Chapter 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

In this chapter, the theoretical framework is developed to support the research. Relevant

theories are explored, related literature is reviewed, and related studies are examined. The

conceptual framework presents the researcher's own model. Finally, the definition of terms

clarifies key concepts.

Relevant Theories

This research draws upon three central theoretical frameworks: Gender Schema Theory,

Social Learning Theory, and Cognitive Developmental Theory. Collectively, these theories

supply an extensive framework for understanding the early development and reinforcement of

gender stereotypes in children. Gender Schema Theory explains how children classify and

internalize societal expectations concerning gender roles. Later on, the Social Learning Theory

elaborates how environmental factors such as parent support, peer influence, and media

influence mold gender-related behaviors and attitudes in the lives of the children. Lastly, the

Cognitive Developmental Theory stresses the various stages at which children undergo while

perceiving and developing their gender identity and associated roles.

Sandra Bem's Gender Schema Theory developed in 1981, postulates that children

develop cognitive structures or "schemas" that organize their understanding of socialized

gender roles. These schemas are derived from cultural and social cues, enabling the child to

categorize people, activities, and functions as either "male" or "female." As these schemas

develop, they eventually influence the children's actions, interests, and opinions, often

reinforcing gender stereotypes as part of self-socialization. This will limit their exploration of
certain things, since they have limited the ideas of toys and activities that relate to their

respective gender.

Gender Schema Theory would be highly relevant in the context of this study since it

would explain how Grade 1 students, aged 6 to 7 years old, internalize and then act on gender

stereotypes. The study focuses on how these stereotypes manifest in areas such as toys, roles,

and activities that are directly aligned with the premise of the theory. Understanding the

schemas would uncover how early perceptions of gender roles form and propose interventions

to challenge rigid stereotypes.

According to Albert Bandura's 1977 Social Learning Theory, children learn gender-

specific behavior and attitudes by observing and imitating the actions of those role models that

surround them. Influential agents of socialization, such as parents, educators, peers, and media

personalities, play crucial roles in shaping a child's perception of suitable gender roles. This is

done through reinforcement, for example, positive feedback or negative responses, which guide

children to fulfill societal expectations and reinforce existing stereotypes of gender.

This theory links to the present study by stressing environmental factors that create

gender stereotypes among Grade 1 pupils. This study will identify the impact of demographic

factors like family status, school environment, and education of parents on the perceptions of

gender. Social Learning Theory offers a view from which external influences such as those

mentioned can be assessed as perpetuators or breakers of gender norms for young minds.

Lastly, the Cognitive Developmental Theory by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1966, states

that children undergo sequential stages of cognitive development as they learn to understand

gender. Generally, at around 6 to 7 years of age, children develop the stage known as "gender

constancy," where they understand that gender is a fixed trait and act in accordance with it. All
this is further accompanied by higher rigidity of gendered thinking as children try to meet social

expectations.

This theoretical framework holds significant importance for the current investigation as

it pertains to the developmental phase of the intended participants. Students in Grade 1 are

engaged in a crucial period wherein they are solidifying their understanding of gender identity

and associated roles. The research examines how this cognitive maturation influences the initial

establishment of stereotypes related to toys, roles, careers, and various other domains. This

understanding helps the researchers suggest ways that will help foster more flexible and

equitable gender perspectives from an early age.

In summary, these theories – Gender Schema Theory, Social Learning Theory, and

Cognitive Developmental Theory all point towards a solid groundwork about understanding

the existence and extent of gender stereotypes in Grade 1 students. There is an interlink between

the theoretical approaches in terms of cognizing, social, and development-based aspects of

gender stereotyping; this makes them especially suitable for the research. Using these

theoretical frameworks, this research examines how gender stereotypes are formed and what

they are attributed to while concurrently shedding light on potential intervention strategies to

eliminate these biases.

Related Literature

Toys

The study on toys that appeal to both boys and girls. Their work describes this

phenomenon in a more striking way when boys' toys deal with action, construction and

competition and girls' toys with beauty, care and home (Blakemore & Centers,2005). This

division not only maintains all the old stereotypes, but also the preconditions of children's play

styles and their preferences, which address targets from the early years. Also focused on
parental toy encouragement and children's interests in their research (Dinella et al., 2017). This

is the case where when parents allow or praise the use of certain gender-specific toys, such

norms become patterns, and children's places in the shape of interests and behaviors remain.

Researchers have pointed out that parents should be aware of the fact that they hold power,

which if properly applied can reduce and eliminate the threat of gender bias and make children

more open to a variety of concerns. Meanwhile, (Martin & Ruble, 2010) have outlined these

statements and supported them with a study that examined whether toy images penetrate

children's gender schemas and remain there for the rest of their lives. Their study further argued

that children develop their gender concepts through direct interaction with gendered toys in the

early stages that determine what they prefer in the future.

A study by Dimaandal & Espineda (in Aina & Cameron, 2011) examines the role of

gender-neutral toy packaging in challenging traditional gender norms for Filipino children aged

3-6. Their research emphasizes the importance of packaging design, which can either reinforce

or defy gender stereotypes. Gender-neutral packaging, they argue, allows children the freedom

to explore interests without the constraints of traditional gender roles. This insight is crucial

for manufacturers and designers, as it advocates for inclusivity in toy design, encouraging

diversity and promoting gender equality among young consumers (Dimaandal & Espineda,

2023).

Similarly, the semiotic analysis of Lego marketing by Rodriguez and Go (2019)

highlights the ways in which toys like Lego perpetuate gendered expectations. Although Lego

has made attempts at gender-neutral branding, the study finds that certain design elements such

as color, space, and suggested play activities still reinforce traditional gender roles. The study

calls for the promotion of gender-neutral toys to minimize gender policing and encourage more

balanced socialization and play among children, which could also apply to the Philippine

context (Rodriguez & Go, 2019).

 Moreover, a study focused on educational toy packaging in the Philippines emphasizes

how gendered design elements in toys can shape children's identities. By analyzing toy

packaging from four local toy stores, the study shows how color choices, fonts, and other visual

elements influence whether a toy is seen as "for boys" or "for girls." The research advocates

for more inclusive toy designs that promote equality and dismantle long-standing gender

biases. These studies underscore the significance of toy packaging and design in shaping

children's perceptions of gender and highlight the need for gender-neutral toys that allow for

more inclusive and diverse play experiences.

Role

Gender role stereotypes are pervasive social constructs that shape the behaviors,

preferences, and roles of individuals based on their gender. Stereotypes are reinforced through

the effects of expectation, which influence how parents interact with their children. Parents

may not realize it, but they can push their children into certain activities, skills, and interests

that fit traditional gender roles. Such early exposure to stereotypes not only reinforces

traditional gender roles but also affects children’s self-perception and future career aspirations

(Eccles et al., 2000)

These stereotypes not only shape interests and behaviors, they also affect children’s

emotional and social development. The Government of Quebec (2024) points out that such

stereotypes can damage children’s self-esteem and limit the range of things they are interested

in. Children begin to internalize societal norms about gender from an early age, which affects

their developmental trajectory. This early influence can have long-term effects, limiting the

range of opportunities children consider in later life.

 The way children search for and interpret gender-related information is important for

their understanding of social roles. (Martin and Ruble,2004) suggest that children actively

search for gender cues to make sense of their environment. They then classify this information

into “masculine” and “feminine” categories, reinforcing stereotypes through what is known as

gender schema theory. Once children understand their gender, they filter new information to fit

these pre-existing categories, which shapes their preferences and social behaviors.

The early development of gender stereotypes is significant because it sets the stage for

future behaviors and attitudes. Eccles et al. (2000) emphasize that early childhood is a critical

period for socialization, during which children develop basic understandings of gender roles

by the time they reach school age. (Martin and Ruble,2004) add that as children grow older,

their conceptions of gender roles become more detailed and entrenched. These findings

highlight the importance of addressing gender stereotypes early in childhood to encourage

more equitable development.

Career

Gender stereotypical influences in mathematics have not only an impact on students'

mathematics performance but also on future career choices (Linran Kong, 2023). These

stereotypes often manifest in expectations regarding career paths, with certain professions

traditionally associated with one gender over the other. For example, nursing and teaching are

commonly perceived as female-dominated fields, while engineering and technology are seen

as male-dominated. These stereotypes not only influence societal perceptions but also impact

individuals' perceptions of themselves and their capabilities, leading to self-imposed

limitations on career aspirations (Tanisha Kwatra1, 2024). It reveals that both males and

females choose their career under stereotyping perception whereby male jobs are said to

include engineering, building, electrical work, carpentry, managerial jobs, security services,
welding, mining and driving. Female jobs included nursing, catering, designing, teaching,

secretarial and domestic (Nicolao, 2016).

Characteristics

Gender stereotypes surrounding the characteristics of boys and girls have been widely

studied, highlighting how societal expectations influence the development of gendered traits.

In the global context, Harvard Graduate School of Education (2020) emphasizes that traditional

gender stereotypes narrowly define what it means to be a boy or a girl, with boys expected to

be assertive, strong, and independent, while girls are socialized to be nurturing, cooperative,

and emotionally expressive. These rigid expectations limit children’s freedom to explore their

full potential (Harvard Graduate School of Education, 2020). Similarly, the RSA (2020) report

notes that educational environments often perpetuate these stereotypes, with boys encouraged

to be "strong" and girls expected to be "helpful". Such categorization can restrict children’s

development and reinforce gender inequality, influencing their academic and career aspirations

(RSA, 2020). These findings align with Psychology Today’s (2020) study, which suggests that

the persistence of gendered traits, such as the expectation that boys should be leaders and girls

should be caregivers, continues to shape children’s roles in both the domestic and professional

spheres (Psychology Today, 2020).

Locally, in the Philippines, Carlos Anonuevo's study (2000) highlights the societal

expectations that define masculinity and femininity, with men seen as leaders and decision-

makers, while women are expected to play roles that focus on caregiving and homemaking.

This dichotomy continues to influence the roles of men and women in the country, despite legal

advancements towards gender equality (Anonuevo, 2000). Furthermore, a study conducted on

nursing students in the Philippines reveals that nursing is still perceived as a feminine

profession, with caregiving and nurturing qualities linked to femininity, while leadership roles
within the field tend to be dominated by men, further reinforcing gender-defined expectations

(International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 2024). Similarly, a gender trait

inventory study in the University of the Philippines (2024) finds that traditional Filipino culture

associates masculinity with strength, leadership, and dominance, while femininity is linked to

being gentle and submissive, further solidifying these gendered stereotypes in society

(University of the Philippines, 2024).

These studies demonstrate that gender stereotypes about the characteristics of boys and

girls continue to shape both individual identities and societal roles, restricting opportunities

and reinforcing traditional expectations across cultures.

Colors

Gender stereotypes in toys and the color associations linked to them have raised

significant concerns, especially regarding the impact on children’s perceptions of gender roles.

A report by The Fawcett Society reveals that six in ten parents express concerns over gender

stereotyping when purchasing toys for their children. Specifically, the persistent color

dichotomy—pink for girls and blue for boys—is viewed as a major contributor to these

stereotypes. This reinforces the notion that certain colors and, by extension, certain toys, are

meant for specific genders (Groves and Richards, 2019).

In a similar vein, research on the gender-color association in cognitive psychology

shows how deeply ingrained these stereotypes are. A study published in Frontiers in

Psychology explored the gender-color Stroop effect and found that participants took longer to

respond and exhibited lower accuracy when presented with pink–masculine stimuli, as

compared to blue–masculine stimuli. This suggests that even subtle color associations, like

pink for femininity and blue for masculinity, affect cognitive processing and perpetuate gender

biases (Li et al., 2020)

 Furthermore, the historical roots of these color associations have been examined,

revealing that the seemingly arbitrary link between pink and girls, and blue and boys, has

relatively modern origins. Historically, colors were not gendered, but over time, marketing and

societal conventions created these divisions. The article “Colours Don’t Have Gender”

discusses how this segregation of colors, although pervasive, has more recent cultural origins

rather than being a long-standing tradition or decree (Pandey, 2023).

Play

Outdoor play serves as an essential aspect of childhood development, yet it is often

influenced by gender stereotypes that limit the experiences of boys and girls. Locally, Sagun-

Ongtangco et al. (2023) explored the playground preferences of Filipino children from varying

socioeconomic backgrounds. The study revealed that boys typically engage in street-based,

physical activities like tag, patintero, and Chinese garter, reinforcing traditional views of boys

as active and adventurous. Girls, on the other hand, preferred group-based and structured play,

with concerns about safety playing a significant role in their choices (Sagun-Ongtangco et al.,

2023). Similarly, a thesis on DepEd-recognized preschools in the Philippines highlighted how

outdoor play programs can break down gender norms by providing inclusive environments

where both boys and girls are encouraged to explore diverse roles and activities (Chua et al.,

2007).

Globally, the influence of gendered expectations on outdoor play is also well-

documented. It was investigated that social play in playgrounds and found that boys often

participate in competitive and physical activities, while girls gravitate toward cooperative and

relational play. These patterns reflect societal norms that associate masculinity with strength

and leadership, and femininity with nurturing and teamwork (Barbu, Stéphanie, et al., 2023).

On outdoor adventure education, noted that boys are frequently encouraged to take risks and
lead in outdoor activities, while girls are steered toward supportive or secondary roles,

perpetuating traditional gender roles.

To challenge these stereotypes, initiatives like LEGO Philippines’ "Play Unstoppable"

campaign have been launched. This program encourages girls to engage in activities

traditionally dominated by boys, such as construction and outdoor creativity, aiming to

dismantle the barriers imposed by societal norms and foster confidence and innovation among

young girls (LEGO Philippines, 2024). Additionally, studies have highlighted the need for

inclusive outdoor play strategies that promote gender equity by allowing children to freely

explore roles beyond traditional expectations (LEGO Philippines, 2024; Barbu, Stéphanie, et

al., 2023).

Collectively, these studies and initiatives emphasize the need to provide inclusive play

environments where boys and girls can explore and develop without the constraints of gender

stereotypes.

Education

A child is 1.6 times more likely to read a picture book with a male rather than a female

lead, and seven times more likely to read a story that has a male villain in it than a female

baddie. Male characters outnumbered female characters in more than half the books, while

females outnumbered males less than a fifth of the time (Gestetner, 2018). They find that girls

and young women are still more likely to choose subjects which conform to the norms and

roles associated with females, such as performing arts and health and social care. Boys and

young men on the other hand are more likely to choose subjects which align with traditionally

male gender norms and roles such as physics and computing (Thompson, 2023).

Related Studies

Toys
 Focused on the toy choices of older children and conducted a meta-analysis of

British children and young people living in the US to see how boys and girls differ in the way

they choose toys, fully understanding the cultural context and historical background of such

differences. According to the findings of this research, a tendency is evident for boys to prefer

toys related to action, construction, and vehicles while girls seem to favor beauty, care, or

household toys. These patterns indicate the potential for early gender role formation due to

ongoing socialization that can be seen from childhood (Cherney and London, 2020).

Furthermore, while some gender-neutral preferences are on the rise, the data shows a

prevalence of commonly gendered toys that indicates the continued prevalence of social and

cultural influences.

Meanwhile, to understand the nature of gender stereotyping through the consumer

perspective (Auster and Mansbach, 2020). Such insights led them to look at the types of

gendered toys prevalent in the market by examining the Disney Store online shop. Their

research found that marketing tactics often reinforce traditional gender roles: girls’ toys are

often colored pink or purple to focus on beauty, nurturing, or domesticity, while boys’ toys are

painted in primary colors and target adventure, combat, or construction themes. The study also

addressed the effects of these marketing policies on children’s audiences and how they may

affect children’s perceptions of gender roles and their areas of interest.

Finally, they examined the children's use of gender stereotypes in making social

judgments about toys in their study "Toy Stories: Children's Use of Gender Stereotypes in

Making Social Judgments." The research found that children often associate specific toys with

gender-specific characteristics, forming opinions about their peers accordingly. For example,

boys who played with dolls were considered less masculine, while girls who played with cars

were considered challenging gender norms. These findings highlight the powerful role of early

exposure to gendered toys in shaping children's perceptions of themselves and others,

reinforcing stereotypes that persist into later stages of development. (Wang, Ng, and

Gleason,2023)

Role

In the study titled "Helpful Girls and Strong Boys: Gender Stereotyping in Schools"

(2020), researchers explored how gender stereotypes, such as the perception of girls as

caregivers and boys as providers, are deeply embedded in early education settings. The

researchers pointed out that classrooms, textbooks, and the general curriculum often reinforce

these traditional roles. A pilot program in primary schools in the UK demonstrated that

increasing educators' awareness of these stereotypes and incorporating anti-stereotyping

strategies effectively reduced biases among students and broadened their perspectives on

gender roles

In the article "Tackling Gender Inequality From the Early Years" (2023), UNICEF

examined the impact of gender stereotypes on children in pre-primary education. They found

that children are exposed to gender biases through interactions with teachers and the learning

materials they use, which shape their expectations and dreams for the future. The research

recommends strategies such as using diverse narratives and implementing gender-responsive

policies to challenge these stereotypes in educational environments.

In addition, in their research titled "Parental Positive Affect and Negative Affect in

Same- and Different-Sex Parent Families: No Associations with Parental Gender and

Caregiving Role" published in Frontiers in Psychology focused on the influence of parental

gender roles on early childhood development (Ellis-Davies, M. et al. ,2022). They found that

children from traditional households, where mothers are the primary caregivers and fathers are

the primary providers, are more likely to adopt these stereotypes. It also showed that such

gendered roles are influenced by social expectations and early family interactions, which may
become more evident in the early years of primary education as children observe and absorb

family dynamics.

Career

Characteristics

Colors

Play

Activity Exposure

Education
Conceptual Framework

INPUT PROCESS
1. How may the demographic
profile of the respondents be
1. Determining the
respondents needed
OUTPUT
described in terms of: using:
1.1. Survey
1.1. Age; and

1.2. Sex; and

• Big book
2. Data-Gathering incorporated
1.3. Religion; and
Procedure. breaking
1.4. Educational Attainment
of the parents stereotypes
2.2 Gender Stereotypes from GAD.
survey using the Likert
2. How may the presence and scale.
extent of gender stereotypes
of the respondents be
described? 3. Qualitative

3.3. The researcher used the

3. Is there a significant qualitative approach to fully
different in the presence and comprehend the data
extent of the respondent’s gathered from the
gender stereotype awareness respondents, starting from
based on their demographic their instilled stereotypes.
profile.

4. Quantitative

4.4. The researcher used the

quantitative approach to
precisely measured the
numeric means and to
interpret in detailed the data
gathered from the
respondents.

Figure 1, shows the input, process, and output of the IPO model of the study. The first

box interprets the demographic profile of the respondents including their age, sex, religion, and

the educational attainment of their parents.

 Furthermore, the next column belongs to the process of how data will be gathered by

the researcher. The study integrated a mixed method to obtain complete information by using

the means of qualitative and quantitative.

Lastly, the last column has the output of the study after the researcher completed

analyzing the gathered data from grade 1 students.

Definition of Terms

Gender. Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, attributes, and expectations

associated with being male or female. In this study, gender is considered as a category used to

examine how children associate activities, roles, and preferences with boys or girls based on

societal norms.

Stereotype. A stereotype is a widely held but oversimplified belief or idea about a particular

group of people. In this study, a stereotype refers to fixed assumptions or expectations that

children hold about traits, behaviors, or roles associated with gender.

Gender Stereotype. Gender stereotypes are specific beliefs and expectations about the roles,

behaviors, and attributes that are deemed appropriate for males and females.

Grade 1 Students. Grade 1 students refer to children enrolled in the first grade of elementary

school, typically aged 6 to 7 years. These students are in the early stages of their formal

education, where they are beginning to form their understanding of gender roles and

expectations in their social environments

Snowball Sampling. Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where initial

participants refer others to the study, creating a “chain” of respondents. For this research,

snowball sampling is used to recruit Grade 1 students from specific barangays in Dinalupihan,

ensuring flexibility in reaching the target population.

Toys. Toys refer to objects or playthings used by children for entertainment and learning, which

can be traditionally gender-typed. For example, dolls may be considered more suitable for girls,

while trucks and action figures may be stereotypically considered for boys.

Roles. Roles refer to the expected behaviors and responsibilities assigned to individuals based

on their gender, such as who is expected to perform household tasks or care for others. In this

study, roles are defined as activities or occupations that children associate with being either a

boy or a girl, such as the expectation that girls care for children and boys fix broken items

Career. Career refer to the professional roles that children believe are suitable for males and

females. This study investigates how Grade 1 students perceive certain professions as either

“masculine” or “feminine,” such as associating nursing with women and engineering with men

Characteristics. Characteristics are the personality traits or behaviors that children associate

with either males or females, such as emotionality, strength, or leadership. For example, being

caring might be stereotypically seen as a trait for girls, while being assertive or strong might

be considered a trait for boys

Colors. Colors refer to the preference or association of certain colors with a particular gender.

This study examines how children associate colors like pink and pastel colors with girls, while

blue and darker shades are often linked with boys

Play. Play refers to the recreational activities that children engage in, which can be gender-

typed. Activities such as playing with dolls, playing sports, or role-playing as firefighters are

used as indicators to examine how children perceive gendered activities

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