Module 4

ELECTRONICS
FUNDAMENTALS

4.3 SERVOMECHANISM

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Contents
4.3 SYNCHRONOUS DATA TRANSMISSION 1

INTRODUCTION: 1
Desynn System 1
Basic Desynn 2
Operation 3
Fail Safe Devices 4
Slab Desynn 5
SYNCHRO SYSTEMS 5
SYNCHRO TYPES 6
Torque Synchro 7
Control Synchro 10
Differential Synchro 12
Torque Differential Synchro 14
Control Differential Synchro 15
RESOLVER SYNCHRO 16
Polar and Cartesian Co-ordinates 16
Resolver Synchro Operation 17
Conversion from Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates 18
Conversion from Cartesian to Polar Co-ordinates 19
SYNCHRO SYSTEM FAULTS 20
SERVOMECHANISMS 21
CATEGORIES OF SERVO SYSTEMS 21
Open Loop System 22
Closed Loop System 23
Follow Up 24
TYPES OF SERVO 24
1. RPC servos 24
2. Velodynes 24
FEEDBACK 25
Positional Feedback 25
ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (RVDT) 27
THE LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (LVDT) 29
TYPES OF INPUT 30
Step Input 30
Ramp Input 30
Accelerating Input 30
SYSTEM RESPONSE 31
DAMPING 32
1. Underdamped 32
2. Critically damped 32
3. Over damped 32
STICTION 33
Coulomb Friction 34

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Viscous Friction 35
EFFICIENCY OF OUTPUT DAMPING 35
Velocity Feedback Damping 36
Velocity Feedback Curves 37
Velocity Control Servomechanisms 38
Residual Error 39
Velocity Lag 39
TACHOGENERATORS 39
A.C. SERVOMECHANISM COMPONENTS 41
E & I Bar Transducer 41
Inductive Type Transducers 42
Induced EMF Type Transducer 43
AC Current Control 44
Capacitive Type Transducers 44
How Capacitive Transducers Work 44
APPLICATION IN SERVOS 45
1. Position Sensing 45
2. Feedback Loop 45
3. Control Action 45
ADVANTAGES OF CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS 45
 High Sensitivity 45
 Non-Contact Measurement 45
 Wide Range of Measurement 45
 High Accuracy and Resolution 45
Implementation Example 45
Conclusion 45
PRACTICAL SERVO SYSTEMS 46
Direct Current Servo System 46
Alternating Current Servo System 47
PID CONTROLLERS 48
Introduction: 48
PID Controller Theory 50
Proportional Response, P: 50
Integral Response,.I: 51
Derivative Response, D: 51
Tuning: 52

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4.3 SYNCHRONOUS DATA TRANSMISSION
INTRODUCTION:

Synchronous data transmission systems are designed to indicate the position of a

component or control surface that cannot be directly observed. The systems fall
into one of two categories; d.c. systems called 'Desynn Systems' and a.c. systems
which are generally grouped under the heading of 'Synchro Systems'.

Both a.c. and d.c. systems comprise two main components, a transmitting element
and a receiving element. The two being interconnected by wiring that provides the
signal path. The word 'synchronous' means 'happening at the same time', which
infers that when the transmitter is moved, the receiving element, normally an
indicator, will follow that movement instantly.

Desynn System

There are a variety of different types of Desynn systems available:

1. Basic Desynn - Generally operated by a rotary motion, however linear versions

are also found. The conversion from linear to rotary motion being achieved by
a push rod and gear wheel.

2. Micro Desynn - Designed to magnify the small movement obtained by such

items as pressure measuring devices. They are operated by linear motion.

3. Slab Desynn - Designed to overcome signally errors inherent in the basic

Desynn system. In the vast majority of instances the errors in the basic Desynn
could be considered insignificant.

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Basic Desynn

In the basic Desynn system the transmitter comprises an endless resistance

wound on a circular former, this arrangement being referred to as a 'Toroidal
Resistance'. Equally spaced at 120 intervals around the resistor are 3 tappings,
it is to these that the signal wires are connected. Running on the resistor are two
wiper arm type contacts that are spaced apart by 180 and insulated from one
another, it is to these that system power is applied. The basic desynn is shown in
figure 1.

Basic Desynn
Figure 1
The indicator comprises a two pole permanent magnet rotor, pivoted to rotate
inside a soft iron stator, the pointer being attached to the spindle. The stator
carries three star connected windings that are connected to the three wires coming
from the tappings of the transmitter.

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Operation

When dc power, is applied to the wiper arms of the transmitter, current will enter the
positive wiper arm and divide to flow in both directions, left and right, around the torroidal
resistor. Both halves of the resistor have the same resistance, therefore the current in
each path will be equal. Figure 2 shows the circuit arrangement of the basic desynn.

Circuit Arrangement (Basic Desynn)

Figure 2
The resistance of the resister varies linearly. That is, the change in resistance for every
degree of movement around it will be the same, therefore when 28 volts is applied to
the system as shown in the diagram, the voltage at tapping 2 will be approx. 9.3 volts,
as will the voltage at tapping 3. The voltage at tapping 1 will be 28 volts.

The differences in potential at the three tapping’s cause currents to flow in the wires that
connect to the receiver. The flow of current creates magnetic fields around the 3 stator
windings in the receiver, which combine to produce a resultant field across the stator.
The permanent magnet aligns with the resultant stator field, in turn aligning with the
wiper arms of the transmitter.

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If, for ease of explanation, the transmitter wiper arms are rotated by 120 clockwise, the
potential at tapping 2 will increase to 28 volts, the potential at tapping 3 will remain the
same at 9.3 volts and that at tapping 1 will decrease to 9.3 volts. Current will now flow
out of the transmitter at tapping 2 into the indicator at terminal 2, through the first winding
where it will divide equally, half returning to the transmitter via terminals 1, the other half
via terminals 3. The resultant field now produced across the stator will be in line with
stator coil 2, this will cause the permanent magnet rotor, band pointer, to swing around
120 clockwise to once again align with the wiper arms of the transmitter.

Irrespective of the position of the wiper arms in the transmitter, the current flow between
transmitter and receiver will always create a field across the stator that aligns with their
position.

Fail Safe Devices

A problem with the Desynn as shown, is that should the d.c. power to the system fail,
the pointer will remain in its last position. This is not a satisfactory situation, the
instrument should 'fail safe' that is it should respond in such a way that the fault will be
identified. This is achieved by fitting a small permanent magnet in the indicator. Under
normal operation, the field of the permanent magnet is weak in comparison to the fields
produced by the coils and therefore has no effect. When power is removed, the small
permanent magnet attracts the permanent magnet rotor, moving the pointer off scale.

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Slab Desynn

If the voltages at the 3 tappings of the transmitter of a basic Desynn are measured, as
the wiper arms are rotated 360, it will be seen that they produce a triangular waveform
as opposed to a sinewave. This results in the pointer of the indicator not following the
transmitter exactly. In most instances the difference is insignificant, however there may
be certain circumstances where it cannot be overlooked.

The slab desynn is shown in figure 3.

Slab Desynn
Figure 3
The solution is to use a modified Desynn transmitter called a 'slab Desynn'. In a slab
Desynn, the resistor is wound on a slab former and has the power supply connected to
it, whilst the wiper arms now provide the output to the receiver, there being 3 wiper arms
each displaced from the next by 120. The output from this device is a sinewave. It
can be connected to the same type of indicator and operates in the same way as the
basic Desynn.

SYNCHRO SYSTEMS

Synchro's, as Desynn's, are electromagnetic devices used to transmit positional data

electrically from one position to another. They have an advantage over Desynn's in that
they can also be used to compute the sum of two rotations or the difference in angle
between them.

Servo systems, which will be examined in the next section, employ synchros in
conjunction with an amplifier and a controlling motor to provide to provide an automatic
control mechanism. They are used in applications requiring output torque's greater than
those which can be produced by a synchro.

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SYNCHRO TYPES

Synchro types may be classified as follows:

1. Torque transmitter.

2. Torque receiver.

3. Control transmitter.

4. Control transformer.

5. Torque differential receiver.

6. Torque differential transmitter.

7. Control differential transmitter

8. Resolver.

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Torque Synchro

Torque synchros operate on the motor principle. A primary winding is wound onto a
rotor and is rotated with respect to a fixed stator winding. The size and phase of the
output voltage is dependent on the direction and angular displacement between the
primary and secondary windings.

The torque synchro comprises two electrically similar units: the transmitter (TX) and the
receiver (TR) which are interconnected by transmission lines.

The TX and TR have very similar construction. Each has a rotor carrying a single
winding concentrically mounted in a stator of three windings, the axes of which are 120°
apart. It should be noted that the TX and TR torque synchros are not identical. The
difference is that the TR synchro has an oscillation damper added, so that when its rotor
rotates to a given position, it does not oscillate as it comes to rest.

The rotors of both TX and TR synchros are energized from the ac supply and produce
an alternating flux which links with their corresponding stators S 1, S2 and S3. This
process is the normal transformer action, with the rotors corresponding to the
transformer primary winding and the stators to the secondary windings.

Consider the case when the two rotors are not aligned. The three voltages induced in
each of the two sets of stator windings are different. Currents therefore flow between
the two stators and a torque is produced in each synchro which is directed in such a
way that the two rotors must align themselves. Normally, the TX rotor position is
controlled by the input shaft, while the TR rotor is free to turn, so it is the one which
aligns itself with the TX rotor. In this way, any movement of the TX rotor due to
movement of the input shaft is repeated synchronously by movement of the receiver
rotor.

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Torque synchros are used for the transmission of angular position information and flight
instrument systems is a typical application. Figure 4 shows a Torque Synchro and
circuit symbol.

Torque Synchro
Figure 4

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Figure 5 shows the construction of a torque synchro.

Torque Synchro Construction

Figure 5

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Control Synchro

The basic control synchro system has two units; a synchro control transmitter (CX) and
a synchro control transformer (CT) connected as shown in Figure 6.

Control Synchro
Figure 6
Principle of Operation

The CX synchro is similar to that used in the torque synchro system. The control
transformer, operating on the transformer principle, has a stator, which in design and
appearance resemble the synchro units already discussed but with high impedance
coils to limit the alternating currents through the coils. Further differences in the CT are
that the rotor winding has its coils wound so that no torque is produced between it and
the stator magnetic fields and the rotor is not energized by the supply voltage applied
to the rotor of the control synchro.

The CT rotor acts as an inductive winding for determining the phase and magnitude of
error signal voltages. The signals, after amplification, are fed to a two-phase motor,
which is mechanically coupled to the CT rotor. A control synchro system is at electrical
zero when the rotor of the CT is at 90° with respect to the CX rotor. This is the situation
as shown in Figure 6.

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If the input shaft is rotated and the CX rotor is disturbed, voltages are induced in the CX
stator and currents flow down the transmission lines to the stator windings S 1, S2 and
S3 of the CT. A magnetic flux is produced, depending on the amount of displacement
of the CX rotor and the orientation of its displacement. This flux links with the rotor of
CT, inducing a voltage into it, again depending on the amount, or rate of displacement,
and its orientation.

The voltage, or error voltage, representing the electrical difference between the rotors
of CX and CT, is then amplified and passed to the control phase of a two-phase motor.
The ac reference phase supply is fixed. The motor now rotates.

Its direction depends on the phase of the error signal, as can be seen from Figure 7.

Phase Error Signal

Figure 7

As it rotates, the motor drives the rotor of CT in such a direction as to reduce the error
voltage to zero and the new position is reached. By using the error signal amplified by
a servo amplifier, a servomotor can be driven to move a control surface.

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Differential Synchro

There are two types of differential synchro system:

1. Torque.

2. Control.

In each, a special type of synchro is inserted between the synchros of the basic torque
or control systems. It is called a ‘differential synchro’ and differs from the basic synchros
in that it has a three-phase stator and rotor. In a torque differential system it is
abbreviated to TDX and in a control differential system, CDX. The inclusion of this
synchro between a torque transmitter and receiver or control transmitter and
transformer permits an additional input to be algebraically added to, or subtracted from,
the system. The layout of a differential synchro and its circuit symbol are shown at
Figure 8-4.

Differential Synchro
Figure 8

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Figure 9 shows the construction of a differential synchro

Differential Synchro Construction

Figure 9

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Torque Differential Synchro

Figure 10 shows a differential synchro system set up for the subtraction of two inputs.

Torque Differential Synchro

Figure 10
Note that the rotors of the normal transmitter TX and receiver TR are supplied in parallel
with the single-phase ac supply. The stator windings of the TX are connected to the
stator windings of the TDX and its three rotor windings are connected to the three-stator
windings of the TR. The rotor of the TDX is not energized by the ac supply.

The circuit is such that one input shaft turns the TX rotor and the second input shaft
drives the TDX rotor. The TDX receives an electrical signal corresponding to a
particular angular position of the TX rotor, which it modifies by an amount corresponding
to the angular position of its own rotor. This modified signal appears at the TDX output
and is transmitted to the receiver, where it produces an angular flux, which is the
difference of the rotor angles of the two transmitters TX and TDX.

If the TDX rotor is locked in one position, the TX/TR chain acts as a normal torque
synchro system with a transformer placed between TX and TR.

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Control Differential Synchro

Figure 11 illustrates a control differential synchro system.

Control Differential Synchro

Figure 11
As with the straight control synchro system, the ac supply is only applied to the
transmitter rotor. The transformer rotor produces an error signal, which after
amplification is applied to a motor, causing the CT rotor to move. Apart from these
differences the action of the control differential transmitter is the same as for the torque
differential synchro system.

Torque differential synchros have been used to combine a direction finding loop reading
and a compass reading, in navigation systems, to give a true bearing.

Control differential synchros, combined with servomotors, are used for moving much
heavier loads such as radar scanners where the subtraction or addition of two inputs
may be necessary.

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RESOLVER SYNCHRO

This type of synchro is used to convert voltages, which represent the CARTESIAN co-
ordinates of a point, into POLAR co-ordinates and vice versa.

Polar and Cartesian Co-ordinates

A vector, representing an alternating voltage, can be defined in terms of ‘r’ and the angle
it makes with the X-axis: angle (). These are the polar co-ordinates of the vector written
as r/. Figure 12 shows the vector diagram for Polar and Cartesian co-ordinates.

Polar & Cartesian Co-ordinates

Figure 12

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Resolver Synchro Operation

The resolver synchro consists of a stator and rotor, each having two windings arranged
in phase quadrature as shown in Figure 13.

Resolver Synchro
Figure 13
Figure 13b represents the resolver differently for ease of explanation. The resolver has
two coils, R1 R2 and R3 R4 at right angles to each other and attached to an input shaft.
The stator consists of two coils S1 S2 and S3 S4, also placed at right angles to each
other.

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Conversion from Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates

For this purpose, one of the resolver coils is short-circuited, say R3 R4, and the other,
R1 R2, has an alternating voltage applied to it. The magnitude of this voltage (r) and the
angle () through which both rotor coils are turned, represent the polar co-ordinates r/.
Figure 14 shows a resolver synchro to carry out this function.

Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates

Figure 14
Consider firstly that the rotor shaft position is such that the R1 R2 coil magnetic field links
completely with the stator winding S1 S2, i.e. the coils are aligned. The maximum
voltage will therefore be induced in coil S1 S2. Since the stator coil S3 S4 is at right angle
to stator coil S1 S2, there will be no voltage developed across it due to R 1 R2 coil's
magnetic field. When the shaft is rotated at constant speed through 90°, the rotor coil
R1 R2 is now in phase quadrature to stator S1 S2, which has zero volts induced in it.
However, R1 R2 rotor coil is now aligned with stator coil S3 S4 and this now has maximum
voltage induced in it. As the shaft continues to rotate, a cosine voltage wave is
developed across S1 S2 stator and a sine voltage wave across S3 S4 stator coil.

‘r cos’ and ‘r sin’ summed together result from the input voltage at R 1 R2 and rotor
rotation r/. The result represents the cartesian co-ordinates.

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Conversion from Cartesian to Polar Co-ordinates

In this arrangement, there are two voltage inputs and these represent the cartesian co-
ordinates. They are VX = r cos and VY = r sin  (Refer Figure 17). VX is input to S1 S2;
VY is input to S3 S4. The two together develop an alternating magnetic flux representing
the cartesian co-ordinates in the stator. R1 R2 is connected to an amplifier, which drives
the output load and the rotor in such a direction as to null the rotor and stop the motor.
R3 R4 has a voltage induced in it dependent on the value of the alternating flux. Its value
may be calculated using Pythagoras' Theorum VY² + VX² . Figure 15 shows the layout
for performing the above.

Cartesian to Polar Co-ordinates

Figure 15

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SYNCHRO SYSTEM FAULTS

A loss of supply to the TR rotor will result in Low Torque operation with possible 180
error.

A loss of supply to the TX rotor will result in no operation of the synchro.

An open circuit on one stator line will result in the receiver oscillating between 2 points
approximately 75 apart.

A short circuit between 2 stator lines will result in the receiver being displaced by 0,
60, 120, 180, 240 or 300 and movement in 180 steps.

The table 1 below shows the results or effects of a number of cross connections.

Cross Connections Fault Symptoms

Receiver indicates 120 and rotates
S1 and S2 Reversed.
in opposite direction to transmitter.
Receiver indicates 240 and rotates
S2 and S3 Reversed.
in opposite direction to transmitter.
Receiver indicates correctly but
S1 and S3 Reversed rotates in opposite direction to
transmitter.
Receiver indicated 180 error but
R1 and R2 Reversed rotates in same direction as the
transmitter.
R1 and R2 Reversed and
S1 and S2 Reversed Receiver indicates 60 error and
or rotates in opposite direction to
R1 and R2 Reversed and transmitter.
S2 and S3 Reversed

R1 and R2 Reversed and Receiver indicates 180 error and

rotates in opposite direction to
S1 and S3 Reversed transmitter.
Table 1

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SERVOMECHANISMS

Servomechanisms are a type of automatic control system. The action of the output in
slavishly following the demands of the input gives the system its name. (Servus is the
Latin name for slave).

Human operators are incapable of providing the degree of precision necessary to

operate complex machines requiring fast and accurate control. They are also limited in
the amount of power they can apply to a load. Servomechanisms provide the precise
control and power that humans are unable to provide.

Servomechanisms, or Servo’s possess the following properties:

1. They are error activated.

2. They have power amplification.

3. They contain moving parts.

4. They are automatic in operation.

CATEGORIES OF SERVO SYSTEMS

Servomechanisms can be classified according to two main categories:

1. Open loop systems.

2. Closed loop systems.

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Open Loop System

In this system, an input is applied and an output obtained. Figure 16 shows an example;
assume an aircraft rudder controlled by an open loop system.

Open Loop System

Figure 16
The demand, made by the pilot on the rudder bar, is picked up by the transducer which
converts it to an electrical signal; i.e. the demand signal. This signal is amplified and
fed to the motor, which responds by moving the load; i.e. the rudder. There is no
positional feedback and the pilot does not know if the rudder has adopted the position
requested.

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Closed Loop System

In the closed loop system, the demand is made in the same way. In a basic system,
positional feedback would be given to the pilot who would make adjustments
accordingly but this is not practical with systems such as aircraft flying controls. Figure
17 shows a closed loop automatic system.

Closed Loop System

Figure 17
An output position transducer has been added to the servomotor and this feeds back
any difference between input demand and output to an error detector. The error
detector outputs an error signal to the amplifier to make any positional corrections
necessary at the servo motor and thus the load (or rudder) is positioned as demanded.

If for example the pilot wanted to move the rudder 5°, a demand is made at the rudder
bar and this is converted to a voltage at the transducer, say +5 volts. The error detector
immediately gives an output signal corresponding to +5 volts input and this is amplified
to drive the motor, moving the rudder. The output position transducer converts the
output position to an electrical signal, which corresponds to the new position of the
rudder. As this happens, this signal, (feedback), is fed back to the error detector until
the demanded position is achieved and the input is negated. Now, there is no error
signal and no output. The feedback has reached 0 volts.

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Follow Up

If in our example the rudder were to be displaced from its demanded position, or from
the optimum speed at which the demanded position may be achieved, an error signal
occurs. In the way described, there is a feedback signal and the system returns to its
demanded position or speed. This process is called 'follow up'.

TYPES OF SERVO

There are two main classes of servomechanism - remote position control (RPC) servos
and velocity control servos (velodynes).

1. RPC servos. These are used to control the angular, or linear position of a load. A
typical example of the use of a RPC servo is the control of the direction in which a
radar scanner is pointing.

2. Velodynes. These are used to control the speed of a load. In this case, the speed
of the driving motor is made proportional to the input demand (usually a voltage). A
typical example of the use of a velodyne is the control of a radar scanner, which is
required to rotate with a constant angular velocity. It may be necessary to change
the velocity of rotation from time to time and the velodyne must be capable of doing
this and maintaining the new velocity set by the input demand.

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FEEDBACK

Positional Feedback

Positional feedback is obtained from transducers positioned at the output. The feedback
element, or transducer, converts the output shaft angle into a signal suitable for
operating the error detector. In this case a voltage signal. The simplest form of element
is a R-pot, or a helical potentiometer similar to that used as a control element. In
practice, helical potentiometers are used since they give 360° coverage, which a R-pot
cannot provide. Figure 18 shows positional feedback in a dc system.

Positional Feedback
Figure 18

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Figure 19 shows a R-Pot & Helical Potentiometer.

R-Pot & Helical Potentiometer

Figure 19
In ac systems, other components are used to provide positional feedback. Synchros
are employed in some servomechanisms. These will be discussed later.

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ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (RVDT)

The RVDT is an inductance transmitter having a primary stator coil, an iron rotor coil
and two secondary stator coils. Figure 20 shows the operation of a RVDT.

RVDT Operation
Figure 20
The mechanical input changes the position of the iron core. The position of the core
changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary stator coils.
When the input rotates, one of the secondary coils receives more magnetic flux and this
induces a higher voltage in that coil. The other secondary coil receives less magnetic
flux, so a lower voltage is induced. The difference between voltages induced in the
secondary stator coils is proportional to the rotated angle. This is an AC Ratio Signal.

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Figure 21 (1): The position of the iron core is zero. The magnetic field induced
by primary coil L3 is equally divided between L1 and L2. Therefore the voltage R-T is
zero.

Figure 21 (2): The iron core is turned clockwise. Now there is more coupling between
L3 and L2, and less coupling between L3 and L1. The voltage between
T and S increases and the voltage between R and S decreases.

Figure 21 (3): The iron core turned counter-clockwise. Now there is more coupling
between L3 and L1, and less coupling between L3 and L2. The voltage
between T and S decreases, while the voltage between R and S
increases.

The difference between figure 20.2 and 20.3 is that the output-voltage between R and
T is of opposite phase. The output measured between R and T is an AC RATIO signal.

Figure 21 shows an alternate construction of an RVDT.

RVDT
Figure 21

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THE LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (LVDT)

Linear variable differential transforms (LVDT's) are used to produce an electrical signal
proportional to a linear movement. LVDT's consists of a moveable iron core that is
mounted inside three windings wound on a coil former. The centre winding is the
excitation winding and is connected to an a.c. reference voltage. The two outer
windings are connected in series opposition and provide the output. Figure 22 shows
an LVDT.

Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)

Figure 22
With the core centralised and a.c. applied to the excitation coil, an emf is induced in
each of the output windings. The emf's induced in each winding are the same size, but
phase displaced by 180º, and therefore cancel out, producing no output.

When the iron core is moved, the emf induced in one output winding increases, and in
the other it decreases. The two voltages no longer cancel, and an output is produced.
If the core is moved the same amount in the opposite direction, an emf of the same size,
but of opposite phase will be produced.

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TYPES OF INPUT

There are three possible types of inputs to a servo, these are:

1. Step Input

2. Ramp Input

3. Accelerating Input

Step Input

This type of input can be achieved by switching off the servo power, moving the input
shaft and then re-applying power. The response of a servo system to this type of input
reveals a great deal of information about the servo system. It is therefore used as a
test signal.

Ramp Input

This type of input is created when the input shaft is suddenly rotated at a constant
angular velocity. The units would be radians / second. The diagram shows an example
of a ramp Input. Servo systems are subjected to this type of input during normal
operation.

Accelerating Input

An accelerating function is created when the input shaft is rotated with a constant
acceleration. The units would be radians / second 2. The diagram shows an example
of an accelerating input. Systems are subject to this type of input during normal
operation.

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Figure 23 shows the types of inputs.

Types of input
Figure 23

SYSTEM RESPONSE

How well a servomechanism responds to a particular change in input signal, in terms of

transient response and overshoot, is a measure of its overall performance. Any
servomechanism will take a finite time to start to move and also to settle down at a new
position. 'Settling Time' is defined as the time taken to approach a final steady state
within specific limits.

Unless special precautions are taken a servomechanism will oscillate. In figure 24,
above, when the output response reaches the required value at point 'x', the load has
acquired considerable momentum and consequently overshoots. The error now
increases in the opposite sense and a reverse-torque is applied which brings the load
to rest at point 'y', and then accelerates it back in the opposite direction where it again
overshoots the desired position, at point Z. This process can continue indefinitely if the
frictional losses in the system are negligible, and system would oscillate continuously.
This is called 'hunting'. To avoid oscillation and subsequent hunting, some form of
damping is required.

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Figure 24 shows the response of a RPC system to a step input.

RPC Response to Step Input

Figure 24

DAMPING

Different amounts of damping produces different response curves.

1. Underdamped - When overshoots and transient oscillations are observed at the output of
a system the servomechanism is said to be underdamped.

2. Critically damped - When the system responds to an error in such a way that the output
moves to the required position at the fastest possible rate without producing overshoots it
is said to be critically damped. This is a theoretical position and provides the division
between underdamping and over damping.

3. Over damped - When no overshoots are produced, but a time lag is introduced into the
system, the servomechanism is said to be over damped.

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In practice, servo systems are designed to be slightly underdamped in order to reduce
response delays. This is shown by the dotted line in the diagram. This degree of
damping is often called 'ideal damping'.

Under ideally damped conditions, the system reaches the required position more quickly
than when critically damped, but it over swings the demanded position and has to move
back onto it. This means the system takes slightly longer to reach the steady state.
Figure 25 shows a diagram with the different types of damping applied to a step input.

Step Input Damping

Figure 25
There are frictional forces inherent in a servo system, which provide damping. These
are coulomb friction and viscous friction. Another friction present when the servo is at
rest is stiction.

STICTION

Stiction is present in the system when it is at rest. This initial friction must be overcome
in order for the system to move. Once moving, stiction falls to zero. The name stiction
comes from Static Friction.

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Coulomb Friction

Coulomb Friction is a constant force independent of speed and is demonstrated by the

rubbing friction between two plates. The diagram below shows a system both undamped
and damped with Coulomb friction. The number of overshoots in the system using
Coulomb friction is proportional to the size of the initial error, the larger the error the
greater the number of overshoots.

It will be noted that the response curve of the system using Coulomb friction brings the
system to a steady state but that a positional error is present. For this reason coulomb
friction is not used in practical systems, and although always present in the form of
inherent friction, good system design keeps it to a minimum. Figure 26 shows Coulomb
Friction damping.

Coulomb Friction Damping

Figure 26

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Viscous Friction

Viscous Friction is proportional to velocity and provides satisfactory damping for servo
systems. When the velocity of the system is zero, viscous friction is zero, and therefore
it will not cause a position error. If the system moves more rapidly, the viscous friction
will increase, as necessary to provide the additional damping required.

The response of a system to a ramp input is shown below. The oscillations of the
system are damped out, but a constant error is produced. This error is called 'Velocity
Lag'. The amount of Velocity Lag is proportional to the amount of viscous damping.
Figure 27 shows Viscous Friction damping.

Viscous Friction Damping

Figure 27

EFFICIENCY OF OUTPUT DAMPING

Both Coulomb and Viscous damping have the great disadvantage of being applied to
the output of systems. This requires large amounts of energy to control high power
outputs. This inevitably generates heat, which entails the provision of complex cooling
systems. It is more efficient to apply damping to the input of the system, where power
levels are much lower.

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Velocity Feedback Damping

A simple and commonly used method of providing damping at the input is to use
Negative Velocity Feedback (NVFB).

A system using NVFB damping is shown in figure 28. The feedback is applied to the
input and therefore must be electrical. Velocity feedback provides damping similar to
viscous friction, but because it is applied to the input, little power is required.

Velocity Feedback System

Figure 28
In servomechanisms, velocity feedback is achieved by using a tacho-generator (TG)
driven by the output shaft of the system as shown above. A Tacho-generator is a small
electrical generator, which is either A.C or D.C. operated. The great advantage of this
type of feedback is that amount of voltage fed back to the system, and therefore the
amount of damping, can be controlled by using a simple potentiometer.

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Velocity Feedback Curves

The diagram below shows the result of applying Velocity feedback in the circuit shown
in above. As RPC servos are concerned with the position of the load, the velocity lag
will only be present when the load is moving and will therefore only cause a slight
increase in the response time. Figure 29 shows velocity feedback curves.

Velocity Feedback Curves

Figure 29

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Velocity Control Servomechanisms

In some applications it is the rotational speed of a shaft and not its position that must
be controlled. A Rate Servo is shown in the diagram on the following page. The input
demand signal is used to control the angular velocity of the output shaft and not its
position. To make the speed of the driving motor exactly proportional to the input
demand a servomechanism is essential. If a servomechanism were not used the speed
of the output motor would vary with changes in the supply voltage or any changes of
the friction in the motor or its load.

Note that there is no position feedback.

Movement of the speed control potentiometer produces a voltage proportional to the

demanded speed. The tacho-generator provides a voltage proportional to the angular
velocity of the output shaft. If there is a difference between these two signals an error
voltage will be fed to the amplifier. The output of the amplifier will accelerate or
decelerate the motor until the output of the tacho-generator produces a voltage exactly
equal to the input demand voltage and the motor will run at the demanded speed. Figure
30 shows a Velocity Control Servomechanism.

Velocity Control Servomechanism

Figure 30

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Residual Error

Because of inherent frictional and damping losses, some torque is always required to
turn the motor and load at a constant speed and therefore a difference between the
input demand and the actual speed will always be present. By using high gain in the
amplifier this difference can be kept very low.

Velocity Lag

A Rate Servo using velocity feedback is just as prone to velocity lag as a RPC Servo,
but as it is only the speed and not the actual position of the output that is measured, it
may be ignored.

TACHOGENERATORS

Tachogenerators provide the velocity feedback for servo systems. A tachogenerator

normally utilises the drag cup principle and will always produce a voltage with the same
frequency as the supply voltage.

The diagram below shows the electrical components of the tachogenerator. With the
drag cup stationary no voltage is induced in the secondary winding as it is placed at
right angles to the primary winding and the output is zero. Figure 31 shows a
tachogenerator with its rotor stationary.

Tachogenerator with its Rotor Stationary

Figure 31

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As the output shaft drives the rotor, the current in the input coil produces a field that
induces a current in that part of the cup passing through the primary axis. As the cup
rotates, rotating eddy currents are induced and this will in turn induce a voltage across
the output winding. The amplitude of the voltage will be proportional to the speed of
rotation of the drag cup and the phase will be dependent on the direction of rotation.
Figure 32 shows a Tachogenerator with its Rotor rotating.

Tachogenerator with its Rotor Rotating

Figure 32
Ideally, the output of the tachogenerator would be zero when stationary but in practical
systems a small voltage is present.

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A.C. SERVOMECHANISM COMPONENTS

The components associated with dc servo systems are simple in operation and require
no further explanation, however, some of the components in ac servo systems require
additional consideration.

E & I Bar Transducer

The E & I bar transducer is so called because of the shape of its component parts. The
diagram below shows the construction and operation of an angular displacement E & I
bar transducer. A winding on the centre limb of the E bar carries an A.C. excitation
supply. Secondary coils are connected in series opposition. With the I bar in the centre
position equal flux will flow in the outer limbs of the E bar, the voltages induced in the
two secondary coils will be equal and opposite and will therefore cancel out and there
will be no output signal. If the I bar is displaced from the central position, more flux will
flow in the limb of the E bar with the smaller air gap and less flux will flow in the limb
with the larger air gap. The induced voltages in the two windings will no longer cancel
out and an output voltage will be produced. Figure 33 shows the operation of an E & I
bar transducer.

E & I Transducer
Figure 33

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The phase of the output voltage is determined by the direction of movement of the I bar.
The magnitude is determined by how far the bar moves. In a servo system the amount
of movement will be kept small due to the follow-up action.

The E & I Bar may also be used to convert linear movement to an electrical signal. A
practical application of this is shown in figure 34. The I bar is moved linearly by an
evacuated capsule. Note that the diagram contains a complete servo system.

Linear E & I Bar Transmitter

Figure 34
Inductive Type Transducers

Inductive type transducers use the principles associated with inductance that were
discussed earlier in the course. Inductance is generally used in one of two ways in
aircraft transducers. Firstly a changing magnetic field is used as the transducer output
and secondly by using changes in flux density to control a.c. current flow.

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Induced EMF Type Transducer

Figure 35 shows an induced EMF transducer and its operation.

Induced EMF Transducer

Figure 35
This type of transducer comprises a coil and a permanent magnet and requires a steel
target for its operation. When the target is displaced from the transducer the field of the
permanent magnet surrounds the coil, but does not induce an emf in it because the
lines of flux are not moving relative to the conductor.

When the steel target is placed in close proximity to the transducer the magnetic flux
density increases due to the reduction in reluctance, again, although the flux density
increased, no emf is induced because there is no relative movement between the
conductor and coil.

If the target is moved continually back and forward past the transducer, the flux density
continually increases and decreases. This changing flux induces an emf in the
transducer. The frequency of the induced emf depends on the speed of movement; the
faster the target is moved, the higher the frequency.

This form of transducer is used to measure rotational speed of items such as engine
shafts.

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AC Current Control

When a.c. current flows in an inductor, the continually changing flux produces a
continually changing back emf that opposes the current flow. This opposition to current
flow is called inductive reactance, and is dependent on the value of inductance of the
coil.

The inductance of the coil can be changed by changing the coil material, or by placing
a piece of steel adjacent to it. Placing a piece of steel near the coil increases its
inductance, which in turn increases the inductive reactance of the coil. Increasing the
inductive reactance reduces the a.c. current flow in the coil, which can be detected and
used to provide a signal to indicate when the steel is in close proximity to the coil or
sensor.

This form of transducer is used in proximity sensing systems such as those used to
sense the position of the undercarriage.

Capacitive Type Transducers

Capacitive type transducers in servos are used to measure displacement, position, or

other physical quantities by converting them into a change in capacitance. These
transducers are highly sensitive and can detect minute changes in the physical
parameter they are measuring, making them ideal for precise control in servo systems.

How Capacitive Transducers Work

Capacitive transducers operate based on the principle of capacitance, which is the

ability of a system to store an electric charge. The basic components of a capacitive
transducer include:

1. Two Conductive Plates: These act as the electrodes of the capacitor.

2. Dielectric Material: This is the insulating material between the plates, which can
be air, vacuum, or any other non-conductive material.

The capacitance CCC of a capacitor is given by the formula: C=εAdC = \frac{\varepsilon

A}{d}C=dεA where:

 ε\varepsilonε is the permittivity of the dielectric material,

 AAA is the area of the conductive plates,
 ddd is the distance between the plates.

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APPLICATION IN SERVOS

In servo systems, capacitive transducers are typically used for position sensing. Here's
how they are integrated and function within a servo system:

1. Position Sensing: The position of the servo motor is often measured by a

capacitive sensor. As the motor shaft rotates, the distance between the
conductive plates or the area of overlap changes, leading to a change in
capacitance.
2. Feedback Loop: The change in capacitance is converted into an electrical
signal, which is then fed back to the servo controller. This feedback is used to
determine the actual position of the motor.
3. Control Action: Based on the difference between the desired position (setpoint)
and the actual position, the servo controller adjusts the motor's input to correct
any deviation, ensuring precise positioning.

ADVANTAGES OF CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS

 High Sensitivity: Capable of detecting very small changes in position.

 Non-Contact Measurement: Minimizes wear and tear, increasing the lifespan
of the sensor.
 Wide Range of Measurement: Suitable for both small and large displacement
measurements.
 High Accuracy and Resolution: Provides precise control necessary for fine
movements.

Implementation Example

Consider a servo motor used in a robotic arm. The capacitive transducer is mounted in
such a way that as the arm moves, the overlapping area of the conductive plates
changes. This change in capacitance is continuously monitored and converted to a
position signal. The servo controller receives this signal and compares it with the desired
position. If there is any discrepancy, the controller adjusts the motor's operation to bring
the arm to the correct position.

Conclusion

Capacitive type transducers play a critical role in enhancing the accuracy and
performance of servo systems. Their ability to provide precise, high-resolution position
feedback makes them invaluable in applications requiring fine control and precise
movements, such as robotics, manufacturing automation, and precision
instrumentation.

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PRACTICAL SERVO SYSTEMS

The following are examples of typical servo systems, many more systems will be
encountered and examined during the course.

Direct Current Servo System

Figure 36 shows a DC Servo system.

DC Servo System
Figure 36
The potentials at the 2 potentiometer wipers are proportional to the input and output
shaft positions I and o. Any difference in the relative positions results in a difference
of potential between the wipers which is the error signal applied to the amplifier. The
polarity of the voltage indicated the direction of the error. The signal is amplified and
produces a flux in the split field motor.

The motor armature carries current continuously, thus the presence of the field
produces a motor torque which drives the load in a direction corresponding to the
polarity of the error signal, towards alignment. When alignment is reached the error
signal falls to zero, the motor field disappears and the motor stops.

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Alternating Current Servo System

Figure 38 shows an AC Servo system.

AC Servo System
Figure 38
The input shaft fixes the position of the control transmitter (CX) rotor and hence the
position of the stator field of the control transformer. The output shaft fixes the position
of the rotor of the control transformer (CT). When the rotor of the CT is at 90 to the
rotor of the CX, no emf's are induced in the rotor of the CT and the system is stationary
(nulled).

With a misalignment in the system an emf is induced in the rotor of the control
transformer, this is the error signal. The error signal is amplified and passed to the
motor, which with both phases excited drives the load in one direction or other according
to the phase of the rotor emf. When alignment is reached there is no output from the
CT, no input to the amplifier and the motor stops.

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PID CONTROLLERS

Introduction:

The PID controller is the most common form of feedback. In process control today, more
than 95% of the control loops are of PID type, most loops are PI control. PID controllers
are today found in all areas where control is used. The controllers come in many
different forms. There are stand-alone systems in boxes for one or a few loops, which
are manufactured by the hundred thousand yearly. PID control is an important
ingredient of a distributed control system. The controllers are also embedded in many
special-purpose control systems. PID control is often combined with logic, sequential
functions, selectors, and simple function blocks to build the complicated automation
systems used for energy production, transportation, and manufacturing. PID control is
used at the lowest level; the multivariable controller gives the set points to the controllers
at the lower level. The PID controller can thus be said to be the “bread and butter” of
control engineering. It is an important’ component in every control engineer’s toolbox.
PID controllers have survived many changes in technology, from mechanics and
pneumatics to microprocessors via electronic tubes, transistors, integrated circuits. The
microprocessor has had a dramatic influence on the PID controller. Practically all PID
controllers made today are based on microprocessors. This has given opportunities to
provide additional features like automatic tuning, gain scheduling, and continuous
adaptation.

We can realize a PID controller by two methods:

First, an analogue PID controller

Second, a digital PID controller

1. Circuit diagram in Figure.39 shows an analog PID controller. In this Figure, we

present an analogue PID controller with three simple op amp amplifier, integrator, and
differentiator circuits.

Electronic circuit implementation of an analog PID controller

Figure 39

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Finally, we need to add the three PID terms together. Again, the summing amplifier OP4
serves us well. Because the error amp, PID and summing circuits are inverting types,
we need to add a final op amp inverter OP5 to make the final output positive.

2. Today, digital controllers are being used in many large and small-scale control
systems, replacing the analog controllers. It is now a common practice to implement
PID controllers in their digital version, which means that they operate in discrete time
domain and deal with analog signals quantized in a limited number of levels. Moreover,
with such a controller we do not need much space and they are not expensive. A digital
version of the PID controller is shown in Figure 40.

Digital PID Controller

Figure. 40.

In its digital version, the integral becomes a sum and the deferential a difference. The
continuous time signal e(t) is sampled in fixed time intervals equals a determined
sample period, here called Tc (in Figure 2, Tc = 1). An A/D (analog to digital) converter
interfaces the input, and a D/A (digital to analog) converter interfaces the output. This
sampled and digitalized input, called e D[j], exists only in time instants, t =kTC for all 0
k  Z. A lower bound for the sample period is the computing time of a whole cycle of
the digital PID (which includes the A/D and D/A conversion). While PID controllers are
applicable to many control problems, and often perform satisfactorily without any
improvements or even tuning, they can perform poorly in some applications, and do not
in general provide optimal control.

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PID Controller Theory

A typical structure of a PID control system is shown in Figure 41. Figure 42

shows the structure of a PID control system. The error signal e(t) is used to generate
the proportional, integral, and derivative actions, with the resulting signals weighted and
summed to form the control signal u(t) applied to the plant model. where u(t) is the input
signal to the multivariable processes, the error signal e(t) is defined as e(t) =r(t) − y(t),
and r(t) is the reference input signal. A standard PID controller structure is also known
as the ‘‘three-term” controller.

A PID control system

Figure 41

Structure of a PID control system

Figure 42

Proportional Response, P:

The role of a proportional depends on the present error, I on the accumulation of

past error and D on prediction of future error. The weighted sum of these three actions
is used to adjust Proportional control is a simple and widely used method of control for
many kinds of systems. In a proportional controller, steady state error tends to depend
inversely upon the proportional gain (ie: if the gain is made larger the error goes down).
The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp,
called the proportional gain. If the proportional gain is too large, the process variable
will begin to oscillate. If Kc is increased further, the oscillations will become larger, and
the system will become unstable and may even oscillate out of control. The proportional
term is given by:

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Integral Response,.I:

The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a small
error term will cause the integral component to increase slowly. The integral response
will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the effect is to drive the
Steady-State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between the
process variable and set point. A phenomenon called integral windup results when
integral action saturates a controller without the controller driving the error signal toward
zero. The integral in in a PID controller is the sum of the instantaneous error over time
and gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously.
Consequently, an integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state
error, but it may make the transient response worse. The integral term is given by:

Derivative Response, D:

The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable
is increasing rapidly. The derivative response is proportional to the rate of change of the
process variable. Increasing the derivative time (Td) parameter will cause the control
system to react more strongly to changes in the error term and will increase the speed
of the overall control system response. Most practical control systems use very small
derivative time (Td), because the Derivative Response is highly sensitive to noise in the
process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy or if the control loop rate
is too slow, the derivative response can make the control system unstable.

The derivative of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the
error over time and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The
derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output. A derivative control
(Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the overshoot,
and improving the transient response. The derivative term is given by:

Control system performance is often measured by applying a step function as

the set point command variable, and then measuring the response of the process
variable, shown in Figure 43. Commonly, the response is quantified by measuring
defined waveform characteristics. Rise Time is the amount of time the system takes to
go from 10% to 90% of the steady-state, or final, value. Percent Overshoot is the amount
that the process variable overshoots the final value, expressed as a percentage of the
final value. Settling time is the time required for the process variable to settle to within
a certain percentage (commonly 5%) of the final value. Steady-State Error is the final
difference between the process variable and set point.

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Response of a typical PID closed loop system.

Figure 43
The popularity of PID controllers can be attributed partly to their good performance over
a wide range of operating conditions and partly to their functional simplicity that allows
engineers to operate them in a simple, straightforward manner. Effects of each of
controllers Kp, Kd, and Ki on a closed-loop system are summarized in the Table 1:

Tuning:

The process of setting the optimal gains for P, I and D to get an ideal response
from a control system is called tuning. The process of determining the gains is often
called PID tuning. There are many methods available to determine acceptable values
of the PID gains. A common approach to tuning is to use manual PID tuning methods,
whereby the PID control gains are obtained by trial-and-error with minimal analytic
analysis using step responses obtained via simulation, or in some cases, actual testing
on the system and deciding on the gains based on observations and experience. A more
analytic method is known as the Ziegler–Nichols tuning method. The Ziegler– Nichols
tuning method has several variations: Ziegler–Nichols tuning method based on open-
loop responses to a step input and a related Ziegler–Nichols tuning method based on
closed-loop response to a step input.

Conclusions

Many industrial processes are nonlinear and thus complicated to describe

mathematically. However, it is known that a good many nonlinear processes can
satisfactorily be controlled using PID controllers providing that controller parameters are
tuned well. PID controllers and their different types such as P, PI and PD controllers are
today basic building blocks in control of various processes. Despite their simplicity, they
can be used to solve even a very complex control problems, especially when combined
with different functional blocks, filters (compensators or correction blocks), selectors etc.

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