Introduction to Psychology

Unit I
Some misconceptions about Psychology
• Psychologists are face reader
• Psychologists are mind reader
• Psychology and common sense are same
• The person who studies psychology he/she is
psycho (mentally disturbed)
• Psychologists only deal with mentally ill people
• Psychology and psychiatry are same subjects
Definition
• Psychology is the science that studies the
behavior of organisms- dominant definition
Behavior:- Overt (observable/ actions)
Covert (can not be directly observed)
such as affective (feeling), cognitive (thinking)

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and

mental/cognitive processes- current definition
Nature
• Scientific study– Systematic study, Empirical
Science (theories developed: based on evidence,
facts, data)
• Behavior and mental process: It consists
not just what people do but also their thoughts,
emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes,
memories, and even the biological activities that
maintain bodily functioning.
Nature contd..
• Psychology studies why individual behaves in a
particular way.
• Psychologists try to describe, explain and
predict, and human behavior and mental
processes, as well as helping to change and
improve the lives of people and the world in
which they live.
History of Psychology
• Origin of Psychology
Greek words: Psyche (Soul/mind)
+
Logos (Study)
• Studied under Philosophy
• Separate as an independent subject from 19th
century
History of Psychology contd..
• Greek Period:
-Psychology is the study of Soul:- Socrates and
Plato
-Psychology is the study of Mind:- Aristotle (In
book Para Psyche: About the Mind or Soul)
History of Psychology contd..
• Pre-modern Period:
-Psychology is the study of consciousness or
conscious experience
• Established as a scientific discipline in the late
19th century, when, in Leipzig, Germany,
Wilhelm Wundt established the first
experimental laboratory in 1879
• At about the same time, William James was
setting up his laboratory in Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
History of Psychology contd..
• Pre-modern Period:
-Structuralism (Wundt’s approach) which
focuses on uncovering the fundamental mental
components of consciousness, thinking, and
other kinds of mental states and activities and
devised a method Introspection to study
consciousness
History of Psychology contd..
• Pre-modern Period:
-Functionalism (Jame’s approach) to
psychology that concentrated on what the mind
does—the functions of mental activity—and the
role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to
their environments.
History of Psychology contd..
• Modern Period:
-Psychology as the science of Behavior: B.F.
Skinner, J.B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov in early 1900s
• They only focuses on observable behaviors and
ignore the role of mental process.
• They undermined the role of unconscious mind
and heredity in behavior so that this definition
was modified.
History of Psychology contd..
• Current Period:
-Psychology as the science of Behavior and
Mental or Cognitive processes : Jean Piaget,
Jerome Bruner, Ulrich Neisser in 1950s
Perspectives of Psychology
• Psychologists developed a variety of approaches
to understanding behavior.
• These broad perspectives emphasize different
aspects of behavior and mental processes, and
each takes our understanding of behavior in a
somewhat different direction.
Biological/Neuroscience perspective
• Karl S. Lashley
• Focuses on biological causes of behavior
• Emphasize on how individual nerve cells are
joined together, how the inheritance of certain
characteristics from parents and other ancestors
influences behavior, how the functioning of the
body affects hopes and fears, which behaviors
are instinctual, and so forth.
Cognitive Perspective
• George Miller, Jerome Bruner, Ulrich Neisser
• Focuses on how people think, understand, and
know about the world.
• The emphasis is on learning how people
comprehend and represent the outside world
within themselves and how our ways of thinking
about the world influence our behavior.
Behavioral Perspective
• B.F. Skinner, J.B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov
• Behaviorists suggested that the field should
focus on observable behavior that can be
measured objectively.
• Behaviors we show are the results of the
consequences attached with them.
• Focuses on role of external environmental
condition in determining behaviors
• Every behavior is learned
Psychodynamic Perspective
• Sigmund Freud
• Focuses on role of unconscious feelings and
impulses in behavior
• Level of mind (conscious, subconscious and
unconscious)
• Personality dynamics (Id, ego and superego)
• Psychosexual development (Oral, Anal, Phalic,
latency and genitals)
• Sexual gratification; Oedipus complex
Humanistic Perspective
• Carl Roger, Abraham Maslow
• Human beings are positive being and have
enormous capacity for personal growth
• Suggested that all individuals naturally strive to
grow and develop their full potential if they are
given the opportunity, and be in control of their
lives and behavior
• Each of us has the capacity to seek and reach self
fulfillment
 Socio-cultural Perspective
• Jenet Hyde, David Matsumoto
• Social and cultural factors that can influence
behavior; Behavior is the result of socio-cultural
factors.
• Our personality, beliefs, attitudes, skills and values
are shaped by our culture, ethnicity, gender,
religion and other socio-cultural factors
• Also focus on how the behavior of particular
individual influences the behavior of other social
members
Evolutionary Perspective
• D.M. Buss
• Focuses on the role of evolution in our behavior
• Explains mind and behavior in terms of the
adaptive value of abilities that are preserved
over time by natural selection.
• Emphasizes that the mind as a collection of
specialized “modules” that are designed to solve
the human problems our ancestors faced as they
attempted to eat, mate, and reproduce over
millions of years.
Scope of Psychology
• Scopes/areas/fields of psychology can be divided
under two broad categories:
1. Basic/Pure Psychology: Develops theories,
principles from careful observation and
scientific study
2. Applied Psychology: Apply those principles to
advancement of human living
• Some major fields are discussed below:
Psychology and Common senses
• Every individual is a psychologist but there is
difference between psychology and common
sense.
• Findings and theories about behavior are based
on evidences or facts.
• Formulate hypothesis and tested it.
• Observation about phenomenon are carried out
in systematic way and in controlled
environment.
• Theories are reliable and predictable
Relationship of Psychology and Sociology
Psychology Sociology
• Psychology study behavior of • Sociology study behavior in
individual unit. group.
• It also study group behavior. • The study of organization,
• Psychology focuses on role of development and institutions
society, culture, ethnicity in of human society.
group dynamics and • Formation, growth and
behaviors. functioning of different kinds
• Psychology give emphasize on of group.
personal and psychological • Sociology give emphasize on
factors of different social social and economic factors of
problems or social behaviors. different social problems or
social behaviors.
Relationship of Psychology and Anthropology
psychology Anthropology
• One subfield of psychology • Anthropology study the
Cross-cultural psychology physical, social and cultural
investigates the similarities and origins and development of the
differences in psycho-logical human race.
functioning in and across • It deals with primitive and
various cultures and ethnic tribal people and concerned
groups.
with the culture, tradition,
• Another subfield Indigenous manners, customs and rituals
psychology study behaviors of of such people.
tribal and indigenous people
and also study their nature, • Take information about
costumes, beliefs that shape abnormality and nature of
their behavior. human beings through the
study of psychology.
Scientific methods in Psychology
• The scientific method is the approach used by
psychologists to systematically acquire
knowledge and understanding about behavior
and other phenomena of interest.
• It consists of four main steps: (1) identifying
questions of interest, (2) formulating an
explanation, (3) carrying out research
designed to support or refute the explanation,
and (4) communicating the findings.
Basic concepts
• Theory is broad explanation and prediction
concerning phenomena of interest which is
approved by evidences.

• Hypothesis is a prediction stated in a way that

allows it to be tested. Hypotheses stem from
theories; they help test the underlying
soundness of theories.
Psychological Research
• Research —systematic inquiry aimed at the
discovery of new knowledge—is a central
ingredient of the scientific method in
psychology. It provides the key to understanding
the degree to which hypotheses (and the theories
behind them) are accurate.
• Just as we can apply different theories and
hypotheses to explain the same phenomena, we
can use a number of alternative methods to
conduct research.
Methods of Psychological Research
• Archival Research
• Naturalistic Observation
• Survey Research
• The Case Study
• Correlational Research
• Experimental Research
Archival Research
• Research in which existing data, such as census
documents, college records, and newspaper
clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis.
Evaluations of Archival Research
Strength Weakness
• Relatively inexpensive • Data may not be in a form
means of testing a that allows the researcher to
hypothesis because test a hypothesis fully
someone else has already • The information could be
collected the basic data incomplete, or it could have
• Easy way to collect been collected haphazardly
information • Hampered by the simple
fact that records with the
necessary information often
do not exist.
Naturalistic Observation
• Research in which an investigator simply
observes some naturally occurring behavior and
does not make a change in the situation.
• The important point to remember about
naturalistic observation is that the researcher
simply records what occurs, making no
modification in the situation that is being
observed
Evaluations of Naturalistic Observation
Strengths Weaknesses
• True behavior can be • Inability to control any of the
observed. factors of interest.
• Studying behavior in very • Must wait until the
details and useful in describing appropriate conditions occur.
behaviors. • If people know they are being
• To some extent able to watched, they may alter their
establish cause and effect reactions and produce
relationship. behavior that is not truly
• Useful in studying children’s representative.
and animal’s behavior. • Unethical and impractical.
• Observer’s bias.
Survey Research
• Research in which people chosen to represent a
larger population (Sample)are asked a series of
questions about their behavior, thoughts, or
attitudes.
• Survey methods have become so sophisticated
that even with a very small sample researchers
are able to infer with great accuracy how a larger
group would respond.
Evaluations of Survey Research
Strengths Weaknesses
• Easy and quick to gather large • Samples may not be always
amount of information. representative.
• Very economic and flexible. • Only surface information can
be revealed.
• Useful in finding out the
• Respondents may not always
changes in behavior or attitude respond honestly.
of people over long time.
• If questions are not clearly
stated then responses may be
different.
• survey respondents may not
want to admit to holding
socially undesirable attitudes.
The Case Study Method
• Case study is an in-depth, intensive investigation
of an individual or small group of people.
• In case study, researcher obtains as much
relevant information as possible about particular
case including thoughts, feelings, life
experiences, social relationships etc.
• Case studies often include psychological testing,
a procedure in which a carefully designed set of
questions is used to gain some insight into the
personality of the individual or group.
Evaluations of Case Study
Strengths Weaknesses
• In-depth and detail knowledge • Lack of generalization.
about particular case can be • Time consuming and weak in
achieved. establishing cause and effect
• Other methods can be use relationship.
while conducting case study. • Not replicable.
• Very useful in clinical • Subjective biasness of
researches especially in investigator can be present.
diagnosis and treatment.
• Internal needs and conflicts
can be revealed.
Correlational Research
• Correlational Research is such type of research
where the relationship between two sets of variables
is examined to determine whether they are
associated, or “correlated.”
• Variables are behaviors, events, or other
characteristics that can change, or vary, in some
way.
• The strength and direction of the relationship
between the two variables are represented by a
mathematical statistic known as a correlation (or,
more formally, a correlation coefficient ), which can
range from +1.0 to –1.0.
Correlational Research
• A positive correlation indicates that as the
value of one variable increases, we can predict
that the value of the other variable will also
increase. (r tend to +1)
• A negative correlation tells us that as the
value of one variable increases, the value of the
other decreases. (r tend to -1)
• Lack of a relationship would be indicated by a
correlation close to 0. (r tend to 0)
Evaluations of Correlational Research
Strengths Weaknesses
• Useful to establish relationship • Can not establish cause and
between different variables. effect relationship.
• Make prediction on the basis
of changes in one variable and
how it affects another.
• Easy method based on
statistical procedure.
Experimental Research
• In experimental research the researcher
investigates the relationship between two (or
more) variables by deliberately changing one
variable in a controlled situation and observing
the effects of that change on other aspects of the
situation.
• The conditions are created and controlled by the
researcher, who deliberately makes a change in
those conditions in order to observe the effects
of that change.
Experimental Research
• Experimental research requires that the
responses of at least two groups be compared:
-Experimental group: any group participating in
an experiment that receives a treatment
(manipulation of one variable).
- Control group: a group participating in an
experiment that receives no treatment.
Experimental Research
• To establish cause and effect relationship two
types of variables are necessary:
-Independent variable: the variable that is
manipulated by an experimenter. (Cause)
-Dependent variable :The variable that is
measured and is expected to change as a result
of changes caused by the experimenter’s
manipulation of the independent variable.
(Effect)
Evaluations of Experimental Research
Strengths Weaknesses
• Very strong in establishing • Absolute control over
cause and effect variables is not possible.
relationship. • Lack of ecological validity.
• Experimenter has control • To be valid, experiment
over extraneous variables. needed random
• Replicable assignment.
• Strong in generalization • Sometimes experimenter
bias can be observed.