (2009); Pérez González (2007); Romero Fresco (2006, 2007); Baños�Piñero
and Chaume (2009); von Flotow (2009); Barambones (2009), etc. With a focus on
corpus studies through the digitization of films, original scripts and translations:
Pavesi (2005); Freddi and Pavesi (2009); Bruti (2009); Valentini (2006); Forchini
(2012)

13. Film language and translation from a semiotic perspective: Gambier and
Suomela�Salmi (1994); Chaves (2000); Zabalbeascoa (2003); Remael (2004);
Chaume (2004a and 2004b); Sokoli (2005); Baumgarten (2008); Cattrysse and
Gambier (2008); Mubenga (2009); Franzelli (2011); González Vera (2011)

14. Reception studies in dubbing: Fuentes (2005, 2010); Mayoral (2001); Espasa
(2008); Luyken et al. (1991); Zaro (2001); González Ruiz and Cruz García (2007);
Antonini and Chiaro (2009); Antonini (2009); Cornu (2011)

15. Case studies: film titles (Nord 1990 and 1995; Fuentes 1997�1998; González
2005; Santaemilia and Soler 2010, etc.); humour (Zabalbeascoa 1993, 1995,
etc.; Chiaro 2005, 2008, etc.; Bucaria 2007; Fuentes 2005, 2010; Martínez Sierra
2008, among many more); puns and idioms (Sanderson 2009; Delabastita 1996);
proper names (Hurtado de Mendoza 2009); cultural references (Santamaria 2001;
Antonini and Chiaro 2005; Pedersen 2011; Valentini 2011; etc.); taboo language
(Chiaro 2007), and other less commonly explored topics such as intertextuality
(Botella 2010)

16. Multilingual movies and dubbing: Heiss (2004); Valdeón (2005); Corrius
(2008); Martínez Sierra et al. (2010) and de Higes et al. (forthcoming)
Research in dubbing 161

17. Didactics of translation for dubbing: Zabalbeascoa (1997, 2000, 2001, etc.);
Chaume (2003); Bartrina and Espasa (2003, 2005); Chaume (2008); an entire
section of Gambier (1998); Agost and Chaume (2001) and Zabalbeascoa; Sant-
amaria and Chaume (2005)

Figure 8.1. Lines of research in translation for dubbing

8.2. A descriptive and semiotic model of analysis of dubbed texts

8.2.1 Rationale

In the field of Translation Studies, it is now commonly accepted that only an inte-
grative and interdisciplinary approach to the process and product of translation
can unveil and explain the norms of linguistic and cultural transfer within a com-
munity in a given period (Snell-Hornby 1988 and 2006). Descriptive Translation
Studies (DTS) have opened a new gateway to the investigation of how translation
is done in a given time and space, and offer a powerful interdisciplinary frame-
work for translation analysis. DTS advocate interdisciplinary analysis that takes
into account, on the one hand, the economic, social, political and moral power
relations in the target culture that influence a translation product, and, on the
other, the linguistic, communicative, pragmatic and semiotic dimensions of the
target product. This methodology has enabled a series of regularities, tendencies
and recurrent behaviour in a significant group of translations to be established,
which may make up norms of translation (see §3.2)
Although for some authors (e.g. Baker 2006), describing norms and regular-
ities may be regarded as a conservative way of understanding translation, because
it focuses attention more on what is normal and canonized rather than on what
is peripheral and – for some – revolutionary, we must first investigate what is
done, in order to decide what should be done, if any action has to be taken at
all. Descriptive approaches do not set out to describe first, in order to then take
action on what has been described. Rather, describing for its own sake seems
enough to be able to understand how a community decides to model a cultural
fact like a translation. Descriptive approaches can help new translators find out
more about the target culture at which their translation is aimed, as well as
advise and warn them about the values and expectations this community has
regarding translations.
The theory of norms (Toury 1995; Chesterman 1997; Karamitroglou 2000; see
§1.5 and §3.2) is an invaluable research tool for the analyst. Capturing regular-
ities in vast, homogeneous corpora now seems to be the only way to show in
general terms how translations are done, and to educate professionals and new
translators, as well as researchers and teachers, about the existence of these
norms. A prospective study of quality standards, for example, would thus be a
second step which necessarily requires a previous study of norms. The same can
162 Frederic Chaume

be said for a study of secondary tendencies or norms, and even for the study of
how to teach audiovisual translation.
In descriptive methodology, analysts cannot proceed to analyze their corpus
of translations without first developing a model of analysis; in other words, a
bottom-up, note-taking approach to what they find will be futile. Rather, they
must first decide what they wish to find in their corpus, what hypotheses can
be set (if any), and try to validate them in their corpus, modifying their model of
analysis after the analysis is completed. This is a top-down way of proceeding,
which will eventually be complemented with bottom-up analysis, and calls for a
theoretical model of analysis to establish the working hypotheses.
Integrative and interdisciplinary descriptive models of analysis are still scarce
in the field of audiovisual translation and translation for dubbing, perhaps
because it is a relatively new field of study and researchers do not have inter-
disciplinary expertise. For this reason, a model of analysis would prove useful
both to the researcher and the teacher of this translation mode. This model of
analysis should take into account translation behaviour, in order to understand
both how the target culture models translations, and what translation problems
professionals face, especially those associated with the audiovisual semiotic
codes of these texts.
Specifically, this model will focus on understanding audiovisual texts as mul-
tidimensional texts that convey information through different meaning codes,
both linguistic and non-linguistic (see Chapter 6). The model will attempt to
describe the main translation problems that an audiovisual text can pose for
the professional by showing a list of potential translation problems and a list of
related questions. The answers to these questions will reflect the tendencies or
regularities of translation, the norms of audiovisual translation (and translation
for dubbing) within a community in a given time. Once the model has been ap-
plied to translations, and norms have been identified, feedback can be introduced
into the model to enlarge or modify it, and extend its use to other corpora and
communities.

8.2.2 Some AVT models of analysis

Descriptive approaches to audiovisual translation can be said to have their origins

in two seminal articles in audiovisual translation theory by Delabastita (1989
and 1990). Previous research on audiovisual translation had attempted to define
the concept of audiovisual translation on theoretical grounds, with a particular
focus on the constraints that the audiovisual text poses to the translator. Fodor
(1976), Titford (1982), Marleau (1982) and especially the more comprehensive
article by Mayoral et al. (1988), among others, established the foundations for
the understanding of audiovisual translation.
Delabastita offers a comprehensive list of questions that the researcher
should ask to gain a better understanding of the role of audiovisual translation
in a community. These questions deal with such topics as the relations between
the source and target culture, the status of the target culture in political and
Research in dubbing 163

socio�economic terms, the cultural constraints of the target community (which

could explain phenomena such as censorship, or different norms in the transla-
tion of film titles, for example), language policy, the use of intertextuality, and
the intentions of the target culture regarding the translation (place and time of
exhibition, etc.). However, extremely interesting as these questions are, most
of them only deal with the macrotextual level of the text, focusing attention
on political and socio�economic issues. The microtextual level, that which is of
particular interest to the teacher of translation and to the researcher who wants
to link investigation to real practice, is left aside.
Karamitroglou (2000) offers a much more comprehensive model of analysis
of audiovisual translated texts. His model is based on Even�Zohar’s adaptation
of Jakobson’s famous scheme of communication. Karamitroglou extends the
model, which is presented as the interaction of factors constituting the x axis or
horizontal rows (i.e. human agents, products, recipients and audiovisual mode),
and levels or subsystems (an adaptation of Even�Zohar’s general concept of sec-
tions), which constitute the y axis or vertical columns. These levels represent
the three different subsystems which constitute the general polysystem: the
target translation system, the target audiovisual translation system and the
particular translated audiovisual text or group of texts. These levels also define
the degree of importance or hierarchy of the factors that condition the appear-
ance of norms.
The author analyzes each factor in detail: the human agents in AVT (i.e.
producers, addressers); the products or translated target texts (i.e. messages)
considered from a semiotic (not just linguistic) perspective; the recipients
(i.e. addressees, consumers), not the public in general, but “that group of the
general public that have consciously consumed the product and to which the
target product is addressed” (ibid.:76); the audiovisual mode that differentiates
audiovisual texts from other modes (i.e. interpretation, written translation, etc.);
the institution (i.e. context) or critics, film majors, distributors, TV channels,
etc., which “intervenes at the pre�production stage by reflecting previous post�
consumption established options” (ibid.:81); and finally the market (channel) or
cinemas, video�clubs, the whole network of consumers who “intervene at the
post�production stage by placing a pre�consumption filter” (ibid.:81).
This model of analysis is applied to a case study: the choice between subti-
tling and revoicing children’s TV programmes in Greece (in 1995 and 1996). The
author proceeds with his research by explaining the methods of data collection
(i.e. data related to products, audiovisual mode, recipients and human agents,
according to his model), and methods of data analysis (i.e. according to broad-
cast time, audience duplication – the phenomenon of consecutive vieweing of
programmes that follow what we have already been watching because we leave
the TV on – or TV station, for example). His findings are presented according to
the levels of his model: findings related to lower�level products, human agents,
audiovisual mode and recipients, findings related to the same middle�level items,
and findings related to the same upper�level elements.
Karamitroglou successfully describes norms at the three levels analyzed and
164 Frederic Chaume

reveals tendencies in the choice of dubbing and subtitling, as well as the ideo-
logical, political, economic and social forces that shape the choice. Studies on
the choices at the macrostructural level reveal ideological choices based upon
political or economic agendas that govern translation choices in general terms,
but that do not easily connect with daily professional practice. Karamitroglou’s
research focuses on choices at the macrostructure of the text, and avoids detailed
studies of microtextual relations.
Gutiérrez Lanza (2000, 2005) offers a comparative-descriptive model of
analysis of censored translations in Spain during Franco’s dictatorship. Her model
comprises two levels, the macrotextual and the microtextual level of the film. She
understands the macrotextual level of the film as the different shots and scenes
into which the film is segmented. Since censors manipulated not only dialogues
but also shots and scenes, Gutiérrez Lanza first investigates the addition, deletion
or manipulation of shots and scenes in the target text as compared to the original
film. She then turns to the microtextual analysis, which consists of comparing
target text dialogues with source text dialogues. Dialogues are segmented ac-
cording to intonation units (according to Li, 1988). She then describes how the
translation techniques and norms observed in the target text differ from the
source units. Her study focuses on censorship, rather than general audiovisual
translation norms and techniques.
Ballester (2001) offers an analytical model based on those by Lambert and
Delabastita (1996) and Goris (1993). Her model is also designed to analyze cen-
sored films during Franco’s dictatorship. She presents three sections covering
most of the questions posited by those authors. The first section, Preliminary
issues, concerns the possible relationships between the source and the target
culture, on the basis of such factors as prestige or minor and major languages.
The second section, Semiotic level, includes questions such as the use of an
intermediary language in the translation, the audience to which the film is ad-
dressed, the film genre, the existence of this genre in the source culture, and
the existence of other audiovisual translation types. Finally, the third section,
Linguistic Level, includes several microtextual questions related to text segmenta-
tion, conflictive scenes, taboo words, cultural references, registers and dialects,
loans, explicitness, and other phenomena of language.
Díaz Cintas (2003) systematically takes into account the microtextual level in
his model, which is based on that of Lambert and Van Gorp (1985) stemming from
polysystem theory and adapted to the audiovisual genre. This comprehensive
model of analysis of audiovisual translated texts takes into account four steps,
from the macro- to the micro-level.
The first step analyzes the extratextual factors that surround the text itself;
under the term of preliminary coordinates, the author is concerned with the
presentation of the product itself (i.e., DVD, VHS, film), the information included,
the presentation of the translation, the title, identification of the director, the
year of the film, metatextual information, including the translator’s comments
on the translation, comments by other critics, and finally the general translation
strategy with reference to the translation of the title, credits, translation in mul-
Research in dubbing 165

tilingual films, censorship, and other factors. The second level of analysis is the
macrostructure, and includes the structure of the film, the presence of music,
the presence of captions and voice�off narration, and typographical issues in the
subtitles. The third level of analysis is the microstructure, in which the author sys-
tematically includes all the linguistic features of subtitling, as well as the specific
problems of this kind of audiovisual translation. Thus, at this level Díaz Cintas is
concerned with analyzing issues such as condensation and omission – a notewor-
thy translation norm in subtitling – cohesion and coherence, translation of taboo
words, translation of cultural references, humour and linguistic idiosyncrasies
such as idioms, registers and dialects, and multilingualism. The fourth level goes
beyond the text to analyze the translation’s systemic context by comparing the
translation with other translations from the same audiovisual system: the same
film translated for other media (TV, cinema, DVD, etc.), other subtitled films by
the same director, or by other directors, other subtitled films from the same or
different periods, the first translation draft, and even other filmic genres (musi-
cals, comedies) and other translations (novels, theatre) – one could arguably call
this a kind of intertextuality, but a translational intertextuality.
Each of these four steps enables hypotheses to be posited for the following
steps, thus providing constant feedback into the model. The author cautions
that just one of the elements might merit a research study in itself and, at the
same time, that the whole model might not be applicable to a single given film.
However, in my opinion, models have to be predictive by nature, and Díaz Cintas’s
analytical frame is highly predictive of what can be described and found in a
given audiovisual translation.
Other models either focus on the polysistemic relations among literature and
cinema (Cañuelo 2005, 2009) or on minority languages, language models and
dubbing (Barambones, forthcoming).

8.2.3 An integrated model of analysis

The model of analysis proposed here consists of two levels (see Figure 8.3 to
visualize it). The first one is related to the extratextual factors that have a bear-
ing on the translation brief. The list of factors does not imply that all of them
will be pertinent to all translations, but rather that any one of them might have
a bearing on a given translation. This first dimension can be called the external
level of the model. This level takes into account all professional issues, histori-
cal aspects, and communicative and reception issues related to the translation
brief. These factors condition, a priori, the different decisions the translator will
take throughout the process and, thus, also have a bearing on the internal level
of the model.
The second level is divided into two sections: translation problems that
can come up in all types of translation (audiovisual translation included, see
Chapter 7), and the problems specific to audiovisual translation (see Chapter 6),
the section with which the analyst should be most concerned. These specific
166 Frederic Chaume

problems can appear in all texts that combine two or more channels of commu-
nication, and two or more codes of meaning. We will call this second dimension
the internal level of the model.
The first problems, what we might call general translation problems, can be
listed in accordance with Hatim and Mason’s contextual model of analysis (1990,
1997) for contextual and situational meaning problems, and also with Nord (1991)
and Baker (2011) for linguistic problems. They will be grouped into four general
sets: general linguistic problems, register and dialect issues, pragmatic nuances
and semiotic entities. Because all these translation problems can also be found in
other texts and translations, they are not included in the next section, although
they do have a bearing on the specific problems of audiovisual translation.
The second dimension is dealt with in another section, covering the specific
problems of audiovisual translation, and completes the internal level of analysis.
It includes all translation problems arising from the particular nature of audiovi-
sual text, namely that it is transmitted through two channels of communication
and is composed of several meaning codes. This section builds a bridge between
Media and Film Studies, on the one hand, and Translation Studies, on the other,
by linking the essential features of an audiovisual text with the translator’s
day�to�day work. Emphasis will be placed on the fact that behind any particular
translation behaviour, there is a semiotic reason that explains it. At this level,
therefore, norms are understood as recurrent response (i.e. repeated translation
solutions) to a semiotic audiovisual feature of the filmic text.
In other words, several dubbing (and subtitling) conventions – such as the
use of symbols in the translation, typographical usages in subtitling, text layout,
representation of paralinguistic features in dubbing, and some recurrent trans-
lation techniques – can be related to the warp and weft of the audiovisual text
as established in Film Theory. This section will cover the analysis of all codes
of meaning in the audiovisual text transmitted through the acoustic channel,
as well as some relevant (for translation purposes) codes transmitted through
the visual channel, and also the interaction of the signs transmitted through all
channels and codes, an added value that characterizes audiovisual texts, which
we might call semiotic cohesion.

8.2.3.1 The external level of the model

Basically, the situational factors […] are taken into account by all the
authors, although they are not always dealt with in great detail. (Nord
1991:39)

We will call the first dimension of the model the external level of analysis.
This level gathers the factors involved in the translation brief, prior to the micro-
textual operations of the translation itself. It might be argued that sometimes
there is no translation brief as such. Dubbing translators (and generally speak-
ing, AVT professionals) are sometimes asked to deliver a translation in a couple
of days with no recommendations or style sheets. Whatever the case, although
Research in dubbing 167

there may not be an explicit translation brief, the translator knows or imagines
what the client expects, and has an understanding of the tacit or non-explicit
norms of translation gained through experience working on other translation
briefs or translations of the same textual genre. The way in which the translator
tackles the translation, whatever his or her approach may be, has a bearing on
the translation.
In this section, we will analyze what Larose (1989) calls “the peritextual level”,
which includes both all the meaningful features of the extratextual level and
the general cultural level in which the target text is embedded. In more modern
terms, we might say that Larose includes both the situational context and the
cultural context in his proposal. All the factors at this level are presented in four
groups: historical factors, professional factors, communicative factors and recep-
tion factors, and all of them have an impact on the translation solutions found
in the target text, whether related to general translation problems or to specific
audiovisual problems.
The extratextual factors can also be analyzed before reading the text, simply
by observing the situation in which the text is used. In this way, the recipient
builds up a certain expectation as to the intratextual characteristics of the text
(Nord 1991:37). Some of the factors included in these four main groups are
listed below:

Historical factors
• Year or period of the source text: When was the film (shot and) re-
leased? Could the temporal dialect give rise to translation problems?
What was the situational and cultural context of the source text? Is it
a well-known film? Who is the director? Does it belong to a particular
genre? Is it a remake? Is it an adaptation of a former literary work?
Has the director included comments for the translator, as in the case of
Kubrick’s scripts, for example?
• Year or period of the target text: Who was the translator? What dub-
bing company was responsible? When was the translation done? What
conventions or norms were then operating in the target culture? Could
the translation have been censored? Was the translation done from an
intermediary text? How was the title translated? Does it follow an ex-
plicit or tacit norm? Has the translator left any comments? Are there
any other comments on the translation? Do the credits or the DVD in-
clude the translator’s name?
• Previous dubbed or subtitled versions: Is it a redubbing? Are there pre-
vious translations of the film, cartoon, documentary or sitcom? Were
they dubbed or subtitled? Has the translation of the title, cultural ref-
erences, captions, etc., respected the previous translations? Was the
previous translation censored in any way? Is this the reason for a new
translation?
• Translation mode: What mode of audiovisual translation is it: dubbing,
subtitling, voice-over, free-commentary, subtitling for the deaf, audio-
description? Is it the same throughout the film? Does the film include
168 Frederic Chaume

scenes or shots that have to be translated in a different translation

type, i.e., subtitling some dialogues or captions in a dubbed film? How
are songs, captions and dialogues in another language translated?

Professional factors
• Translation deadlines: How long did the translator have to do the
work?
• Available materials: Did the translator only have the script, only the
DVD, or both? Are the script and/or visuals in the source language or in
an intermediary language? Did the translator have access to a previous
translation of the film? If so, was this translation in the target language
or in a third language? Did the translator have access to any another type
of translation, for example, a previous literary translation? Did the trans-
lator have access to any another type of audiovisual translation such as
the subtitling of the film in a dubbing commission or vice versa?
• Available support materials: Did the translator have access to diction-
aries, encyclopaedias or the Internet? What type of documentation
was needed?
• Fees: Was an appropriate fee paid? Did it comply with standard fees in
the translator’s country or region? Was the quality of the translator’s
work affected by the amount s/he was paid?
• Copyright: Do the translator’s name and the dubbing company name
appear in the film credits? Is the translator paid royalties for the transla-
tion? Both factors can have an effect on the translation. The translator’s
name should appear in the final credits, since this would both raise
awareness of the translator’s work and existence, and also lead to a
closer involvement with the translation, since translators would some-
how be publicly responsible for their output.
• Translator’s training: Does the translator have a Translation and Inter-
preting degree, or a MA in AVT? Is he or she specialized in audiovisual
translation? Is he or she a specialist in the field of discourse of the docu-
mentary or film? Has he or she received no translation training at all?
• Dialogue writing conventions in dubbing: Is the translation divided into
dubbing units or takes? How many lines does a take have in the target
culture? How many characters can be grouped in a single take? Are
takes numbered? If so, how and where? Does the translator use time
codes within the take? If so, how many, where and why? Does the trans-
lator use symbols? If so, which ones and what meaning do they convey?
Do dubbing conventions differ in translations for cinema, for TV and for
DVD? Do they differ according to regions, dubbing studios, or clients? Is
the text synchronized? What types of synchrony can be seen? What is
the text layout?

Communicative factors
• Identification of the client: Does the dubbing company expect certain
conventions in the translation? Does the real client or initiator (Nord
1991) – TV station, distributor – expect certain conventions in the trans-
Research in dubbing 169

lation? Is there a style sheet? What are the client’s requirements, in

terms of translation deadlines, fees, linguistic, moral or other types of
censorship? What are the translator’s expectations of the client?
• Identification of the addressee: To whom is the translation addressed? Is
the film or audiovisual text addressed principally to children, teenagers
or adults? Is it addressed to a particular gender or sexual orientation?
Is the translation done with a particular audience or group in mind? Are
there any indications of this in the translation?
• Identification of the communicative context: What are the systemic rela-
tions between the source film and other films from the same director,
genre, or period? What are the systemic relations between the translated
film and other translated films from the same director, genre, or period?
Was it an adaptation of a previous literary work? In what ways, if any, is
this translation similar to other translation modes of the same film, i.e.,
how does a dubbed film compare with the subtitling of the same film, or
with previous dubbings or subtitlings of the same film for different media
such as TV, DVD, VHS, or motion picture for theatrical release?
• Identification of the message: How is the original film presented? How
is the translation presented? Was the translation of the film released
with posters, or any other supplementary information? Does the DVD
(or VHS) case include any information? Does it include any details about
the translation? Are there any comments on the translation, either by
the translator or by critics?
• Identification of the channel of communication: Is (was) the film to be
released in the cinema, DVD, VHS, TV, or over the Internet? Does this
mode of distribution imply certain conventions? Do they differ from the
conventions followed in other media?
• Identification of genre and meaning codes: Is it a film with a significant
load of visual information? Is it a cartoon or film with visually�based
humour? Is it a musical? Does it have an omniscient narrator? Does
it have any particular special effects? Does it have a special montage,
photography, or types of shots?

Reception factors
• Does the translation comply with lip�sync requirements? Is lip�sync
used in close�ups and extreme close�ups? Is it used in other types of
shots, e.g. detailed shots? Is kinesic synchrony respected in all shots?
Is isochrony respected in all voice�on shots, i.e., when characters speak
on screen?
• Dubbing performance: Is the dubbing actors’ performance acceptable?
Or is it too monotonous or exaggerated?
• Oral discourse: Are dialogues credible? Is it a prefabricated or elabor-
ated (false) oral discourse? Does it sound too “written”? Does it sound
too “oral”?

Once all these factors have been analyzed, we are in a better position to for-
mulate a hypothesis on the translation method, and on the possible norms and
170 Frederic Chaume

techniques used, and a microtextual analysis can now be undertaken. Although

the researcher is faced with nearly one hundred questions on the extratextual
factors of the translation, not all of them may be relevant to any one film, and
some answers may cover more than one question. Whatever the case, these
questions and answers provide the researcher with a solid grounding and a true
descriptive methodology with which to analyze the translation.

8.2.3.2 The internal level of the model (I): general translation problems
General translation problems deserve a proper, more in-depth methodological
framework than the one presented here. Because they can be found in any type
of translation, this model does not focus on them in detail. A comprehensive
study of general translation problems in an audiovisual corpus would make sense
if their solutions differed from those for other types of translation. An analysis
of general translation problems in audiovisual corpora can sometimes detract
from research on audiovisual translation in the strict sense, and these studies
cannot be said to deal with audiovisual translation, but with a general problem
of translation in an audiovisual corpus.
Translation techniques used to solve these general translation problems are
usually conditioned by time and space constraints. While, for instance, other
text types admit periphrastic resources such as footnotes or glosses within the
translation, audiovisual translation demands a solution that respects time and
space constraints, i.e., solutions whose length – in terms of number of words
or lines – should be more or less equivalent to the source segment in terms of
time and space (see Chapter 4).
In general terms, and following previous classifications (Newmark 1988; Ha-
tim & Mason 1990 and 1997; Nord 1991; Baker 2011, among others), general
translation problems can be grouped under four broad headings:

• Contrastive linguistic problems: phonetic and prosodic differences

between a language pair, typographical and orthographical issues,
morphological differences, differences in syntactic structures, lexical
calques, loans and interference, and possibly a further level, phraseo-
logical problems and idioms. These problems stem from the fact that
all languages are different, even close languages, and have been dealt
with thoroughly in the “comparative stylistics” literature (from Vinay
& Darbelnet 1977; Vázquez Ayora 1977, etc. until more recently López
Guix & Minnett Wilkinson 1997). Research may focus on such aspects
as calques, loan words (Gómez Capuz 1998), taboo and swear words,
or writing conventions. Linguistic aspects that are specific to audiovi-
sual texts, especially translation problems arising from the fact that
audiovisual texts are written texts to be spoken as if not written will
be included in the next section, since they are not general translation
problems.
• Register and dialect issues: translation problems caused by the particu-
lar characteristics of the source language use and user, i.e., problems
related to register and dialect, respectively. Hatim and Mason (1990)
Research in dubbing 171

include them in what they term the communicative dimension of the

context of a given text. Others refer to them as problems related to
linguistic variation (Díaz Cintas 2003). Hatim and Mason list problems
associated with dialects – geographical dialects, temporal dialects,
standard/non-standard dialects, social dialects and idiolects, and prob-
lems associated with register, field, mode and tenor of discourse (see
Chapter 7). From the point of view of descriptive methodology, the ana-
lyst should focus his or her attention on recurrent solutions to these
problems in the target text.
• Pragmatic nuances: problems concerning the intentionality of the
communicative act. These include problems related to cohesion and
coherence, speech acts, conversational maxims, presuppositions, infer-
ences, and implicatures. The most obvious ones are concerned with
humour, wordplay, puns, double meanings, among others.
• Semiotic entities: problems related to the insertion of the text in a given
culture, i.e., derived from the fact that the keys to a thorough under-
standing of a text must be sought within the culture that embraces it.
Hatim and Mason (1990) talk about the semiotic dimension of context.
In 1997 they distinguished between macrosigns, or global structures
of meaning that are only meaningful within a given culture (genres,
discourses and text types), and microsigns or cultural references. A
transversal phenomenon in this section is intertextuality, one of the
seven standards of textuality listed by de Beaugrande and Dressler
(1981), which can only be decodified by means of an advanced knowl-
edge of the culture in which the text is embedded. Research in this field
includes work on the translation of cultural references in audiovisual
corpora, intertextuality, proper names, genres, among others.

Although these are not formulated as questions, the researcher can inves-
tigate how all these problems have been solved in the target language. As an
example, the following questions could be asked: are there any taboo words
in the target text? If so, do they substitute taboo words in the source text? Do
they convey the same intention? Do they belong to the same semantic field?
Are there any calques, and if so, at what linguistic level? How have idioms been
translated? How have registers and dialects been translated in the target text?
Can recurrences be seen? How have humour and humoristic elements been
translated? How have cultural references been translated? How have intertexts
been translated?

8.2.3.3 The internal level of the model (II): specific problems of AVT
The other side of the internal level includes the specific problems of audiovisual
translation. The origins of these translation problems lie in the particular textual
configuration of the audiovisual text, i.e. the interaction of the specific signs
encoded in the different meaning codes of the audiovisual text: music, sounds,
images, movement, and lighting. These signs interact with dialogues, sometimes
reinforcing the meaning expressed by them, other times denying it, but always
172 Frederic Chaume

producing additional coherence that goes beyond linguistic coherence. Being

aware of all these codes at play in the semiotic configuration of audiovisual texts
is, indeed, useful both for the researcher and the professional translator, as well
as for the trainer and trainee. In addition to the analysis of all these codes, what
really concerns the translator is the influence of these semiotic signs on the lin-
guistic code, the dialogues, since translators can only manipulate dialogues.
The table below provides a list of some of the codes involved in the meaning
network of the audiovisual text, explained in Chapter 6:

Codes transmitted through the acoustic Codes transmitted through the visual
channel: channel:
 Linguistic code  Iconographic Code
 Paralinguistic Code  Photographic Code
 Musical Code  Mobility Code
 Special Effects Code  Shot Code
 Sound Position Code  Graphic Code
 Editing Code (Montage)

Figure 8.2. Meaning codes in audiovisual translation

Codes are grouped according to the channel of communication through which

an audiovisual text is transmitted: the acoustic channel and the visual channel.
Rare experimental attempts at transmitting audiovisual texts through other
channels have been made, such as Earthquake (Mark Robson 1974) in which the
audience felt the tremors of seismic activity in the cinema itself, but the resulting
alarm and panic at the premiere advised against repeating the experience. The
emerging 4D trend is a bit of a return to the future: Four dimensional movies
feature “special effects” such as wind, rain, mist, water sprays and even the
seats shifting during the movie to offer a wholly rounded experience of movie
watching.
Interaction among all these codes particularizes the potential meaning of
audiovisual texts and their texture. The meaning of the signs of all these codes
and, especially, the extra meaning produced when codes interact, gives these
texts their particular idiosyncrasy. However, these are just some of the codes
making up an audiovisual text. Casetti and Di Chio (1991), and Carmona (1996),
list some other filmic codes, but they do not have a direct bearing on translation
operations.
Questions can also be asked about the norms, patterns of behaviour, or
recurrences observed in the translation. In the field of the linguistic code, two
common items are worthy of investigation: a) multilingual films and translation,
and b) dubbese, or the register of dubbing, since this is the most prominent
and characteristic linguistic feature of audiovisual texts (see Chapter 5). Several
questions are therefore pertinent:
Research in dubbing 173

1. Linguistic code: description of norms

• Multilingual movies: Is the film multilingual? How is multilingualism
presented in the original film? Which translation modes have been
used to convey dialogues in languages other than the main language
in the film? Which translation modes have been used to translate the
excerpts in other languages in the target text? Why? Do these modes
represent an overall foreignization or domestication strategy?
• Phonetic level: Are there assimilations, elisions, or junctures, in the
dubbed performance of the target text? Are cacophonies avoided? Is
dialectal pronunciation avoided? Are standard phonetic features en-
couraged? Is clear and tense articulation encouraged? Are there any
substandard phonetic features in the translation? Do they correspond
to substandard features in the source text? To what degree is authentic
oral discourse represented in the translation?
• Morphological level: Are there any substandard features in the
translation? Are analogical concordances avoided? Are there any un-
grammatical concordances? Are there any wrong verb inflections? Is
local nominal or verbal morphology encouraged?
• Syntactic level: Are digressions and redundancies avoided or encour-
aged? Is canonical word order encouraged? Is topicalization used? Are
repetitions and elisions encouraged? Is juxtaposition, coordination or
subordination encouraged? To what degree? Are discourse markers de-
leted? Are there syntactic calques?
• Lexical-semantic level: Are offensive or rude language, unnecessary
technical vocabulary, dialectalisms, anachronisms and non-standard
vocabulary avoided or encouraged? Are euphemisms, spontaneous
lexical creation, clichés, intertextuality, all-purpose words, vocatives
avoided or encouraged? Are calques found in this level?
• Phraseological level: Is phraseology used (and encouraged) in the trans-
lation? Does it correspond to set phrases in the original text? Are there
any phraseological calques?
• In general terms, the question can be asked as follows: What features
of spoken language and what features of written language have been
used in the translation? What, then, is the degree of “orality” in the
translation?

2. Paralinguistic code: How are the following elements rendered?

• Alternants, or words that represent paralinguistic signs: clicks, hisses,
mutterings, grunts, imitation of sounds, words used to call animals, etc.
• Qualifiers such as nasality or moaning, whispering, breathing con-
trol, etc.
• Primary qualities of the voice expressed by the timbre, pitch, volume,
rhythm and loudness
• Differentiators or physiological and emotional reactions, such as laughter,
weeping, sighing, panting, usually made explicit by verbal descriptions
• Silences and pauses
Are they rendered in the dubbed translation? How? Are there any
174 Frederic Chaume

symbols in the dubbed translation? What are they? Are paralinguistic

features verbalized, i.e., are they substituted for a word or phrase that
conveys the same meaning? If so, which words? What happens when a
paralinguistic sign interacts with a word or sentence?

3. Musical codes: How have songs been translated?

• Songs: Are they translated? Are they dubbed or subtitled? Are the lyr-
ics relevant to the plot? Do they interact with dialogues? In the case of
dubbing, is rhyme maintained? Is the number of syllables or the stress
pattern maintained in the dubbed version? Is the soundtrack and inci-
dental music meaningful to the plot? Does it enhance understanding
of the dialogues and ambiguous utterances? In the case of subtitling,
are there any special typographical marks in the subtitles? Has the
translator or dubbing company used the coined translation (where ap-
propriate) of the song in the target language?

4. Special effects codes: How have the following elements affected the
translation?
• Special effects: How are they rendered? Do they interact with dialogues
–especially in cartoons and comedies? Do solutions in the target text
respect this interaction?

5. Sound position code: How have the following elements affected the
translation?
• Diegetic / extradiegetic sound
• ON-screen / OFF-screen sound
Does the ON/OFF sound condition translation solutions in dubbing? Are
the on-screen utterances synchronized? How are the off-screen utter-
ances rendered? How is extradiegetic sound rendered?

6. Iconographic codes: How are icons rendered in the translation?

• Culture-specific iconographic signs
• Shared or bicultural iconographic signs
• New icons
Are these elements rendered in the translation? If so, how? Do they
interact with dialogues? Do solutions in the target text respect this
interaction, i.e., are they faithful to the original interaction? What
translation techniques have been used? Do they create visual humour,
puns, double meanings? If so, how are they rendered?

7. Photographic codes: How have photographic signs influenced the

translation?
• Lights: Does lighting affect the meaning of certain dialogues? Does it
create a special atmosphere which advises the use of a certain linguistic
register?
• Colour: Do certain colours evoke any special meaning? Do these colours
Research in dubbing 175

evoke the same meaning to the target audience? Is this meaning ex-
plicit in the translation? How?

8. Shot code: How do the different types of shots influence translation?

• Close�ups, extreme close�ups
• Long, knee, medium shots
• Pan shots
Do these kinds of shots demand synchrony in dubbing? Which ones? Is
synchrony observed in the translation? Does it depend on the type of
shot? Do shots have any influence on the subtitles when subtitles ap-
pear in dubbing? Are all captions translated or does it depend on the
type of shot? Are pan shots well synchronized or perhaps is synchrony
not a priority in these cases?

9. Mobility code: How do the following signs affect the translation?

• Proxemic signs: Do proxemic signs have a meaning in the film? Is it the
same meaning they have in the target culture? Do they interact with
dialogues? Is tenor of discourse represented through these signs? If a
character speaks to the camera, how is it rendered in the translation?
When many characters speak at a time, is the distance between the
camera and the actors a relevant factor in determining which utterances
have to be dubbed or whether the volume should be turned up or
down?
• Kinesic signs: Do kinesic signs have a meaning in the film? Is it the same
meaning they have in the target culture? Do they interact with dia-
logues? Is the translation coherent with them?
• Mouth articulation: Is it respected in the dubbed version? Do mouth
openings and closings coincide with the target utterances?

10. Graphic codes: How are the following elements rendered?

• Titles: How are film titles translated? Which translation techniques can
be seen? Do translated titles coincide in all target versions – DVD, VHS,
cinema, TV? Do translation techniques differ in dubbing and subtitling?
Have they changed with different times and fashions?
• Subtitles (in the source film): Are original subtitles kept in the dubbed/
subtitled version? Are they subtitled? Are they dubbed? Are they de-
leted? Do they interact with dialogues?
• Texts, intertitles and captions within the film: Are they kept in the
dubbed version? If so, how are they rendered in the translation? Are
they subtitled? Are they dubbed? Are they deleted? What translation
techniques can be seen? Do dubbing and subtitling translation tech-
niques differ? Have they changed with different times and fashions? Do
they interact with dialogues?

11. Montage/editing code: How does editing influence translation?

• Audiovisual punctuation marks or film transition types (such as
fade outs, wipes, iris, and dissolve and cut to): Do they interact with
176 Frederic Chaume

dialogues? Do they mark the pace of takes? Are they a criterion for
segmenting the dubbed script, i.e., are takes in the dubbed script seg-
mented according to the audiovisual punctuation marks in the film?
Are they marked with a symbol in the translated script?
• Association among scenes: Sometimes answers to questions posed
through dialogues are articulated through images. Punch lines, the
murderer’s identity, or escape routes might not be spoken in the dia-
logues, but seen on screen. Plots go back and forth with the help of
images, and information relevant to the plot is not uttered at all, but
“told through images”. The way images flow and follow one another
is meaningful and motivated. Does the way images are associated in
the source film convey any relevant meaning? Is the translation more
explicit than the original dialogues? Do the images make the translation
redundant? Is the translation more or less politically correct than the
source text, in light of what is seen on screen?

These are some of the questions the analyst can investigate. Finding answers
to all of them may be somewhat overambitious, since the original films may have
little semiotic content or dull, boring dialogues. On the other hand, a single ele-
ment listed here might inspire an entire PhD thesis, although criteria vary across
countries. Analytical models should be comprehensive by nature, since the only
aim in designing a model is to make it predictive.
The important question here is that the model has a semiotic component
that differentiates it from other linguistic or literary models of analysis. Research
in audiovisual translation, such as teaching audiovisual translation, requires an
ability to understand texts as a whole, to understand the interaction between
information and interpersonal meaning conveyed through the different meaning
codes and channels of communication, and to assess the influence of the visuals
on the dialogues and vice versa.
The following diagram shows the two levels and the three dimensions of the
model. Arrows show the influences among the different levels, i.e. factors gov-
erning preliminary norms at the external level influence microtextual translation
solutions, and general and specific problems interact among themselves, since
translation techniques used to solve a general problem may have a bearing on
a specific problem and vice versa:
Research in dubbing 177

EXTERNAL LEVEL

 Historical factors  Professional factors

 Communicative factors  Reception factors

INTERNAL LEVEL

General problems of translation Specific problems of AVT

 Contrastive linguistic problems  Linguistic code

 Paralinguistic code
 Register and dialect issues  Musical code
 Special effects code
 Pragmatic nuances  Sound position code
 Iconographic code
 Semiotic entities  Photographic code
 Shot code
 Mobility code
 Graphic code
 Montage/editing code

Figure 8.3. A semiotic model of analysis of dubbed texts

8.3 Exercises

The exercises in this chapter are set out as pilot projects and offer ideas that may
be further developed in BA final dissertations, as well as MA and PhD theses.
The final corpus analyzed and the objectives proposed will mark the difference
between a class exercise and an actual research project.

8.3.1 Choose a dubbed film containing swearwords and taboo

language:
 Find all the swearwords and taboo language in the translation.
 Classify these words and expressions according to these categories:
religious terms, sexual and anatomical terms, physiological function
terms, and general terms.
178 Frederic Chaume

 Look for the replaced segment in the original text. Compare the ori-
ginal terms used in the original film with those in the translation. Are
there any swearwords in the original text that have not been translated
with another swearword? Are there more swearwords in the target text
than in the original version?
 Describe the norms found.

8.3.2 Choose an episode from Family Guy, South Park, The Simpsons
or Futurama dubbed into your working language:
 Find ten jokes and puns in the translation.
 Classify these jokes according to Martínez Sierra’s classification of
humoristic elements explained in Chapter 7, §7.6.
 Look for the replaced segment in the original text. Compare the
original jokes and wordplay used in the original film with those in the
translation. Are there any jokes in the original text that have not been
translated with another joke or wordplay? Are there more jokes in the
target text than in the original version?
 Describe the norms found.

8.3.3 Choose an episode from Family Guy, The Simpsons or Futurama

dubbed into your working language:
 Find all intertexts in the translation.
 Classify these intertexts according to Hatim and Mason’s classifica-
tion of intertexts explained in Chapter 7, § 7.5.2.
 Look for the replaced segment in the original text. Compare the ori-
ginal intertexts used in the original film with those in the translation. Are
there any intertexts in the original text that have not been translated
with other intertexts? Are there more intertexts in the target text than in
the original version?
 Describe the norms found.
(This same methodology can be applied to the description of translation
norms of cultural references, film titles, etc.)

8.3.4 Choose a multilingual movie dubbed into your working language:

 Find all instances where a third language is spoken in the transla-
tion (i.e. a language other than the dubbing language and the original
language of the film).
 Classify them according to the translation mode used to convey these
dialogue lines, using the classification outlined in Chapter 7, § 7.3.
 Look for the replaced segment in the original text. Compare the ori-
ginal dialogues with those in the translation, according to the language
used and the translation mode employed in each case. Are there any
dialogues in a third language in the original text that have been dubbed
into the target language and thus lost in translation?
 Describe the norms found and discuss the foreignizing and domesti-
cating method observed in the translation.
Research in dubbing 179

8.3.5 Choose a movie dubbed into your working language from the
independent film genre:
 Find all instances where a close-up and an extreme close-up are
used in the film.
 Classify all instances of lip-sync proper and isochrony in these shots.
Check whether lip-sync has been applied correctly.
 Look for the replaced segment in the original text. Compare the ori-
ginal dialogues with those in the translation in terms of lip-syncing, i.e.
labial consonants used in both texts, open vowels used in both texts,
sentence endings used in both texts.
 Describe the norms found and discuss lip-sync as a quality standard
in the target version.

8.3.6 Now choose a dubbed blockbuster, preferably a teen pic, and fol-
low all the steps explained in the previous exercise. Do you reach the
same conclusions?

8.3.7 Choose a film containing different registers or dialects. Compare

the dubbed and the subtitled versions of the film and identify the trans-
lation solutions used to transfer registers and dialects. What do you
find?

8.3.8 Choose a cartoon dubbed into your working language. Identify all
the instances where the visuals interact with words. Use the classifica-
tion of visual codes explained in Chapter 6. What translation solutions
do you find for instances where a visual element interacts with the
dialogues?

8.3.9 Choose a TV sitcom dubbed into your working language. Select

an episode and find out how oral discourse has been created and de-
veloped in the translation. Go back to Chapter 5 to find a list of possible
spoken language resources that might have been used to convey natu-
ralness in the target version. Add any others you find. Make a final list
of oral discourse elements found in the translation, classified according
to the four language levels discussed in chapter 5, and then compare
these features with the ones used in the original episode.
9. A glossary of terms used in dubbing and AVT
Italics are used to indicate terms with their own separate entry.

Adaptation: The transformation of a rough translation of the dialogue into dub-

bing chunks or takes that respect the audiovisual constraints imposed by the
medium (synchronies and interaction of images and words), especially to create
fresh, natural dialogues that sound credible and true-to-life. See also Dialogue
writing.
Adapter: The professional who adapts the rough translation into takes or dubbing
units, taking into account the various audiovisual constraints and the dubbing
register (i.e. natural and credible dialogues). See also Dialogue writer.
Anello: Italian name for take.
Animation: Any process whereby artificial movement is created by photographing
a series of drawings, objects or computer images one by one, as in children’s
cartoons (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Annotated master dialogue/dubbing list: Document containing all the dialogue
exchanges that can be heard in the film, with additional information on slang
terms, colloquialisms, obscure cultural references and the like. It may also contain
details about the camera movements and the way actors behave on screen. It is
used in the dubbing of films and is designed to root out translation errors and
misunderstandings.
Audiosubtitling: (a) An audiovisual translation mode or practice that consists of tak-
ing down what is heard on screen in shorthand and then transforming it into text
to be shown simultaneously with the audiovisual programme, with a slight time
lag. (b) An audiovisual translation mode or practice that shares many features
with subtitling, audiodescription and voice-over. It consists of reading aloud the
subtitles of audiodescribed films for deaf and hard-of-hearing audiences.
AVT: Abbreviation for Audiovisual Translation.
Bande rythmo: In the French dubbing tradition, this is a track added to the film for
dubbing purposes only, and will not actually be seen by the final viewer. The track
is added at the bottom of the screen – like black box formerly used in subtitling
– so that voice talents can read all their translated lines aloud.
Big Six: The big six major film studios: Fox, Universal, Warner, Disney, Paramount,
and Sony.
Boucle: French term for take.
Caption: (a) Term used to refer to a subtitle for deaf and hard-of-hearing audiences,
usually in the USA. (b) It can also refer to written text superimposed somewhere
on the original picture. See also insert (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Captioning: Term used to refer to the subtitling of programmes for deaf and hard-
of-hearing audiences (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Channel: In Communication Studies, the modes or pathways through which two
parties might communicate. Usually a distinction is made between acoustic and
visual channels, but communication is also possible through the channels of
touch, smell and taste.
Character synchrony: The degree of correspondence between the voices of the
dubbing actors and what the audience expects the on-screen actors voices to
sound like.
A Glossary of Terms used in Dubbing and AVT 181

Code: In semiotics, a set of conventions currently in use to communicate meaning.

In translation for dubbing the most common one is (spoken) language, but the
term can also be used to refer to any filmic component: paralinguistic features,
songs, special effects, iconography, photography, editing, etc.
Code interaction: a mutual or reciprocal action or influence among filmic codes such
as icons, words, paralinguistic signs, music, etc.
Combined continuity and dialogue (list): Working document that contains the
complete list of dialogues together with additional information on the actors’
performance and the camera movements. The most detailed documents also
offer information on potential translation problems and annotations on issues
that can help translators, such as obscure cultural references and wordplay.
Content synchrony: The semantic relationship between the translation and what
happens on screen (images and music).
Cut: Any editing of the programme or film that involves a change from one image
to another. A cut is hard or clear when the difference in images is sharp and no-
ticeable, and it is soft when the change is less pronounced, e.g. one image fades
into another. Cuts are usually referred to as scene changes or shot changes (Díaz
Cintas and Remael 2007).
Detécteur: An agent in the French dubbing process who is responsible for synchroniz-
ing the dialogues, listening to and transcribing the original dialogues, together
with breaths, laughs, and all paralinguistic sounds uttered by characters on screen,
and also for making filmic indications at the bande rythmo, such as a vertical
line to represent a shot change, or a diagonal line for fade outs. Additionally,
the détecteur must indicate (using a numbered vertical line) the places where
s/he thinks that a new take or boucle will begin. The détecteur numbers these
boucles to enable the sound engineer to switch easily from one take to another
by following the references.
Dialogue list: Document that compiles the dialogues of a film or audiovisual pro-
gramme. It is used as a general term that refers to all documents containing the
dialogue and any other type of information.
Dialogue writer: Agent in the dubbing process who is in charge of the dialogue
writing or adaptation.
Dialogue writing: The transformation of a rough translation of the dialogue into
dubbing chunks or takes that respect the audiovisual constraints imposed by the
medium (synchronies and interaction of images and words), especially to create
fresh, natural dialogues that sound credible and true-to-life. See also Adaptation.
Diegetic sound: Any voice, paralinguistic sign, music or sound effect whose source
is present on screen or belongs to the narrative space.
Distribution: One of the three branches of the film industry; the process of supplying
the finished film to the places where it will be shown. See Exhibition, Production
(Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Distribution company: Company in charge of distributing films at national and in-
ternational levels. The films may belong to the company itself or to a different
company. In many cases they also work as production companies (Díaz Cintas
and Remael 2007).
Dubbing: An audiovisual translation mode or practice that consists of replacing the
original track of a film’s source language dialogues with another track on which
182 Frederic Chaume

translated dialogues have been recorded in the target language. The remaining
tracks are left untouched (the soundtrack – including both music and special
effects – and the images).
Dubbers: See Voice talents.
Dubbese: The register of dubbing, a kind of translationese that presents a balance
between oral and written features in all traditional language levels: phonetics,
morphology, syntax, and lexis and phraseology. Importantly, it also contains
repeated – and sometimes outdated – translation solutions (set phrases, exclama-
tions, vocatives, etc.) that have become part of the dubbing register throughout
the history of dubbing and are sometimes recognized as such by the audience in
each dubbing country. Dubbese is a culture-specific linguistic and stylistic model
for dubbed texts.
Dubbing actors and actresses: See Voice talents; Dubbers.
Dubbing assistant: An agent in the dubbing process responsible for segmenting
the text into takes, adding dubbing symbols to the translation and sometimes
in charge of lip-sync.
Dubbing bible: A compilation of indications for the dubbing director and voice talents.
Although not aimed specifically at translators, they may find dubbing bibles useful
since they contain information on the series, voice casting guidelines, character
descriptions, title, logo and episode titles and some translation guidelines.
Dubbing director: An agent in the dubbing process responsible for selecting the
voices (professional dubbing actors and actresses or voice talents) that bring the
translation to life, and for encouraging and guiding the actors so as to bring out
their most appropriate and accurate performances.
Dubbing sheet: A work schedule in which all characters are noted in a table indicating
the number of takes in which they speak, and sometimes their gender, clothes,
etc., to identify the character, and the number of words and, particularly, the
number of dialogue lines they speak. Nowadays this table is generally prepared
on an Excel spreadsheet, and it is essential for the recording in the dubbing
cabin, since it includes the name and number of characters (and therefore, of
voice talents), their importance in terms of lines and the moment they have to
start speaking.
Dubbing symbols: ‘Props’ noted down to help dubbing actors imitate the screen actors’
paralinguistic signs: sounds, pitch, tone, volume, primary voice qualities, etc.
Editing: (a) In filmmaking, the task of selecting and joining camera takes. (b) In the
finished film, the set of techniques that govern the relations among shots (Díaz
Cintas and Remael 2007).
ESIST: European Association for Studies in Screen Translation.
Exhibition: One of the three general areas of the film industry; the process of show-
ing the finished film to audiences. See Distribution; Production.
Fandubbing: Domestic dubbings of trailers and cartoons that have not yet reached the
fans’ country. It is usually spelt fundubbing, indicating the recreational character
of this practice and even the comic effects of the outcome.
Fansubbing (sometimes subbing): Domestic subtitling by fans of TV series, films or
cartoons (especially anime) before they are released in the fan’s country.
Feature film: A movie, usually lasting between 90 and 120 minutes, with one par-
ticular plot or storyline.
A Glossary of Terms used in Dubbing and AVT 183

Frame: One of a series of still-transparent photographs on a strip of film used in

making movies. When a series of frames is projected onto a screen in quick suc-
cession, an illusion of movement is created. In cinema, there are 24 frames per
second and a foot of celluloid contains 16 frames. Television allows 25 frames
per second (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Free-commentary: A variation of voice-over and dubbing, where a comedian
manipulates the translation for humoristic purposes, and adds jokes or funny
comments, either dubbed or voiced-over. This mode includes the popular Goblin
translations.
Gavrilov dubbing: See voice-over.
Goblin translations: Russian parodies of awkward translations presented in the
Russian film market, where characters speak quite differently from their original
counterparts. It is an example of a domesticating method of translation.
Icons: Signs or likenesses that stand for an object by signifying or representing it
either physically or by analogy. Images (including characters) are icons.
Illocutionary: Having to do with the intentions of the speaker of an utterance.
Indices: Signs that represent their objects regardless of whether or not they resemble
them, but only by virtue of real connections with them (such as the relationship
between smoke and fire).
In field: Film term used to indicate all elements of the story visible in the frame.
Infomercial: A short or regular-length television programme that incorporates in-
formation encouraging viewers to buy a particular product or service, such as
exercise equipment or correspondence courses.
Insert: Any written text that appears in the original programme. It may have been
filmed by the camera (e.g. letters, road signs, graffiti, banners) or added after-
wards during the editing (e.g. text locating the scene, both in terms of time and
space) (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
International Agents: Intermediaries who help production companies find distribu-
tion companies for their audiovisual programmes.
Intertitle: In silent motion pictures, an intertitle is a piece of filmed, printed text edited
into the middle of (i.e. -inter) the filmed action, generally to convey character
dialogue, or descriptive narrative material related to the filmed images. Intertitles
were the mainstay of silent films, but the development of the soundtrack largely
eliminated their usefulness, except as an occasional artistic device. They are con-
sidered to be the predecessors of subtitles (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Isochrony: A technical and artistic process consisting of matching the duration of the
translation with the screen characters’ utterances, i.e. the translated dialogue
must be exactly the same length as the time the screen actor or actress has
his/her mouth open to utter the source text dialogues.
Kinesic synchrony: A technical and artistic process consisting of adapting the transla-
tion to the screen characters’ body movements.
Lip-sync / Lip-synch: (a) A technical and artistic process consisting of adapting the
translation to the articulatory movements of the on-screen characters, especially
in close-ups and extreme or big close-ups. In order to achieve the reality effect
and naturalize the product to make it appear less foreign and more familiar,
particular care should be taken in the translation to respect the open vowels and
bilabial and labio-dental consonants pronounced on screen, as well as sentence
184 Frederic Chaume

endings. It is also known as phonetic synchrony in academic circles. (b) A synonym

for synchronization. (c) A synonym for dubbing.
Live subtitling: (a) Subtitling produced during the broadcasting of a live programme,
also known as real-time subtitling. Today live subtitling is often produced with
speech recognition technology. It requires a mixture of subtitling and interpreting
skills. (b) Subtitling that, although prepared beforehand, is fed manually during the
transmission or projection of an audiovisual programme, e.g. electronic subtitles
at a film festival (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Locutionary: Having to do with the act of uttering (Hatim and Mason 1990).
Long shots: A film or television shot in which the subject is shown at a relatively
small scale.
Loop: American term for take.
Medium of communication: The physical means through which a message is trans-
mitted to its intended audience, such as print media or broadcast (electronic)
media. In AVT, examples are TV, DVD or the Internet.
Mode of translation: Translation varieties according to the mode of discourse used
in the transfer. It refers to all types of audiovisual translation, where the target
text can be written (subtitles), spoken (dubbing) or a combination of both.
Multilingual broadcasting: The broadcasting of an audiovisual text in many different
translated modes (dubbed, subtitled, subtitled for the deaf, etc.).
Multilingual movies: (a) Also called double versions. This system consisted of shoot-
ing a film in various languages at a time, either simultaneously or very shortly
afterwards. The same film director tended to work on all the versions, although
this was not always the case. Different actors were used for each version, except
for some renowned cases (Stanley Laurel and Oliver Hardy, or Buster Keaton). (b)
Also called polyglot films. A film shot in more than one single language.
Narration: An audiovisual translation mode or practice that is simply a kind of voice-
over, where the translation has been summarized.
Neutral Spanish: An artificial dialect that combined features from the major Span-
ish dialects, particularly American localisms. Neutral Spanish was promoted as
a way of producing a version for the entire Spanish-speaking world that would
not favour one dialect over another, thus preventing rejection by some regions.
In Spain, the Disney classics were still dubbed into this artificial dialect until as
late as the 1980s.
Off / Offscreen: Happening in the space of the scene but in an area outside what is
visible onscreen.
On / Onscreen: Happening in the space of the scene and visible to the camera. Also
known as In field.
Out of field: Film term to designate all elements of a story that are not visible in the
frame but of whose existence in the scene the spectator is aware.
Partial dubbing: (a) A synonym for Russian voice-over. (b) An audiovisual translation
mode or practice used to dub the leading characters of a film (normally a male
voice for a male character, and a female voice for a female or child character,
although sometimes a child’s voice was used to dub child characters), whereas
the remaining secondary characters were voiced-over (Hendrickx 1984).
Phonetic synchrony: See lip-sync.
Post-production script: Document based on the pre-production script or screenplay
A Glossary of Terms used in Dubbing and AVT 185

that has been prepared or edited after shooting in order to incorporate any changes
made during the shooting of the programme. It is the whole film on paper, shot by
shot and word by word. There are two general kinds: dialogue lists and transcripts.
Dialogue lists usually include all the dialogue exchanges uttered in a film, together
with the description of what happens on screen, the description of the visuals.
Transcripts are verbatim transcriptions of all the dialogue lines and include hardly
any information about the visuals or extra information on implicit socio-cultural
connotations, wordplay, connotative meaning, polysemic terms, etc.
Pre-production script: The text or screenplay used to shoot a film, which is broken
down into individual scenes and identifies all the locations, props, cast members,
costumes, special effects and visual effects. Not only may the writer still be work-
ing on it during the shooting, but more importantly, the film director and actors
can change scenes, dialogues or even part of the plot. In most cases it is not
suitable for dubbing since the dialogues and the order of scenes may have been
changed during the actual shooting. Sometimes it is referred to as the script or
screenplay. See Post-production script.
Prefabricated orality: A kind of oral discourse that may seem spontaneous and nat-
ural, but which is actually planned, feigned, or false. It is a characteristic of the
register of dubbing or dubbese.
Production: One of the three branches of the film industry; the process of creating
the film. See Distribution; Exhibition (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Proxemics: Proxemic signs concern the distance of the characters to each other, as
well as the distance from the characters to the camera.
Reel: A portion of a motion picture that contains two smaller units, also called
reels, and has a total length of some 2,000 feet (600 meters). It lasts for about
20 minutes in the case of cinema and 10 minutes in the case of TV. Because the
reel contains two smaller 10-minute units, a reference to reel-5A and reel-5B,
(or 5AB) is commonly seen at the top of the dialogue lists. In some countries,
translators working for dubbing are paid according to the number of reels they
translate (adapted from Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Revoicing: Although this term is sometimes used as a synonym for dubbing, revoicing
also includes intralingual postsynchronization, i.e. when the original film dialogues
are subsequently recorded in a studio in the same language to prevent noises
and interferences when filming on location. However, when revoicing is used as
a synonym for dubbing or interlingual postsynchronization, the term includes all
revoicing types (dubbing itself, partial dubbing, narration or voice-over, etc.).
Russian Voice-Over: A voice-over using at least two or three different voices: nor-
mally a male voice for a leading male character, and a female voice for a leading
female or child character, and sometimes a child’s voice used to voice-over child
characters; the remaining secondary characters are all voiced-over with the same
voice. It is used in fiction films in Russia and some ex-Soviet countries.
Scanlation: The scanning, translation and editing of comics from a foreign language
into a different language. Scanlation is an amateur activity and is nearly always
done without express permission from the copyright holder. The term is most
often used in association with Japanese comics (manga). Scanlations may be
viewed on websites or as sets of image files downloaded from the Internet
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanlations).
186 Frederic Chaume

Scene: Any continuous part of a programme that takes place in the same time and
space, e.g. a classroom or an airport lounge (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Scene change: A cut that moves the plot from one scene to the next. Typical changes
are when the story moves to a different location (Díaz Cintas and Remael
2007).
Screenplay: Text prepared for the shooting of a film or other audiovisual programme
containing information about scenes and actors’ dialogue. In most cases it is not
suitable for dubbing, since the dialogue and the order of scenes may have been
changed during the actual shooting. Sometimes referred to as the (pre-production)
script, but the term screenplay is usually reserved for the published versions of
such texts. However, even in published format screenplays remain unstable text
forms; they are often mixtures of pre-production and post-production versions,
and are therefore seldom reliable renderings of the finished film (Díaz Cintas
and Remael 2007).
Script: Text prepared for the shooting of a film or other audiovisual programmes
containing information about scenes and actors’ dialogues. In most cases it is not
suitable for dubbing since the dialogues and the order of scenes may have been
changed during the actual shooting. Often used as a short form of pre-production
script or as a synonym for an unpublished screenplay. In screenwriting manuals
script and screenplay are sometimes also known as the ‘blueprint’ of the film
(Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
SDH: Subtitles or Subtitling for the Deaf and the Hard-of-hearing.
Semiotics: The theory and study of signs and symbols, especially as elements of
language or other systems of communication.
Shot: See take (b).
Shot change: A cut between two takes (b) or shots within a scene. A typical shot
change is when the camera moves from one speaker to another within the same
scene (i.e. angle-reverse angle).
Sign language translation: A translation between an oral language and languages
which, instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns, use visually transmitted
sign patterns (body language) to convey meaning – simultaneously combining
hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial
expressions to express a speaker’s thoughts. It is used on some TV programmes,
often the news and some documentaries.
Simultaneous interpreting: One of the audiovisual translation modes in which an
interpreter interprets a film that is being shown in a cinema. The interpreter has
usually been able to watch the film and take notes on the script. He or she is lo-
cated inside the cinema and interprets simultaneously with the film projection.
Single-voice translation: See Voice-over.
Sound engineer / sound technician: An agent in the dubbing process who records
the target dialogues on a blank track of the original copy of the film, which will
eventually be mixed with the original tracks so that the film can also be shown
and heard in the target language.
Soundtrack: Technically, this term refers to the audio component of a movie or au-
diovisual programme, including the dialogue, musical score, narration, and sound
effects that accompany the visual components (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Speech recognition: computerized transfer of speech to written text. Products such as
A Glossary of Terms used in Dubbing and AVT 187

IBM’s ViaVoice and DNS-Nuance (originally Dragon Naturally Speaking) are some
of the most popular. Speech recognition is used increasingly by TV broadcasters
for live subtitling (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Spot(ting): Based on the timecode, this is the process of dividing the original dialogue
into units to be subtitled, taking into consideration both the length of each of the
exchanges and the media limitations. It indicates the in and out times of each
individual subtitle (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Studio: Company in charge of the dubbing process.
Subtitle: Any of the written projections that appear on screen and represent what is
being said on the screen or other information that needs to be conveyed. Subtitles
are sometimes added to films when they are released in a country that speaks
a different language than the one used in the film. Subtitles can be one, two or
three lines in length. Depending on the conventions applied, each line of a subtitle
can contain from 28 to 41 spaces (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Subtitling: Audiovisual translation practice that consists of presenting a written
text, generally in the lower part of the screen, that endeavours to recount the
original dialogue of the speakers, as well as the discursive elements that appear
in the image (letters, inserts, graffiti, inscriptions, placards, and the like), and the
information that is contained in the soundtrack (songs, voices off) (Díaz Cintas
and Remael 2007).
Surtitles: Subtitles used in the surtitling of operas and theatre performances, also
known as supertitles and supratitles (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007).
Surtitling: Type of audiovisual translation commonly used in opera, other musical
performances and theatre plays. The translated or transcribed text is prepared
beforehand and projected on a screen usually suspended above the stage (Díaz
Cintas and Remael 2007).
Suspension of disbelief: A term referring to the reader/viewer’s ability or desire (or
both) to ignore, distort or underplay realism in order to feel more involved with
a videogame, a film, or a book. It might be used to refer to the willingness of
the audience to overlook the limitations of a medium (for example, that a film is
dubbed), so that these do not interfere with the acceptance of those premises.
Symbols: Signs referring to the objects they substitute by convention, such as the
representation of the earth by a globe.
Synchronization: The process, in a recording made in a dubbing studio, of matching
a target language translation to the screen actors’ bodily and articulatory move-
ments and ensuring that the utterances and pauses in the translation match
those of the source text.
Synchrony: See Synchronization.
Take: (a) In the process of dubbing, the translation is divided into segments, i.e.
chunks of text, called takes or loops, also known as anelli in Italy and boucles in
France. (b) Also known as a shot, it is any continuous, uninterrupted film footage
between cuts. There can be several takes within a scene.
TCR: Time Code Reader or Time Code Recording. A clock recorded alongside each
frame containing 8 digits that reads hours: minutes: seconds: frames.
Template: A list of master (sub)titles with the in and out times already spotted (Díaz
Cintas and Remael 2007). See spotting.
Trailer: A short segment of film that cinemas and television stations use to advertise
a feature film.
188 Frederic Chaume

VHS: Video Home System. Video recording and cassette system, also used in pro-
fessional contexts, where the image and sound quality does not have to be of
broadcasting standard.
Videogame localization: Usually referred to as VGLOC, a mode of audiovisual trans-
lation that shares a number of features with other specialized translation and
localization modalities. It includes dubbing, subtitling and localization (Granell
2011).
Voice talents: Dubbing actors and actresses who perform the dubbing. They read
a synchronized translation aloud, and are supervised by the dubbing director
with the help of the sound engineer. Their task is to speak each sentence and fit
it to the mouth of the film’s original source actors and actresses, making their
dialogue lines sound natural. They are also called dubbers, dubbing artists, or
dubbing actors and actresses.
Voice-over: The original source language track of an audiovisual text is overlapped
with another track on which translated dialogues have been recorded in the tar-
get language, such that both tracks can be heard simultaneously. Normally the
translation is heard a few seconds after the original voices, which are heard at a
much lower volume. Voice-over is also called Gavrilov dubbing in Russia, named
after one of the most famous Russian dubbers; it is also known as single-voice
translation, especially in Poland.
Webtoons: Cartoons distributed via the Internet, often made by amateur creators.
10. References

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10.2 Filmography

Art in the Struggle for Freedom (2000), Obe Osheroff.

Austin Powers (1997), Jay Roach.
Babel (2006), Alejandro González Iñárritu.
BBC This World. Episode Title: Tiger TTra
ra���
���cc (2004-), Amanda FFeldon.
eldon.
Bang! Bang! In Da Manor (2004), Sean Mendez and Negar Esfandiari.
Beggars of Life (1928), William A. Wellman.
Bend of the River (1952), Anthony Mann.
Bewitched (1964-1972),
1964-1972), Sol Sak
Saks.
s.
Bienvenue chez les Ch’tis (2008), Dany Boon.
Blacula (1972), William Crain.
Blaze o’ Glory (1929), George Crone & Renaud Hoffman.
Blind Date (1987), Blake Edwards.
Bob the Builder (1999), Keith Chapman.
202 Frederic Chaume

Bob’s Beach (2002-2005), Sophia Kolokouri.

Boston Common (1996-1997),
1996-1997),
-1997), Da
David
vid Kohan & Ma
Maxx Mut
Mutchnick.
chnick.
Cramp Twins (2001-2006), Brian Wood.
Charade (1963), Stanley Donen.
Cuore d’Africa 5 – Ep. 4 (2006-), Ashley Pharoah.
Die Hard (1988), John McTiernan.
Earthquake (1974), Mark Robson.
Emergency Room. Episode 247 (1994-2009), Michael Crichton.
Family Guy (1999-), Seth MacFarlane.
Father’s Little Dividend (1950), Vincente Minnelli.
Friends (1994-2004), David Crane and Marta Kauffman.
Futurama (1999-) Matt Groening.
Gazon Maudit (1995), Josiane Balasko.
Gegen die Wand (2004), Fatih Akin.
Gone with the Wind (1939), Victor Fleming.
Hannah Montana (2006-), Richard Correll, Barry O’Brien, Michael Poryes.
Home Alone (1990), Chris Columbus.
House M.D. (2004-), David Shore.
In the Bleak Midwinter (1995), Kenneth Branagh.
Inception (2010), Christopher Nolan.
Inglourious Basterds (2009), Quentin Tarantino.
Interference (1928), Roy Pomeroy.
It’s a free world (2007), Ken Loach.
Kes (1969), Ken Loach.
Kids (1995), Larry Clark.
Kika (1993), Pedro Almodóvar.
L’auberge espagnole (2002), Cédric Klapisch.
La Ciociara (1960), Vittorio De Sica.
La Sicilia (1997), Luc Pien.
La Usurpadora (1998), Beatriz Sheridan.
Little Britain (2003-), Ma
Matt
tt Lucas
Lucas and David
David Walliams.
Lorenzo’s Oil (1992), George Miller.
Lost in translation (2003), Sofia Coppola.
Malcolm X (1992), Spike Lee.
Midnight Express (1978), Alan Parker.
Mission Impossible (1966-1973), Bruce Geller.
Mogambo (1953), John Ford.
Monsters (1988-1991), Richard P. Rubinstein.
Mr. Brooks (2007), Bruce A. Evans.
Night of the Living Dead (1968), George A. Romeo.
On Connaît la Chanson (1997), Alain Resnais.
One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975), Milos Forman.
Pensavo fosse amore invece era un calesse (1991), Massimo Troisi.
Pulp Fiction (1994), Quentin Tarantino.
Rio Rita (1929), Luther Reed.
Rubí (2004), Benjamín Cann, Eric Morales.
Sabrina (1996-2003), Nell Scovell.
References 203

Sarafina (1992), Darrell Roodt.

Shin-Chan (1992), Yoshito Usui.
Snatch (2000), Guy Ritchie.
Some Like it Hot (1959), Billy Wilder.
Sostiene Pereira (1995), Roberto Faenza.
South Park (1997-), Matt Stone, Trey Parker.
Spider-Man 3 (2002), Sam Raimi.
Street Soccer/ Foot 2 Rue (2005), Bruno Bligoux, Stéphane Roux.
Tacones Lejanos (1991), Pedro Almodóvar.
The Clay Pigeon (1949), Richard Fleischer.
The Frighteners (1996), Peter Jackson.
The Jazz Singer (1927), Al Johnson.
The Lady from Shanghai (1947), Orson Welles.
The Lights of New York (1928), Bryan Foy.
The Mini-Monsters (1987), Jimmy Autray.
The Real Ghostbusters (1986-1991), David Landers.
The Simpsons (1989-), Matt Groening.
The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1952), Henry King.
The Suite Life of Zack & Cody (2005-2007), Jim Geoghan, Danny Kallis.
The Three Amigos (2004), Firdaus Kharas, Brent Quinn.
The Tudors (2007-2010), Michael Hirst.
The Virgin Suicides (1999), Sofia Coppola.
The Wizard of Oz (1939), Victor Fleming.
This Land is Mine (1943), Jean Renoir.
Trainspotting (1996), Danny Boyle.
True Grit (2010), Ethan and Joel Coen.
Une Liaison Pornographique (1999), Frédéric Fonteyne.
Viva Zapata (1952), Elia Kazan.
Watership Down (1999), Troy Sullivan.
Who’s my favourite girl? (1999), Adrian J. MacDowall.
You Will Meet a Tall Dark Stranger (2010), Woody Allen.
Index
A Channels of communication 107, 166,
Adaptation / adapter (as a translation 172, 176, 180
method / agent) 1, 18, 32, 35, 42, Acoustic channel 102, 103, 106-108,
67, 68, 73, 75, 86, 103, 145, 146, 167, 166, 172, 180
169, 180, 181, 183 Visual channel 110, 166, 172, 180
Advertising translation / companies (see Code (semiotics) 82, 100, 101, 103, 106-
also commercials) 3, 23, 33, 77, 78, 108, 110-118, 120, 121, 131, 145,
100 150, 153, 158, 162, 166, 168, 169,
Art films 6, 14, 18, 145, 154 171-177, 179, 181
Audiovisual translation 2-5, 7, 14, 15, Commercials (see also advertising) 2, 4,
17, 24, 28, 33, 39-41, 46, 47, 66, 67, 5, 24, 26, 104
77, 81-83, 92, 100-102, 107, 111, Comic books 3-5, 76, 185
112, 118, 121, 122, 129, 133, 145, Copyright 28, 33, 38, 80, 129, 130, 168,
152-154, 158-160, 162-168, 170-172, 185
176, 180, 181, 184, 186-188 Cultural references 33, 34, 95, 101, 120,
Audiovisuelles Übersetzen 2 121, 129, 145, 147, 148, 157, 160,
Audiodescription / AD 4, 5, 92, 167, 164, 165, 167, 171, 178, 180, 181
180, 187
Audiosubtitling 4, 5, 180 D
Anello 25, 47, 53, 54, 180, 187, 188 Debate 13, 14, 70
Anime 4, 8, 9, 41, 42, 76, 79, 92, 182 Detécteur 30, 32, 38, 181
Avid 43 Dialogue list (see also script) 121, 122,
124, 126, 127, 181, 185
B Dialogue writer / dialogue writing 2, 18,
Benshi 11 19, 22, 23, 26-29, 32, 33, 35, 37-39,
Bande rythmo 29-33, 60, 64, 180 43, 44, 48-50, 58, 66-68, 70-75, 79,
Black box 31, 180 83, 87, 89, 94, 98, 101, 108, 112, 118,
Blockbusters 2, 130 121, 124, 146, 168, 180, 181
Boucle 30, 32, 35, 47, 50-52, 60, 180, Diegetic / extra-diegetic 108, 174, 181
181, 187 Digital broadcasting / technology 7, 14,
26, 92, 107, 108
C Distribution 4, 12, 23, 24, 40, 45, 126,
Calques 16, 18, 25, 88, 92, 93, 95, 96, 169, 181-183, 185
170, 171, 173 Divace Lite 4
Captions 117, 122, 126, 148, 165, 167, Divace Solo 4
168, 175 Doblaje 24, 28
Cartoons 1, 2, 4, 6, 8-10, 14, 18, 24, 26, Doblatge 24, 28, 83, 84
27, 29, 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 61, 66, 75, Dobragem 24
76, 78, 81, 87, 91, 100, 103, 104, Documentary 3, 14, 24, 26, 27, 29, 45,
106, 111, 120, 129, 135, 145, 146, 75, 100, 129, 156, 167, 168, 186
148, 150, 153, 167, 169, 174, 179, Domesticating / domestication 13, 29,
180, 182, 188 41, 46, 64, 69, 73, 128, 129, 145, 146,
Censorship 17, 18, 112, 151-154, 159, 148, 149, 173, 178, 183
163-165, 167, 169 Doppiaggio 24, 28-30
Index 205

Doublage 21, 24, 28 Film clubs 6, 23

Double versions (history) 2, 12, 40, 184 Film festivals 4, 23, 184
Dubbese 87-89, 91, 92, 94, 101, 121, Final Cut Pro 43
143, 160, 172, 182, 185 Foreignizing / foreignization 33, 34, 41,
Dubbing 128, 129, 145, 146, 148, 149, 173
Dubbing actors and actresses / dub- Free-commentary 3, 5, 67, 167, 183
bers/ voice talents 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 12, FTP (File Transfer Protocol) 38, 39
18, 19, 22, 27-33, 35-37, 40, 41, 43,
47, 48, 51, 52, 54, 58-61, 63-65, 67, G
69-72, 75, 85- 88, 108, 112, 115, 121, Gender issues 70, 78, 127-129, 153,
127, 128, 180, 182, 188 169, 182
Dubbing assistant 28-30, 36, 37, 42, Genre 4, 5, 14, 18, 20, 23, 26, 27, 42, 72,
43, 58, 73, 101, 108, 109, 118, 182 75-78, 82, 100, 104, 117, 129, 131,
Dubbing booth/ cabin /studio 1, 9, 133, 134, 145, 146, 150, 155, 160,
18, 29, 30, 32, 33-36, 40, 43, 44, 164, 165, 167, 169, 171, 179
48-50, 52, 57-60, 63, 64, 67, 72, 106, Geographical dialects 136, 137, 141,
168, 180, 182, 185, 187 142, 171
Dubbing director 8, 17-19, 22, 27-31,
Gavrilov dubbing 3, 183, 188
33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 48, 54, 63, 70, 71,
Globalization 39-42, 44, 46, 47, 58, 63
73, 75, 98, 127, 128, 182
Goblin translation 4, 5, 146, 183
Dubbing sheet 30, 51, 182
Graphic codes 117, 131, 149, 150, 172,
Dubbing symbols 19, 25, 26, 29-33,
175, 177
35, 37, 39, 40, 46, 49, 51, 53, 55-65,
101, 102, 107-109, 112, 115, 124,
155, 156, 166, 168, 174, 176, 182
I
Partial dubbing 1, 3, 5, 67, 77, 184, Icons / iconography 10, 11, 16, 30, 33,
185 69-71, 76, 81, 87, 103, 110-111, 116,
DubIt 24 117, 121, 148, 156, 172, 174, 177,
DVD 2, 7-10, 22-25, 38, 39, 44, 45, 55, 56, 181, 183
61, 62, 64, 65, 79, 80, 130, 154-156, Idiolects 136, 142, 143, 171
158, 164, 165, 167-169, 175, 184 IMDb (International Movie Database) 39,
45, 93, 94, 129, 130, 139, 154, 155
E Indices 110, 117, 183
Editing Infomercials 3, 4, 5, 183
Sound 18, 23, 24, 33, 37, 43 Intertextuality 91, 95, 106, 134, 145,
Montage 100, 117, 124, 131, 148, 147-149, 160, 163, 165, 171, 173
172,175, 177, 181-183, 185 Intertitles 3, 5, 10, 11, 117, 175, 183

F K
Fandub / fandubbing 2, 4, 5, 20, 41, 42, Kinesics 15, 31, 33, 35, 47, 68-71, 76-80,
79, 182 83, 115, 116, 169, 175, 183
Fansub / fansubbing / subbing 4, 5, 41,
92, 182 L
Fascist / totalitarian regimes 1, 13, 112, Legal translation 3, 25, 39, 143, 144, 152
118, 152, Lighting 112, 117, 171, 174
Feigned orality (see prefabricated oral- Literary translation 3, 14, 25, 28, 133,
ity) 82, 185 134, 138, 147, 159, 168
206 Frederic Chaume

Localization (see also videogame local- O

ization) 32, 39, 40, 44, 63 OFF 49, 53, 55, 56, 59-65, 80, 108, 109,
Loop 25, 26, 31, 32, 36-38, 42, 46, 47, 57, 112, 124, 174, 184
58, 106, 118, 184, 187 ON 49, 53, 59, 61, 62, 65, 108, 109

M P
Manga 76, 92, 145, 185 Paralinguistics / Paralanguage 18, 30, 31,
Medical translation 3, 25, 39, 143, 48-50, 53, 58-60, 62, 65, 71, 100-103,
Medium 107, 119, 124, 148, 149, 166, 172-
Medium of communication 16, 120, 174, 177, 181, 182
130, 143, 150, 180, 181, 184, 187 Patronage 154, 160
Type of shot 80, 115, 124, 175 Photography 26, 69, 112, 113, 115, 117,
Method (translation method) 160, 169, 169, 172, 174, 177, 180, 181, 183
178, 183 Pinnacle Systems 4
Mobility (code) 114-116, 172, 175, 177 Prefabricated orality / prefabricated oral
Montage (see editing) 118, 169, 172, speech / prefabricated speech 16, 35,
175, 177 66, 69, 82, 83, 85, 88, 169, 185
Mouth articulation 15, 43, 47, 72, 73, Production 2, 6, 10, 12, 16, 18, 20, 23,
114, 115, 175
24, 29, 33, 36, 83, 84, 122, 126, 181-
Multilingual broadcasting 5, 158, 184
183, 185
Multilingual movies
Co-productions 6, 20
As double versions (history) 2, 12,
In-house production 23, 88
40, 184
External / Associate / Outsourced
As polyglot films 101, 120, 121, 131,
production 24, 87, 88
132, 138, 155, 160, 165, 172, 173,
Pre-production 102, 163, 186
178, 184
Post-production 2, 33, 122, 163, 186
MUSA project 16
Pro Tools 43
Music (see also songs) 1, 13, 29, 37, 70,
100, 103-106, 118, 122-124, 128, Proxemics 115, 175, 185
165, 171, 172, 172, 177, 181, 182,
186, 187 Q
Musicals (genre) 104, 118, 155, 165, Quality standards 1, 14-16, 159, 161, 179
169, 187
R
N Redubbing 9, 133, 148, 167
Narration Reel 26, 27, 185
As voice-over 1, 3, 5, 11, 67, 77, 184, Reel-Voice 41
185 Respeaking (see live subtitling) 3, 5
As narrative discourse 10, 48, 50, 165, Revoicing 1-3, 5, 41, 67, 163, 185
186 Rhyme 14, 74, 103, 106, 113, 114, 134,
Negative pick-up 23, 24 174
Neutral Spanish 12, 184 Rhythm 22, 30, 99, 103-106, 119, 173
Norms / translation norms / normative Rough translation 26-29, 33, 35, 39, 72,
behaviour 14-17, 19, 29, 41, 47, 49, 180, 181
69, 77, 81-88, 92, 94, 98, 104, 110,
117, 121, 129, 130, 141, 142, 144, S
146, 150-152, 160-167, 169, 172, Scanlations 5, 92, 185
173, 176, 178, 179 Scientific translation 3, 25, 39
Index 207

Screen Translation 2, 15, 147, 153, 182 Spotting 39, 72, 187
Screenplay 22, 88, 121, 154, 184-186 Standard dialects 136, 139, 142, 153,
Scripts 171
Pre-production scripts 102, 121, 122- Strategy (translation strategies) 9, 71,
124, 154, 184-186 72, 74, 86, 129, 132, 138, 139, 146,
Post-production scripts 102, 124, 148, 164
154, 184, 185 Subtitle / subtitling 1-18, 20-22, 28, 31-
Semiotics 3, 17, 18, 70, 82, 92, 100, 101, 33, 39-43, 46, 50, 63, 64, 66, 81, 83,
106, 112, 121, 153, 158, 160-164, 84, 86, 92, 100, 104, 106, 117, 120,
166, 171, 172, 176, 177, 181, 186 126, 129, 142, 144, 153, 155, 156,
Shots 78, 112-115, 117, 122, 124, 126, 159, 160, 163-169, 174, 175, 179,
137, 164, 168, 169, 172, 175, 177, 180, 183, 184, 186-188
179, 182, 186, 187 Live subtitling (see respeaking) 5,
Close-ups 15, 60, 68, 69, 71-76, 80, 184
112-115, 118, 169, 175, 179, 183 Scrolling and paint-on subtitles 32
Detailed shots 15, 69, 74, 76, 134, Subtitles as captions 117
169 Subtitling countries 2, 6-10, 66, 81,
Extreme / Big close-ups 15, 68, 69, 130
71-74, 76, 80, 113-115, 169, 175, Subtitling for the deaf and the hard-
179, 183 of-hearing / SDH 4, 5, 7, 167, 180,
Knee /American shots 80, 115, 175 184, 186
Long /Pan/ General shots 54, 59, 60, Subtitling discourse 84, 86
109, 115, 175, 184 Subtitles as intertitles 3, 5, 10, 11,
Medium shots 80, 115, 124, 175 117, 175, 183
Out of shot 61 Subtitling multilingual movies 132
Shot changes 30, 32, 60, 64, 181, Subtitling modes 5
Subtitling templates 41
186
Subtitling trends 8
Skopos 146
Subtitling unit 46
Sign language translation 4, 186
Subtitling vs. dubbing 46
Simultaneous interpreting 4, 11, 186
Subtitle Workshop 39
Single-voice translation 3, 186, 188
Surtitling / supertitling 3, 5, 187
Sitcoms 24, 27, 42, 87, 95, 146, 167
Suspension of disbelief 16, 19, 73, 133,
Soap operas 2, 7, 8, 10, 24, 27
149, 187
Social dialects 136, 139-142, 156, 171
Symbols (semiotics) 110, 117, 186, 187
Songs (see also music) 4, 29, 30, 74, 75,
Synchrony / synchronization 2, 12, 14,
100, 103-106, 119, 126, 127, 129, 15, 17, 19, 24, 29-33, 35, 37, 47, 63,
147, 148, 168, 174, 181, 187 66-80, 83, 86, 109, 112-115, 117,
Sound engineer / technician 19, 29, 30, 120, 148, 153, 168, 169, 174, 175,
33, 37, 107-109, 181, 186, 188 180, 181, 183-185, 187, 188
Sound position (sound source) 172, Character synchrony 69, 180
174, 177 Content synchrony 69, 70, 181
Soundtrack 1, 4, 8, 13, 41-43, 106-108, Isochrony 15, 31, 33, 35, 47, 66, 68,
150, 174, 182, 183, 186, 187 69, 72, 73, 75-80, 83, 102, 109, 110,
Special effects 1, 4, 30, 37, 61, 100, 106- 112, 115, 117, 145, 169, 179, 183
108, 121, 148, 150, 169, 172, 174, Kinesic synchrony 15, 31, 33, 35, 47,
177, 181, 182, 185 68, 69-71, 76-80, 83, 115, 116, 169,
Speech recognition 3, 184, 186, 187 175, 183
208 Frederic Chaume

Lip-sync / lip-synch / lip-syncing 2, 15, Voice-over 1-3, 5-7, 11, 13, 14, 18, 33,
18, 22, 25, 26, 31, 33, 35-37, 39-41, 55, 61, 62, 67, 77, 132, 167, 180,
43, 44, 59, 60, 63-69, 71-75, 77, 79, 183-186, 188
80, 85, 86, 88, 109, 110, 112-114, Vulnerable translation 20
117, 119, 134, 155, 156, 169, 179,
182-184 W
Webinars 4, 5, 185
T Webtoons 4, 5, 79, 188
Taboo language / taboo words 61, 81, Windows Movie Maker 4, 43, 79, 80
93, 95, 141, 144, 152, 153, 160, 164,
165, 170, 171, 177
Take 25-27, 29- 33, 35-37, 40, 42, 46,
47-58, 60, 62-65, 106, 118, 155, 156,
168, 176, 180-182, 184, 186, 187
Technique (translation techniques) 72,
73, 103, 110, 130, 132, 154, 155, 160,
164, 166, 170, 174, 175
Teen pics 2, 7, 130, 148, 155
Templates 41, 187
Temporal dialects 136, 138, 142, 167,
171
Time code / TCR 49, 50, 53, 55-58, 64,
122, 187
Titles
Film titles 18, 28, 38, 39, 93, 94, 106,
120, 121, 129-131, 133, 154, 160,
163, 175, 178
Title cards 3
Traducción audiovisual 2
Traduction audiovisuelle 2
Traduzione audiovisiva 2
Trailers 4, 27, 42, 182
TV series 2-4, 6-9, 14, 24, 26, 27, 29, 39,
42, 71, 75, 98, 102, 103, 120, 122,
129, 135, 143, 146, 147, 150, 153,
154, 156, 182

V
VHS 10, 64, 164, 169,175, 188
Video Rewrite 4, 42
Videogames 5, 23, 33, 92, 187
Videogame localization / VGLOC 2-4,
188
VirtualDub 4, 42
Visual Esperanto 10, 11
Voice-off 27, 59, 60, 109, 117, 165
Voice-on 60, 109, 169