1.

TRANSLATION

1.1. Definitions of Translation

The word for the concept of "translation" in English and in some other European languages derives from
the Latin noun translatio, which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to bring" – with -latio coming from
latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus, translatio is the "bringing across" of a text from one language to
another. In other words, it is the business of carrying across a message/written content from one
text to another, from one person to another and from one language (source language) to a
different language (target language). It can happen within the same language (from one dialect to
another dialect or from one form to another) or between languages. It is best seen as a
communication process where the transfer of a message/written content from one language into a
new language takes place.

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent

target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in
every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication
between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the
appearance of writing within a language community (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation).

Translation is the process of translating words or text from one language into another (Oxford
English Dictionary). This is a very basic definition that focuses purely on the act of transferring
words or text between languages.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines as, ―Translation is to render into another language; to

express in another language.‖ Merriam-Webster provides a similar definition but adds an
emphasis on expressing the meaning in a different language rather than simply transferring text.

Collins English Dictionary defines as “Translation is to change something into a different form,
especially to express the meaning of (speech or writing) in another language.‖ Collins highlights
both the act of translation and the broader idea of transforming something into a different form,
focusing on the meaning.

Translation is to change words into a different language (Cambridge Dictionary). This definition
is a straightforward and simple interpretation, focusing on the linguistic aspect of translation.

Roman Jakobson, a leading linguist and noted expert in the subject of translation, defined
translation as ―the interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.‖ Through this
process of translation, texts in one language are transformed into texts in another language with
the same meaning. These materials range from the isolated words in a language to the complex
network of sentences of philosophical texts.

According to Nida (1964), “Translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language the
closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly
in terms of style.‖ Nida emphasizes that the primary goal of translation is to convey the meaning
of the original text as naturally as possible in the target language, while maintaining stylistic
elements where possible. He introduced the concepts of "dynamic equivalence" (focus on

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meaning) and "formal equivalence" (focus on form), both of which have been fundamental in
translation studies.

Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material
in another language (Catford, 1965). Catford defines translation in the context of linguistic
equivalence, focusing on the idea that the translator's task is to find linguistic equivalents in the
target language. He also introduced the concept of "translation shifts," where a translation may
involve changes in the structure of the original text to fit the norms of the target language.

As Newmark (1988), ―Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the
way that the author intended.‖ Newmark focuses on meaning, similar to Nida, but also suggests
that the translator‘s role is to stay as true as possible to the intentions of the original author, while
still making the text understandable and coherent in the target language.

Translation is a process of rewriting or transforming a text from one language into another,
considering the power dynamics involved in the cultural, ideological, and political implications
of translation (Venuti, 1995). Venuti emphasizes that translation is not a neutral act but involves
cultural and ideological decisions. His work has been influential in the study of translation as a
form of cultural negotiation, often highlighting issues like power, representation, and the
"foreignization" versus "domestication" strategies in translation.

Some scholars define translation as an art or craft and some others call it a science. It is called an
art as all good translations are expressions of the creative urge of the translators. Likewise, it is a
science because of the technical formalities and complexities involved in its process.

Translation is the process of transferring written text from a source language (SL) to a target
language (TL) while maintaining the original meaning, style, and context. The goal is to preserve
the intent and tone of the original while ensuring the translation reads naturally in the target
language. Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural
equivalence of the source language (SL), first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style
in (TL).

The verb ―translate‖ has been equated with synonyms such as ―reader‖, ―rephrase‖, ―transmit‖,
―re express‖ ―replace‖. We "render", "reproduce", "convey", and "transfer"

Translation can be done based on the ―technical performance‖ of the operation (omission,
addition, narrowing, broadening, etc.) and Linguistic (lexical, grammatical, stylistic) + extra-
linguistic (cultural, historical, geographical, etc.) differences

What all definitions agree on are the following:

 Translation involves determining two extremes at the same time; the SL demands and
the TL demands.
 Translation involves thinking and rethinking, expressing and re-expressing.

 Translation involves ―equivalence‖ in respect of different levels of presentation

(equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc.) and at

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 different ranks (Word-for-sentence) and in different degrees (fully or partially
equivalent)

1.2.Types of translation
There are various types of translation, each tailored to specific contexts, goals, and audience
needs. Understanding these different types helps translators select the best approach for any
given project. Here are some common types of translation:

1.2.1. General Translation

This is the translation of non-specialized text that is a text which we can all understand without needing
specialist knowledge in some area. The text may still contain some technical terms and jargon, but these
will either be widely understood, or easily researched. The implication is that you do not need someone
with specialist knowledge for this type of translation – any professional translator can handle them.
Translators who only do this kind of translation, i.e. those who do not have a specialist field, are
sometimes referred to as ‗generalist‘ or ‗general purpose‘ translators.
This type of a general translation allows a translator quite a lot of leeway (scope) because its
source material mostly uses layman terms and ordinary, everyday speech. There's no need to
understand special terminologies, and most translation work fall into this particular type.
Examples: Most business correspondence, website content, company and product/service info, non-
technical reports.

1.2.2. Legal Translation

Legal Translation is one of the most complex translations, and involves birth certificate
translations and marriage certificate translations, translating contracts, agreements, treaties,
memorandums, wills, and so on. A good translator needs to understand the various underlying
contexts of the documents and that of the two regions or countries for which the documents are
intended – the socio-cultural aspects, and the politico-legal aspects as well. They would then
need to translate it in a manner that the target audience easily grasps the text.

Even if you are familiar with the cultures and other aspects and are highly skilled at translation,
you may need to consult legal professionals so as to ensure that your legal translation is
completely error-free. Examples: Contracts, legal reports, court judgments, expert opinions,
legislation

Legal translation also involves translating legal documents, contracts, court proceedings, and
other legal texts from one language to another. Accuracy and precision are crucial in legal
translation to ensure that the legal meaning and intent of the original text are preserved.

1.2.3. Commercial Translation

Just like its legal counterpart, a commercial translation or business translation(not to be confused
with advertising translation) requires a translator to have specialist translation skills and business
jargon knowledge in order to translate a business's every report, tender document, company
account, and correspondence. There's a bit of overlap between commercial translation and legal
translation as well, in the sense that companies tend to handle legal paperwork alongside

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business paperwork.

1.2.4. Administrative Translation

Administrative can mean many things, but in the context of translation, it merely refers to
translating managerial texts used in different corporations, businesses, and organizations. This
translation type also overlaps with commercial translation, but only in the sense that the vast
majority of administrative translation can be considered commercial translation as well, but not
all commercial translation is administrative in nature.

1.2.5. Literary Translation

As its name suggests, literary translation refers to translation done for literature such as poems,
plays, short stories, and novels i.e. it involves translating works of literature, such as novels,
poems, and plays, from one language to another. Just as general translation is the simplest form
and legal translation is the most difficult form, many people in the industry consider literary
translation as the highest form of translation. The reason behind this is because literary
translation goes beyond mere translation of context; a literary translator must be proficient in
translating humor, cultural nuances (shades, hints), feelings, emotions, and other subtle elements
of a given work. Conversely, there are those who allege that literary translation is impossible, as
with the case of translating poetry. Literary translators must not only convey the literal meaning
of the text but also capture the style, tone, and cultural context of the original work.

1.2.6. Literal Translation

This type of translation focuses on translating the words and phrases of the source text directly
into the target language, without taking into consideration nuances or cultural differences. Literal
translation focuses on converting every word or phrase from the source language (SL) to the
target language (TL) while maintaining the original sentence structure as much as possible. The
main issue with this approach is that it doesn‘t take into account the natural flow or idiomatic
expressions of the target language. While it's useful in some cases (like technical or scientific
texts), it often sounds unnatural in everyday language because it ignores cultural context, idioms,
and grammar rules specific to the TL. For example, if you translate a phrase too literally, the
result might not make sense or may sound odd to a native speaker of the target language.

Literal translation can be problematic because 1. Context Matters: Words and phrases can change
meaning based on their context. Literal translations might miss the intended message because
they ignore the nuances of the sentence. 2. Idioms and Metaphors: Many languages use
idiomatic expressions that don‘t have direct equivalents in other languages. Literal translation
can distort the intended meaning. 3. Grammar Structure: Different languages have different
syntactic rules. A word-for-word translation might create sentences that are grammatically
incorrect or hard to follow.

Literal translation can be useful in specific contexts (such as legal, technical, or scientific
translations), but for natural language use, it's often better to focus on conveying the meaning,
not just the words. This is why translators tend to use more flexible methods, such as dynamic
equivalence, where the goal is to make the translated text sound natural in the target language
while maintaining the original meaning.

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1.2.7. Free Translation

Free translation is a type of translation that emphasizes conveying the overall meaning, message,
or sense of the original text, rather than sticking closely to the exact wording or structure. It is
more flexible and less literal than faithful or semantic translations, allowing the translator to
adapt the content for readability, clarity, or cultural relevance in the target language.

Key Characteristics:

1. Focus on Meaning over Form: The primary goal is to ensure that the main ideas,
themes, or emotions of the original text are effectively conveyed, even if the exact
wording or sentence structure is altered significantly.
2. Flexibility: The translator has more freedom to adjust the text, paraphrase, or even
reword sections if necessary. This makes free translation especially useful for texts that
may not work well in the target language if translated literally.
3. Less Concern for Literal Accuracy: Unlike a faithful translation, which tries to
preserve the exact form and structure, free translation is not bound by the source text‘s
specific phrasing. The result may look quite different from the original.
4. Natural and Readable: The translation typically sounds smooth and natural in the target
language, even if this means straying from the source text‘s precise language.
5. Used in Creative or Informal Contexts: Free translation is often employed in contexts
like advertising, literature, films, or speeches, where the essence of the message is more
important than a word-for-word rendition.

1.2.8. Machine Translation

Machine translation uses software and algorithms to translate text from one language to another
automatically. While machine translation can be fast and efficient, it may not always accurately
capture the nuances and subtleties of human language.

1.2.9. Audiovisual Translation (AVT)

Audiovisual translation (AVT) is a type of translation that deals with the adaptation of spoken or
written content from one language to another in media formats that combine both sound and
visual elements. This type of translation is used primarily in films, TV shows, documentaries,
video games, multimedia, and other visual content, where the translation must account for both
auditory and visual aspects to ensure the final product resonates with the target audience.

1.2.10. Technical Translation

Technical translation involves translating specialized texts in fields such as engineering,

medicine, science, and technology. Technical translators must have expertise in the subject
matter to accurately convey complex and specialized information.

We use the term ‗technical translation‘ in two different ways: 1. Broad meaning: any translation
where the translator needs specialist knowledge in some domain or area. This definition would
include almost all the translation types described in this section. 2. Narrow meaning: limited to

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the translation of engineering (in all its forms), IT and industrial texts. This narrower meaning
would exclude legal, financial and medical translations for example, where these would be
included in the broader definition.

Technical translations require knowledge of the specialist field or domain of the text. That is
because without it, translators will not completely understand the text and its implications. And
this is essential if we want a fully accurate and appropriate translation. Many technical translation
projects also have a typesetting/Desk Top Publishing (DTP) requirement. Be sure your
translation provider can handle this component, and that you have allowed for it in your project
costing and time frames. Examples: Manuals, specialist reports, product brochures.

1.2.11. Scientific Translation

This is about the translation of scientific research or documents relating to it. These texts invariably
contain domain-specific terminology, and often involve cutting edge research. Therefore, it is imperative
the translator has the necessary knowledge of the field to fully understand the text. That is why scientific
translators are typically either expert in the field who have turned to translation, or professionally
qualified translators who also have qualifications and/or experience in that domain. On occasion the
translator may have to consult either with the author or other domain experts to fully comprehend the
material and so translate it appropriately. Examples: Research papers, journal articles, experiment/trial
results.

1.2.12. Medical Translation

It is the translation of healthcare, medical product, pharmaceutical and biotechnology materials.
Medical translation is a very broad term covering a wide variety of specialist areas and materials –
everything from patient information to regulatory, marketing and technical documents. As a result, this
translation type has numerous potential sub-categories – ‗Medical device translations‘ and ‗Clinical trial
translations‘, for example. As with any text, the translators need to fully understand the materials which
they are translating. That means sound knowledge of medical terminology and they will often also need
specific subject-matter expertise. Many countries have specific requirements governing the translation of
medical device and pharmaceutical documentation. This includes both your client-facing and product-
related materials. Examples: Medical reports, product instructions, labeling, clinical trial documentation.

1.2.13. Financial Translation

It is, in broad terms, the translation of banking, stock exchange, forex, financing and financial reporting
documents. However, the term is generally used only for the more technical of these documents which
require translators with knowledge of the field. Any competent translator could translate a bank statement,
for example, so that would not typically be considered a financial translation. You need translators with
domain expertise to correctly understand and translate the financial terminology in these texts. Examples:
Company accounts, annual reports, fund or product prospectuses, audit reports, IPO documentation.

1.2.14. Faithful translation

A faithful translation refers to a type of translation that aims to stay as close as possible to the
original text in both meaning and form, without altering the content or intent. It seeks to preserve
the accuracy, style, and nuances of the source language, whether it's a literary work, religious
text, or any other kind of document. The goal is to ensure that the original message is conveyed

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as faithfully as possible, even if this means using somewhat more complex or less idiomatic
language in the target language.

In practice, this kind of translation will often:

 Preserve the Original Meaning: The core meaning of the source text is maintained,
without introducing new interpretations or leaving out important details.
 Retain Formal Elements: It tries to keep the structure of the original (such as word
order, grammar, and syntax) intact, when possible.
 Respect Cultural and Contextual Elements: Any cultural or historical references in the
original are kept, even if the target audience is unfamiliar with them.

While a faithful translation tries to stay as true as possible to the source, it can sometimes result
in awkward phrasing or difficult-to-understand language, especially if the two languages are very
different in structure or idiomatic expressions. It contrasts with more dynamic or free
translations, where the emphasis is on conveying the general sense or readability in the target
language, even if some details or exact wording are altered.

1.2.15. Semantic translation

Semantic translation focuses on preserving the meaning, nuances, and sense of the original text
while adapting it to the target language in a way that still sounds natural and comprehensible.
Unlike faithful translation, which closely follows the original structure and wording, semantic
translation tends to prioritize clarity and meaning over strict adherence to the exact form of the
original.

Here are some key characteristics of semantic translation:

1. Focus on Meaning: The main goal is to convey the exact meaning or message of the
original text, but it might involve rewording or changing sentence structures to make it
more fluid and natural in the target language.
2. Adaptation to Target Language: It often takes into account the idiomatic expressions,
cultural references, and stylistic elements that are more appropriate or understandable in
the target language, even if this means deviating from the source language's structure.
3. Natural Sounding: The translation aims to sound natural to native speakers of the target
language while still being faithful to the original meaning, avoiding awkward or overly
literal translations.
4. Less Rigid: It is more flexible than a faithful translation. While it stays true to the
meaning, the exact words and order might change significantly to better suit the target
language‘s grammar and culture.

For example, a semantic translation of a phrase like "It's raining cats and dogs" would not
translate it literally but would instead find an equivalent idiom in the target language (e.g., "It's
pouring" or "It's raining heavily"), ensuring the meaning is understood without an awkward or
confusing translation.

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In short, semantic translation is about conveying the essence of the source text in a way that
makes sense and feels natural in the target language, balancing between literal translation and
paraphrasing.

1.2.16. Adaptation

Adaptation involves taking the essence or core meaning of a text and reshaping it to suit a
different cultural or contextual environment. It‘s commonly used when translating works for a
different medium, audience, or setting—where the direct translation might not be effective or
appropriate.

Key characteristics of adaptation:

1. Cultural Relevance: In adaptation, the original content might be altered to fit the cultural
context of the target audience. This could include changing references, idioms, or even
plot elements to ensure they resonate with the new audience.
2. Medium Changes: Adaptation is frequently used when a text needs to be converted into
a different form, such as turning a novel into a film or a play into a musical. In these
cases, the translator might adjust the structure, tone, or even the storyline to better suit the
new medium.
3. Creative Freedom: Unlike faithful or semantic translations, adaptation allows for more
creative freedom. The goal is not to preserve the exact words or style, but to capture the
essence of the original while making it accessible or engaging in a new context.
4. Audience Consideration: Adaptation is often audience-driven, meaning the target
audience‘s expectations, cultural knowledge, and preferences are central to the process.
For example, humor in one culture might need to be replaced with something relatable to
the target culture.

Examples of Adaptation:

 Books into Movies: When a novel is adapted into a film, the plot might be altered, some
characters may be combined or omitted, and certain events could be rearranged or
reinterpreted for the medium.
 Translations of Jokes or Idioms: In a comedic translation, jokes or idioms might be
adapted to make sense in the target language, rather than directly translating them word-
for-word.
 Localization: When software or video games are translated for different regions,
adaptation might involve changing references to things like holidays, food, or customs to
make the game more relatable to the local culture.

Adaptation is a translation approach that focuses on ensuring the translated content is relevant,
engaging, and appropriate for the target audience, often requiring significant creative changes to
the original text.

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1.2.17. Idiomatic translation

Idiomatic translation refers to a translation approach where the translator focuses on conveying
the meaning of the original text using natural, idiomatic expressions in the target language, rather
than sticking to the exact words or structure of the source text. The goal is to make the
translation sound as though it was originally written in the target language, using phrases and
expressions that native speakers of that language would use in similar contexts.

Key Characteristics of Idiomatic Translation:

1. Natural Sounding Language: The translation is aimed at making the text feel fluent and
conversational in the target language, so it doesn‘t read like a translated text. This means
using familiar, colloquial expressions that a native speaker would naturally use.
2. Preservation of Meaning: The core meaning of the original text is preserved, but the
exact phrasing is adapted to sound more natural. This is especially important when
dealing with idioms or expressions that do not have a direct equivalent in the target
language.
3. Cultural Adaptation: In idiomatic translation, cultural differences are often addressed
by finding expressions or references in the target language that make sense to its
speakers, even if this means changing specific details from the original.
4. Avoiding Literal Translation: Unlike more literal or faithful translations, idiomatic
translations don‘t adhere closely to the original wording or structure. Instead, the
translator adapts the text to fit the cultural and linguistic norms of the target language.

Example: Let‘s say the source text is an English idiom like “kick the bucket” (meaning "to
die"). A literal translation might confuse someone who isn‘t familiar with the idiom. An
idiomatic translation into French might use the equivalent idiomatic phrase “casser sa pipe”
(literally "to break one‘s pipe"), which is the French expression for "to die" and conveys the
same meaning in a culturally familiar way.

When to Use Idiomatic Translation:

 Literature: When translating novels, poems, or plays, idiomatic translation helps the text
maintain its flow and sound natural in the target language.
 Conversations: In translating dialogue, especially in movies or television shows,
idiomatic translation ensures that the characters sound natural and relatable.
 Advertising and Marketing: When translating slogans or taglines, idiomatic translation
makes sure the message is not only clear but also appealing in the local context.

Idiomatic translation is all about making the translation sound like it was originally written in the
target language, using natural expressions, idioms, and colloquial language that would make
sense to native speakers. It prioritizes fluidity and cultural relevance over a direct, word-for-word
translation.

1.2.18. Communicative translation

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Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in
such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the
readership

2. Theories of Translation
Theories of translation refer to the various principles, concepts, and approaches that guide the
process of translating text from one language to another. Theories of translation offer different
approaches to understanding how translation works and how it should be carried out. There are
several theories of translation that have been developed over time by scholars and practitioners in
the field. Some of the key theories include:

2.1. Equivalence Theory (or Formal Equivalence)

This theory focuses on the idea that a translation should be as close as possible to the original
text, preserving meaning, form, and structure. This theory also posits that a successful translation
should convey the same meaning and effect as the original text, while taking into account
linguistic and cultural differences between languages. It focuses on maintaining equivalence
between the source and target languages. The translator aims for as much similarity as possible
between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT). It tends to prioritize word-for-word
translations and strives to preserve the exact meaning, tone, and style of the original. It can be
rigid and unnatural, as not all structures or expressions can be directly translated between
languages.

2.2. Skopos Theory

Proposed by Hans J. Vermeer, Skopos theory suggests that the purpose (skopos) of a translation
should guide the translation strategy, rather than focusing solely on equivalence. It focuses on the
purpose of the translation. This could be to inform, entertain, persuade, or perform other
functions in the target culture and/or it emphasizes the importance of considering the purpose or
function of a translation, as well as the intended audience and context, in order to produce an
effective translation. In this theory, the translator should adapt the text based on the intended
purpose and the target audience's expectations. This theory can lead to substantial changes in the
text, and some argue that it might result in losing the original's intent or meaning in favor of
fitting a specific function.

2.3. Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS)

This approach focuses on analyzing translations as cultural products and considers the social,
historical, and political factors that influence the translation process. Descriptive translation
studies focus on studying how translations are produced and received, rather than prescribing
how they should be done. This theory looks at actual translation practices and analyses how
translations function within specific cultural and historical contexts. DTS is empirical and
observational. It examines patterns of translation in a given society or time period, looking at
how translations evolve and how they are shaped by factors like ideology, culture, and power.

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While it provides valuable insights into real-world translation, it does not offer a clear set of
rules or strategies for translators to follow.

2.4. Polysystem Theory

Polysystem theory, developed by Itamar Even-Zohar, suggests that the translation is part of a
larger system, or polysystem, which includes all texts, genres, and cultural norms within a
society. This theory views translation as a dynamic interaction between different literary systems
and emphasizes the role of translators as agents of cultural transfer. Translation is seen as part of
a dynamic cultural system where various genres and text types interact. Translations are
influenced by the position they occupy in the target system (e.g., whether they are central or
peripheral). The status and role of translation may change depending on the context a culture. It
can be seen as too abstract and lacks clear, actionable advice for translators.

2.5. Functionalism (Functionalist Approaches)

Functionalism, like Skopos theory, emphasizes the purpose and function of translation. It focuses
on the role that translation plays in the target culture and context. This approach emphasizes the
communicative function of translation and aims to produce translations that are natural and
effective in the target language. The translation process should be function-oriented, aiming to
fulfill the communicative needs of the target audience. Functionalists argue that translation
strategies should be chosen based on the function of the text in the target culture. This means that
translations can vary widely depending on whether the text is intended to inform, entertain,
persuade, etc. It may place too much emphasis on adaptation, potentially distorting or shifting
the original text's meaning in order to serve a specific function.

The key differences between the theories:

Equivalence vs. Skopos: While equivalence focuses on maintaining a close relationship with the
source text, Skopos allows for more flexibility, where the translation's purpose and context might
determine the translation choices rather than sticking rigidly to the source.

DTS vs. Polysystem: Both are concerned with the cultural and contextual factors surrounding
translation, but DTS focuses on describing translation practices, whereas Polysystem theory
places translation in the larger cultural system, emphasizing the interaction of different genres
and the position of translated texts.

Functionalism vs. Equivalence: Functionalism is less concerned with maintaining direct

equivalence between source and target text and more with ensuring that the translation serves its
purpose in the target context. Equivalence aims to preserve more of the original form and
content.

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Other theories that you should know:

Dynamic Equivalence

Dynamic equivalence, a term popularized by Eugene Nida, emphasizes conveying the same
meaning and emotional impact in the target text as in the source text, rather than focusing on
word-for-word translation. The goal is to produce a translation that has the same effect on the
target audience as the original had on the source audience. Nida suggested that translations
should be faithful to the dynamic or functional aspect of the source text, so the translator might
make changes to word choice, structure, and idiomatic expressions to achieve a more natural or
emotionally resonant outcome. Critics argue that dynamic equivalence may lead to significant
departures from the original meaning in an effort to create a more familiar experience for the
target audience.

Cultural Turn in Translation Studies

This theory emphasizes the role of culture in translation, focusing on how translations reflect and
influence cultural norms, values, and power dynamics. Understanding translation as a cultural
act that is influenced by, and influences, the cultural context in which it takes place. This theory
places importance on how translators navigate cultural differences between the source and target
texts. Translation is not just linguistic but also involves negotiating cultural and ideological
aspects. It can be seen as overly focused on cultural context, sometimes downplaying the
linguistic and textual aspects of translation.

Foreignization vs. Domestication

This theory, proposed by Lawrence Venuti, explores two opposing translation strategies:

o Foreignization: The translator leaves elements of the foreign culture in the translation,
emphasizing the source culture.
o Domestication: The translator adapts the text to the target culture, making it more
familiar and accessible to the target audience.

The theory focuses on the decision to either retain the foreignness of the original or make the text
more natural and familiar in the target language. The theory recognizes that the choice between
foreignization and domestication often depends on the translator‘s purpose, the text‘s genre, and
the cultural distance between the source and target languages. Some argue that domestication can
lead to a loss of cultural identity, while foreignization can alienate readers who are unfamiliar
with the source culture.

Translation as Rewriting (Theo Hermans)

This theory views translation as a form of rewriting, where the translated text is not a mere
reproduction but a transformation shaped by the translator‘s choices and the socio-cultural
context. Translation is a transformative process, and the translated text is influenced by the
translator‘s decisions, the historical and cultural context, and the norms of the target culture.

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Hermans argues that translations are not neutral, but instead are influenced by power relations,
ideologies, and cultural forces. They are shaped by decisions about what to include, omit, or
emphasize. Some critics may argue that this theory overlooks the linguistic elements of
translation, focusing too much on cultural and ideological factors.

Intertextuality and Poststructuralist Approaches

Intertextuality, as explored by theorists like Julia Kristeva and Roland Barthes, suggests that a
translation is not just a static reproduction of the original but is interconnected with a network of
other texts, ideas, and interpretations. The translation is seen as part of a larger web of
intertextual references and meanings. The translator engages with the source text and its multiple
layers of meaning, considering how it relates to other texts and contexts. The focus is on
interpretation rather than exact replication. It can lead to a more subjective and less predictable
translation, as the emphasis on intertextuality may complicate the translation process.

The main principles of translation

A. The principle of following the TL norm
• Aim = facilitate communication between two communities who speak different languages
(= mediator role)  translators develop certain characteristic forms of behaviour
• The translator follows certain general translation principles:
- to take into consideration the TL reader.
- to must follow the TL norms
- to respect the SL text
B. The principle of cooperation
• Translators tend to option for the more explicit alternative
• Explication = expressing something in the TL text in a clearer and more open manner,
and possibly with the help of more words than in the SL text
• In seeking explication, the translator is guided by the principle of cooperation, because
in translation the receiver is absent)
• The translator generally relies less on the readers' imagination than authors of original
texts do, preferring to "play it safe"  one means is by using the strategy of explicitation
C. The principle of following the translation norm
• The translator is not only a mediator, but also a professional one  he/she has a
profession/trade, with its own rules
• The immense translational experience of previous generations has always been handed
down from one generation of translators to the next
• The principle of following tradition is also a principle that can guide translators in their
decisions
• Tradition is sometimes more highly valued by translators than the TL norm  existence
of a “translation norm” beside the target language norm
D. Don‟t translate literally
• You know more than anyone about what works best for your own language — and what
doesn‘t.
• The English version is a reference, a starting point, but at the end of the day you are
aiming for natural language. The best translations are the ones that don‟t sound like
translations.

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E. Keep an eagle‟s eye on typos which may creep in
 If you are not able to fix anything or if you find issues in the English copy, please report
it!
F. Make sure the translations are consistent at all times, across all platforms
 Don‘t translate ―Bookmarks‖ one way and have your translation buddy (or yourself, for
that matter) using a completely different word somewhere else. We don‘t want confused
users!
G. Use Consistent capitalization
 Whether you opt for ―Title Case‖ or ―Sentence case‖, just be consistent.
 Remember, you don‘t need to use the exact same capitalization that‘s in the English copy.
 Check what the convention is for your language.
H. Opt for the most often-used and natural expressions
 We‘re all guilty of this every once in a while.
 Sometimes when thinking in two languages at the same time, you‘ll come up with some
bits that are not necessarily wrong, but are just not the exact language people use.
 Of course correcting to natural expressions has two benefits: people resonate with the
copy better (“Don’t make them think”).
 If you are not sure, Google Trends is your friend!
I. Please don‟t overuse „please‟
 The English language uses ‗please‘ a lot; using the same ‗please‘ density when
translating to other languages might sound weird.
 Keep this in mind, and make some adjustments as you go along.
J. Develop and protect the company‟s tone of voice
 You know how some bands have their own sound, or when you are reading something
and there is something pleasantly distinctive about that author? We aim for that as well.
 The tone can vary a bit among languages (for instance, more playful in English, a hint of
sarcasm in Portuguese…), but never within the same language.
K. Translate culturally
 This is a subset of #D above — don‘t translate literally.
 The smallest details change when crossing a border.
 Remember these details, and translate not only words, but the idea behind them.
 A ―bar‖ doesn‘t have the same connotation everywhere.
 There‘s no use in beautifully crafting a sentence that mentions ―make the food less spicy‖
if that‘s a rare utterance in your country.
 Feel free to adapt these examples to your own country‘s reality
L. If it does not fit, change it
 When translating microcopy, you‘ll have limited space—especially on mobile platforms.
If you find truncated text, try to think of ways to shorten
M. Be critical
 Do you have a better suggestion for the content? Would a different design work better in
your country? Let us know!
 We‘ll never completely know all design and language constraints for each market—we
trust you to teach us and give us feedback if we miss something.

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3. Translation strategies

Translation strategies refer to various techniques and approaches that translators use to convert
text from one language to another while maintaining its meaning, tone, and cultural context.
Here are some common strategies:

1. Direct Translation Strategies: These strategies involve transferring the source language
(SL) text to the target language (TL) with minimal changes.

 Word-for-word translation: The translator directly substitutes words from the source
language into the target language. This is best used when the structures and vocabulary
are similar between the languages.
 Literal translation: The structure of the source language is maintained, but adjustments
may be made to make the translation more understandable in the target language. This
often involves preserving the meaning while adapting idiomatic expressions.

2. Oblique Translation Strategies: These are used when a direct translation would not
work due to differences in language structure or cultural context.

 Transposition: This involves changing the grammatical structure when translating. For
example, changing from active to passive voice or from a singular to a plural form, based
on the needs of the target language.
 Modulation: This strategy involves changing the perspective of the text. It can be used to
reflect the meaning more naturally in the target language, even if it‘s not a literal match.
For example, translating "it‘s raining cats and dogs" to "it‘s raining heavily."
 Equivalence: This technique is often used when there is an idiomatic expression or
phrase in the source language that doesn't have a direct equivalent in the target language.
The translator uses an equivalent phrase in the target language that conveys the same
meaning.
 Adaptation: This involves changing cultural references to make them more relatable to
the target audience. For example, changing a cultural reference to food, holidays, or
customs from the source culture to something familiar to the target culture.

3. Explicitation: In this strategy, the translator makes the implicit information in the source
text more explicit in the target text. This may involve adding extra words to clarify meaning or
provide additional context.

4. Reduction: This strategy involves omitting some content in the target language. It might
happen when there is redundancy, cultural inappropriateness, or when the meaning can be
understood without certain details in the target culture.

5. Amplification: Amplification is the opposite of reduction. It involves adding extra

information or context to the translation in order to provide a more complete understanding of
the source text. This is often necessary when translating from a language that is more concise
into a language that requires additional explanation.

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6. Borrowing: Borrowing involves using a word or phrase from the source language without
translation. This is typically done for cultural or technical terms that have no equivalent in the
target language. It can also be used for brand names, technical jargon, or terms that have been
internationally accepted.

7. Cultural Substitution: In this strategy, a source culture-specific reference is replaced with

a target culture equivalent. This helps make the text more relatable to the audience of the target
language.

8. Calque: A calque is a type of borrowing where a foreign phrase or expression is translated

literally, word by word. For example, "skyscraper" in English might be calqued into French as
"gratte-ciel."

9. Compensation: When certain elements of the text are difficult to translate, compensation
allows for their inclusion elsewhere in the target text. It can involve conveying an emotion,
meaning, or detail in a different part of the translation to balance out the loss.

10. Paraphrase: This strategy is used when a direct translation doesn‘t convey the exact
meaning or when a simpler version of a more complex sentence is needed. Paraphrasing provides
an alternative formulation of the same idea.

11. Back Translation: This technique involves translating a text back into the original
language to check the accuracy of the translation. It‘s useful in situations requiring high
precision, like legal or technical documents.

Each strategy has its uses depending on the type of text being translated and the goals of the
translation (e.g., accuracy, readability, cultural adaptation). The challenge for a translator is to
find a balance that stays true to the source while being appropriate for the target audience.

12. Functional Equivalence: This strategy focuses on maintaining the same function or
effect in the target language rather than a literal translation. It‘s often used in translation of
advertisements, marketing materials, or films where the cultural impact of the message matters
more than a word-for-word rendering. The goal is to produce an effect on the target audience
equivalent to that of the original text. For example, in translating an advertising slogan, the goal
might be to evoke the same emotional response in the target language, even if it means
significantly altering the phrase‘s wording or structure.

13. Interlinear Translation: This is a literal word-for-word translation of a text where the
target language is placed directly below the source language text. This is often used in linguistic
studies or when trying to preserve exact sentence structure for academic purposes. It‘s less
commonly used in professional translation for broader audiences because it can lead to awkward
or unnatural phrasing in the target language.

14. Shadowing: Shadowing involves translating spoken text in real-time while mimicking the
rhythm, tone, and phrasing of the original speaker. This is often used in interpreting or in the

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translation of live speeches and dialogues, ensuring the flow and tone are consistent with the
source language.

15. Dynamic Equivalence (Skopos Theory): This strategy, based on Skopos theory,
emphasizes the purpose (skopos) of the translation and the need to adapt the text to suit the target
audience's needs, expectations, and context. In dynamic equivalence, the meaning and message
are prioritized over the literal form. For example, when translating a book for children, the
translator may opt for simpler vocabulary and structure, even if the source text is more complex,
in order to maintain the intended impact on young readers.

16. Sociocultural Strategy: This strategy involves adjusting the translation based on the
social and cultural context of the target audience. It's used when translating texts that contain
humor, idioms, or cultural nuances that may not easily carry over. The translator seeks to adapt
these references so that they resonate with the target culture. For instance, an American joke
about Thanksgiving might be altered for an audience in the UK, where Thanksgiving isn‘t
celebrated, into a joke about Christmas or another local tradition.

17. Reformulation: Reformulation refers to rewriting the original message in a different

format or style while still maintaining the same meaning. It often occurs when translating content
that has to conform to certain stylistic guidelines or when a more fluent expression is needed. For
example, if a scientific paper in the source language uses technical jargon that‘s obscure in the
target language, a translator might reformulate the complex terms into more accessible language
while keeping the technical accuracy intact.

18. Substitution: Substitution is used when a word or phrase in the source text does not exist
or has no clear equivalent in the target language. This often involves replacing terms with
equivalent expressions that reflect similar meaning or context. It's also used when there‘s a
specific cultural term in the source language that has no counterpart in the target language. For
example, if a source text refers to a specific event or custom that is unknown in the target culture,
the translator might replace it with something culturally relevant to the target audience.

19. Deletions: In some cases, the translator may delete elements of the source text if they are
irrelevant, unnecessary, or overly complex for the target audience. This is more common in
literary or creative translations, where the focus is on conveying the essence of the text rather
than preserving every single detail.

20. Localization: Localization refers to adapting the text to fit the local culture, conventions,
and expectations of the target audience. This includes adjusting content such as currency,
measurement units, date formats, and references to local customs and traditions.

21. Machine-Assisted Translation (MAT): This is a modern approach where translators

use tools like Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) tools or machine translation systems (such
as Google Translate) to assist with the translation process. The translator might rely on these
systems for basic translations or suggestions but will still perform human revisions to ensure
accuracy, style, and quality.

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22. Calquing: Calquing is a specific form of borrowing in which a foreign word or phrase is
translated literally into the target language, often resulting in a hybrid or new expression. This is
particularly common in the creation of new terms in fields like science or technology.

23. Collaboration (Team Translation): In large-scale or specialized projects, a team of

translators might work together to divide up tasks. They may collaborate to ensure consistency
across different parts of the translation, especially if it‘s a very technical or lengthy document.
The team might use glossaries, style guides, and regular meetings to ensure the translation's
quality.

24. Literal Translation: Literal translation (also known as word-for-word translation)

involves translating the source language as directly as possible into the target language without
altering the word order or structure, often maintaining the exact form of the original text.

This approach is useful for texts where a high level of precision is necessary, such as technical or
legal documents. However, it may lead to awkward or unnatural phrasing in the target language
if the structures of the two languages differ significantly. Idiomatic expressions, cultural
nuances, or wordplay may not translate well.

25. Free Translation: Free translation (also called sense-for-sense translation) prioritizes
meaning over form. The translator focuses on conveying the sense or the message of the source
text rather than sticking closely to the exact words or structure. This strategy is often used for
literary works, creative content, or when translating content for emotional resonance.

It allows more flexibility and can create a more natural-sounding translation in the target
language, especially when dealing with idiomatic expressions, cultural references, or creative
content, but there‘s a risk of losing the nuances or some of the original meaning, especially in
technical or highly specialized texts.

26. Cultural Adaptation: Cultural adaptation involves modifying content so that it resonates
with the culture of the target audience. This strategy is common in the translation of
advertisements, films, literature, or content with a lot of cultural references. It helps the text feel
more familiar or relevant to the target audience by replacing source culture-specific elements
with those that align with the target culture‘s norms, expectations, or understanding.

It helps the content feel natural and relatable to the target audience, particularly when the source
text includes references, humor, or customs that are unfamiliar or irrelevant to the target culture,
but it can sometimes stray too far from the original text, making it feel like a new creation rather
than a faithful translation.

27. Transcreation: Transcreation is a more creative form of translation that goes beyond
traditional translation methods. It combines both translation and adaptation but takes it a step
further by focusing on recreating the entire message in a way that evokes the same emotional
response in the target audience. This is often used in marketing, advertising, branding, or any
content that requires an emotional impact.

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It ensures that the final product works for the target culture not just linguistically but emotionally
and culturally. It's perfect for marketing materials, taglines, and advertising campaigns where
capturing the essence of the message is key.

Transcreation often moves away from the exact wording of the original and can sometimes result
in a version that feels like an entirely new piece of content. This can be challenging when it‘s
necessary to preserve specific details from the source text.

4. The unit of translation

The unit of translation refers to the smallest meaningful unit of text that a translator works with
when translating from one language to another. This unit can vary depending on the context and
nature of the text being translated. Some common units of translation include:
1. Word: Translating at the word level involves rendering individual words from the source
language into the target language. This approach is useful for maintaining accuracy and
consistency in translation, but may not always capture the full meaning of a text.
2. Phrase: Translating at the phrase level involves working with groups of words that form a
meaningful unit within a sentence. Translating phrases allows for a more nuanced and
contextually accurate rendering of the source text.
3. Sentence: Translating at the sentence level involves working with complete sentences to
convey the intended meaning of the source text. This approach is useful for capturing the overall
message and structure of a text.
4. Paragraph: Translating at the paragraph level involves working with larger chunks of text to
maintain coherence and flow between sentences. This approach is useful for maintaining the
structure and organization of longer texts.
5. Text: Translating at the text level involves considering the entire document or piece of content
as a whole, taking into account the overall message, tone, and style of the source text. This
approach is useful for ensuring consistency and coherence across an entire document.

5. A Text
Text in a very broad sense includes written and printed texts such as shopping lists and
newspaper articles are 'texts', but so also are transcripts of (spoken) conversations and interviews,
as well as television programs and web-pages. We might say that any actual instance of language
in use is a `text‘ though even that is too limited, because texts such as television programs
involve not only language but also visual images and sound effects. The term `language' will be
used in its most usual sense to mean verbal language words, sentences, etc. We can talk of
`language' in a general way, or of particular languages such as English or Swahili. The term
discourse (in what is widely called `discourse analysis') signals the particular view of language in
use referred to above as an element of social life which is closely interconnected with other
elements (Fairclough, 2003).

About the definition of text, up till now there has not been a definite and perfect one in linguistic
field. Different linguists have different opinions.
 Brown and Yule (1983) in their Discourse Analysis also define text as the verbal record
of a communicative act.

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 Halliday & Hasan (1976) define text as any passage, spoken or written, of whatever
length, that does form a unified whole.
Text is a linguistic structure woven out of words or signs. A text contains meaning which is
open to interpretation. Sometimes a text can mean anything that we can ―read‖ or analyses, such
as fashion, or a map. However, most times we come across the word ―text‖ it has an explicitly
literary meaning. The term was first used to denote parts of the Bible studied by scholars, or the
body of a literary work which was subject to the scrutiny of editors and bibliographers.
Text may be defined as a relatively independent and hierarchically structured linguistic unit
(macrostructure) which reflects a complex state of affairs and has a specific communicative
intention. The state of affairs may refer to the real world or to the world of imagination and
fiction. A text is a sequence of paragraphs that represent an extended unit of speech.

5.1. Types of texts

There are various types of texts that translators may work with, each presenting its own set of
challenges and considerations. Some common types of texts include:
1. Literary texts: This category includes novels, short stories, poems, plays, and other creative
works. Translating literary texts requires a deep understanding of the nuances of language,
cultural references, and literary devices in order to capture the author's style and intent.
2. Legal texts: Legal texts encompass contracts, court documents, statutes, and other legal
materials. Translating legal texts requires precision, accuracy, and knowledge of legal
terminology in both the source and target languages.
3. Technical texts: Technical texts include manuals, scientific papers, engineering documents,
and other specialized materials. Translating technical texts requires subject matter expertise,
attention to detail, and the ability to convey complex information accurately.
4. Medical texts: Medical texts encompass medical reports, research papers, patient records, and
other healthcare-related materials. Translating medical texts requires knowledge of medical
terminology, accuracy in conveying medical information, and adherence to strict confidentiality
standards.
5. Business texts: Business texts include financial reports, marketing materials, business
correspondence, and other commercial documents. Translating business texts requires an
understanding of industry-specific terminology, cultural norms in business communication, and
the ability to convey a professional tone.
6. Website content: Website content includes web pages, blog posts, product descriptions, and
other online materials. Translating website content requires knowledge of digital marketing
trends, search engine optimization (SEO) techniques, and the ability to adapt content for
different target audiences.
7. Audiovisual materials: Audiovisual materials include subtitles for films and TV shows,
voiceovers for videos, and other multimedia content. Translating audiovisual materials requires
synchronization with visual elements, consideration of timing and pacing, and the ability to
convey meaning effectively through spoken language.
Most linguists agree on the classification of texts into five discourses. These are narrative,
descriptive, argumentative, instructive, and comparison/contrast. Some classifications divide the
types of texts according to their function. Others differ because they take into consideration the
topic of the texts, the producer and the addressee, or the style. Adam and Petitjean, (1989)
proposed analyzing of overlaps of different text types with text sequences. Virtanen (1992)

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establishes a double classification (discourse type and text type) to be used when the
Identification text-text type is not straightforward.
Further, types of texts can be classified in other classification as: .spoken Vs written
a. Spoken language
Spoken language (text) can be realized as with different intonations which expresses
grammatical, attitudinal, and discourse meaning and tone (melody): fall, rise-fall, rise, fall-rise,
level. In addition, spoken language has the following functions:
• Action: guidelines or directions given, teacher instructions;
• Social contact: telephone conversations, chats;
• Information: lecture, presentation, political speech;
• Entertainment: jokes, radio programs, etc.
b. Written language
Written text has also the following Functions:
• Action: e.g. public signs, product labels and instructions, recipes, maps, TV- guides, bills,
menus, telephone directories.;
• Social contact: e.g. letters, postcards, greeting cards;
• Information: e.g. newspapers, magazines, non-fiction books, textbooks, advertisements,
reports, guidebooks;
 Entertainment: e.g. light magazines, fiction books, poetry, drama, film subtitles, games

5.2. What are standards of textualaity?

1. Cohesion: is the glue that holds a piece of writing together. It is that we create a sense of
flow in our sentences. It is the glue that gives a paragraph unity. Cohesive devices
certainly include transitional words and phrases such as therefore, furthermore, or for
instance that clarify for readers the relationships among ideas in a piece of writing.
Repetition of a key words and use of reference words are also need for cohesion. One
way to create this flow is by linking each sentence to the one before the principle of old-
new chaining.
2. Coherence: can be thought as how meaning and sequences of ideas related to each other.
The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly. Coherence requires linking sentences so that
they merge into unified passage, and to establish the links the reader need the following
methods such as, limit the number of topics, try to provide one consistent topic string,
make the topic evident by using transitional words or phrases and repeating key words.
3. Intentionality: concerns the text procedure attitude that the set of occurrence should
constitute a cohesive and coherent text instrumental in fulfilling the procedures
intentions. Example: To distribute knowledge to attain a GOAL specified in a PLAN.
Intentions of text procedures;
 Intention to reduce a text whose language configuration is cohesive and coherence;
 All the ways in which text procedures utilize texts to pursue and fulfill their intentions;
4. Acceptability: concerns the text receivers‘ attitude that the set of occurrences should
constitute a cohesive and coherent text having some use or relevance for the receiver.
Example: to acquire knowledge or provide co-operation in a plan relies on Grice maxim
or situationality.
5. Informativity: concerns with the extent to which the occurrences of the presented text
are expected versus unexpected or known vs unknown. Informativity refers to provide

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adequate information. Example: the sea is water is not informative but it becomes
informative in more complex statement. The sea is water only in the sense that water is
the dominant substance of living organism.

6. Situationality: concerns the factors which make a text relevant to situation of

occurrence. Situationality is sometimes subject to negotiation by participants.
7. Intertextuality: concerns the factors which make the utilization of a text depend on
knowledge of one or more previously encountered texts. The production reception of a
given text depends up on the participant‘s knowledge of other texts

What do we translate?

We translate nothing but "MEANING".

What is meaning?
• It is a complicated network of language components.
• It is the product of different elements of language.
• Taken together occurring in a certain type of texts and contexts, and directed to a certain
• We are always interested in how these elements combine, produce, influence, reflect and
crystalize meaning.

6. The analysis of meaning

The analysis of meaning, also known as semantic analysis, is a fundamental aspect of translation
and language processing. It involves understanding the underlying meaning of words, phrases,
sentences, and texts in order to accurately convey that meaning in another language. Here are
some key points to consider when analyzing meaning in translation:
1. Context: Understanding the context in which a word or phrase is used is crucial for
determining its intended meaning. Context includes the surrounding words, the overall message
of the text, cultural references, and the specific situation in which the communication takes
place.
2. Connotation vs. denotation: Words can have both denotative (literal) and connotative
(emotional or implied) meanings. Translators must consider both aspects to accurately convey
the full meaning of a text.
3. Cultural nuances: Language is deeply intertwined with culture, and certain words or
expressions may have different meanings or connotations in different cultural contexts.
Translators need to be aware of these nuances to avoid misunderstandings or misinterpretations.
4. Idioms and figurative language: Idioms, metaphors, and other forms of figurative language
can be challenging to translate because their meaning may not be immediately apparent in
another language. Translators must find equivalent expressions that convey the same idea
effectively.
5. Register and tone: The register (formality level) and tone of a text can significantly impact its
meaning. Translators need to match the register and tone of the original text in their translations
to ensure that the intended message is accurately conveyed.
6. Pragmatics: Pragmatics refers to the study of how language is used in context to achieve
specific communicative goals. Translators must consider pragmatic factors such as politeness,
implicature, and speech acts when analyzing meaning in translation.

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7. Ambiguity: Ambiguity occurs when a word or phrase has more than one possible
interpretation. Translators must carefully analyze ambiguous language to determine the intended
meaning and choose the most appropriate translation.

7. Dynamic equivalence and the receptor of the message

Dynamic equivalence is a translation theory that focuses on conveying the meaning and effect of
the source text in a way that is natural and easily understood by the target audience. In dynamic
equivalence, the emphasis is on capturing the overall message, tone, and impact of the original
text, rather than producing a word-for-word or literal translation.

When applying dynamic equivalence in translation, the translator considers the receptor of the
message, or the target audience who will be reading or listening to the translated text. The goal is
to ensure that the translation resonates with the target audience and effectively communicates the
intended message in a way that is culturally appropriate and relevant to them.
By taking into account the characteristics, preferences, and cultural background of the receptor
of the message, translators can make informed decisions about how to adapt the source text to
meet the needs and expectations of the target audience. This may involve adjusting the language,
tone, style, and cultural references in the translation to ensure that it is clear, engaging, and
meaningful to the intended readers or listeners.
Overall, dynamic equivalence and consideration of the receptor of the message go hand in hand
in translation, as they both aim to facilitate effective communication across languages and
cultures. By prioritizing the needs and understanding of the target audience, translators can
create translations that are not only accurate and faithful to the original text but also resonate
with and engage the readers or listeners in a meaningful way.

Dynamic equivalence is a translation theory that focuses on conveying the meaning and intent of
a message in a way that is culturally appropriate and relevant to the target audience. The receptor
of the message in this context refers to the person or group who receives and interprets the
translated message.

In dynamic equivalence, the translator aims to bridge the cultural and linguistic gaps between the
source language and the target language to ensure that the message is accurately understood by
the receptor. This may involve adapting the language, tone, and cultural references of the
original text to make it more accessible and meaningful to the target audience.

By considering the needs and expectations of the receptor, dynamic equivalence seeks to create a
translation that effectively conveys the intended message while taking into account cultural
nuances and differences. This approach helps ensure that the translated text resonates with the
target audience and effectively communicates the original message in a way that is clear and
meaningful to them.

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8. Textual pragmatics and equivalence

Textual equivalence refers to the similarity in content and form between the source and target
texts, while pragmatic equivalence refers to the similarity in meaning and function between the
texts.
Textual equivalence in translation refers to the accurate representation of the source text in the
target language, maintaining the same meaning, structure, and style. It involves finding
equivalent words, phrases, and grammatical structures in the target language.
Pragmatic equivalence, on the other hand, focuses on conveying the intended meaning and
effect of the source text in the target language, taking into account cultural and contextual
factors. It involves understanding and reproducing the communicative function, illocutionary
force, and relevance of the source text in the target language. Achieving pragmatic equivalence
requires considering the expressive speech acts, literary devices, and rhetorical tools used in the
source text and finding appropriate equivalents in the target language. Overall, both textual and
pragmatic equivalence are important aspects of translation that aim to ensure accurate and
effective communication between different languages and cultures.

9. Method/procedures and process of translation

If you think that ―translation‖ is merely the conversion of a word, sentence or text from one
language into another, perhaps you should read this article. To start with, we can let you know
right away that a translator‘s job is far more than that. Translations are not done in a straight line;
they represent in fact a set of tasks with different durations and degrees of complexity. Thus,
translation is a process and each of those processes has a different level of demand, depending on
many variables.
These are the steps we consider to be essential to any translation process:
The translation process in six steps
A. Analysis of the text
Reading through a text, if possible from start to finish, is one of the most important tasks in the
whole translation process. Obviously, this step allows us to identify the original language of the
text, but, more important than that, also the subject matter of the original text, the nature of the
translation (if it is technical, legal, marketing or something else), the research that will be
required and the adequate resources to handle the translation.
At this stage, the translator may also be able to have a forecast of the time needed to conclude
each one of the tasks, making it therefore possible to set a deadline and guarantee better time
management.
B. Research and translation
This is clearly the most demanding phase of the process and one that requires a faster pace.
Researching terms, may they be of legal, technological, mechanical or any other nature, so that
they are precise and accurate when placed in the context of the target language, is the task that
may compromise the most the quality of the translation and also the way it will be perceived by
the target audience.
C. Comparison between original and translation
This comparison is transversal to the entire translation process, from research and translation to
proofreading and desktop publishing. The primary objective of translation is to transpose,
without violating, the content of an original text from one language into another one. As such,

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this constant comparison between the original and the translation is essential for a good final
product.
D. Proofreading
Reading one last time through a final translation is essential if we want to rectify any details that
we might have overseen before. Ideally, this last read-through should occur a few hours after the
conclusion of the translation, but should there be some time constrains it needs to be handled
immediately. It‘s important to handle this task either way.
E. Review by another professional
It is common knowledge that four eyes see better than two. That said, the final review should be
handled by a professional assigned only to that unique task, who has not had yet any contact with
the work during its elaboration. This way, the reviewer can keep an open mind and clean eyes
and, thus, carry out the task in a rigorous manner.
F. Desktop Publishing or Formatting (DTP): This step, which is destined to preserve the
general appearance of the original document, is relevant from the point of view of interpreting
the document as a whole block, which has to maintain both the content and the form in order to
assure it will be absolutely comprehensible.

10. Semantic vs. Communicative translation

Translation scholar Peter Newmark (1916–2011) called these two approaches semantic
translation and communicative translation respectively.
According to Newmark, ‗semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and
syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.
Semantic translation has a source language bias; it is literal and the loyalty is to the ST (source
text) author. It is readable but remains with the original culture and assists the reader only in its
connotations if they constitute the essential message of the text. It tends to be more complex,
more awkward, more detailed, and tends to over translate – it is more specific than the original in
transferring nuances of meaning.
Semantic translation relates to the word or the word-group.
Communicative translation has a target language bias; it is free and idiomatic. It attempts to
make the reading process easier for the TL reader ‗who does not anticipate difficulties or
obscurities, and would expect a generous transfer of foreign elements into his own culture as
well as his language where necessary. It must emphasize the force rather than the content of the
message. It is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer, more direct, more conventional, tending to
under translate – it uses more generic terms in difficult passages.
Communicative translation relates to the sentence.

11. Loss Meaning (Translation problems or challenges specific to the source text)

This contextualization of the loss of meaning or translation problems allows us to define both the
theoretical and the practical level concepts related to different problems in order to manage the
quality of the translation.
Language problems
Linguistic translation problems are related to terminological, lexical, semantic and stylistic
problems. According to specialists, the translator works on linguistic forms: "... the translator
does not share the sense of linguistic forms but, he interprets." Analysis of these problems helped

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us a lot to understand the differences between the source language and the target language
compared with topics such as: the kind of words, the use of articles and prepositions, times and
verbal modes, and corresponding terminology specific to the field of theory and practice of
translation.
At the lexical level, the identification of problems of a translation is based on knowledge of
formal construction processes of linguistic forms: the bypass (fixing and suffix), composition
(words or terms compounds lexicalized expressions, idioms, proverbs) the abbreviation
(ellipse) and borrowing.
Stylistic problems are related to the expression in the target language of connotations, figurative
meanings or figures of speech used in the source text in order to give a particular expression to
the words mentioned.
Cultural problems
In terms of cultural issues, cultural references transfer problems are known. Culturally translation
problems are due to the differences between two different cultures. Understanding the message
implies, by the receiver, identification and decoding of the socio cultural type of information in
all sorts of allusions. These differences are encountered in texts called through cultural elements,
―cultural references‖ (―Culture-specific items‖). According to T. Cristea (1998: 179), language
systems in which evolve the language communities face specific diversification of areas
highlighted in the translation: "The confrontation of two natural languages in the transfer of
messages reveals firstly a common general structure which allows the translation and the
existence of weakly idiomatic areas and also the differences that attract disturbances in the
transmission of data experience."
Textual problems
The specific problems of textual are due to the understanding of the source text, compared to
intra-textual characteristics and extra-textual references, including the coherence and cohesion
textual elements.
The coherence and cohesion
Textual coherence and textual cohesion are the last two important elements in the analysis of
intra-textual factors. The coherence is directly related to the meaning and the unity of the text
quality and means that the sentences should follow a logical harmony for the message to be clear
and understandable. It manifests on the text (lexical field) and ensures the continuity, the growth
of information and the non-contradiction of the stated ideas.
According to G. Maingueneau (1991: 219), the sentence is analyzed as a syntactic-semantic
structure and also as support structure information within a specific textual dynamics. Cohesion
relates to the organization of the text, the sequence of ideas in the text, and must observe the
morphological and syntactic standards.
It manifests itself locally, sentence by sentence by spatial and temporal organizers (deictic) -
used to account for the cohesion of a text in time (the timeline and sequence of events).
Similarly, the connector systems (the discourse markers) like additive (and, moreover, also):
comparative (than, more); can have values.
The textual problem is in the organization of structures and phrases in the target text, because
they are very long in the source language. To solve the problem, we restructured and reorganized
the paragraphs, using the information of compensation method.
Pragmatic problems
The pragmatic translation problems are concerning the issuer, the receiver, the function (of target
of the two texts). According to the specialist (1991: 158), translation problems at the pragmatic

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level are created because of "the differences between the original text and the production
situation of the translation situation." The main differences of a pragmatic nature that appear
between the source text and target text are:
 The target text reader / source;
 The transmission path between the message text source / target text;
 The motivation of the source text / target text of (usually do not coincide);
 The text function target/source

12. Requirements for the translator

People often assume the task of translation is a simple process. Whereas this is a challenging task
that demands an individual‘s grip on the subject, a quality to write precisely, proficiency in
two languages, and a lot more dedication and consistency. Being a translator is undoubtedly a
rewarding job. However, it can only bring more money if you as a translator are patient and
tolerant enough to navigate the challenges of the process. The basic requirements and skill set of
being a translator are listed below.
i. Professional Skills
As the first basic requirement for a translator, professional skills consist of bi-lingual language
capability, familiarity with one discipline and the skill of using translation tools or search engine.
Bi-lingual language capability refers to the proficiency of one or more foreign
languages (including bilingual reading and comprehension ability, writing skills and capability
and the ability of oral expression, etc.) and the mastering of one‘s mother tongue.
Familiarity with one discipline means proficiency in one or more professional field, for example,
IT, machinery, electronics, communication, medicine, law, finance, etc. Great professional skills
undoubtedly make great professional translators.
The skill of using translation tools or search engine refers to the capabilities of appropriate tools,
software that are needed for work, and the ability to search for necessary information of the
internet.
ii. Consciousness of Responsibility
It is quiet important for a translator to have the consciousness of responsibility, which consists of
the passion for translation, ability of communication and cooperation, and professional integrity.
The passion for translation refers to the serious attitude towards work, strong sense of
responsibility and time sense. If also refers to finish the translation work in accordance with the
requirements in quality, quantity and time limit.
Good communication and cooperation skills are essential factors for translators, especially for
those working for translation companies where one or two or more teams need to work with one
project. Then it is quite important for translators to actively and efficiently communicate with
other translators or projector managers so as to solve problems and ensure the successful
completion of the project.
Good career integrity refers to the moral discipline and sense of confidentiality of a translator:
they shall not reveal the source and target translation document to any other individuals, groups
or organizations. In short, a professional translator has to be responsible and should understand
the responsibilities that come with this job.
iii. Extensive Knowledge
How can you keep the sensibility of appreciate the beauty of languages after working with
thousands of words? How can you separate the ―good‖ expressions or articles from ―bad‖ ones?

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why do you improve your translation ability as you deal with various materials? How can you
accumulate necessary knowledge and information for further development? The only way is
reading more and learning more and making conclusion.
It‘s a long way for you to go before you climb to the top the mountain of translation. When you
start your travel, remember to take the above skills and capabilities with you.
iv. Additional Criteria for a good translation/good product/
A good translation is one that carries all the ideas of the original as well as its structural and
cultural features.
• A good translation is easily understood.
• A good translation is fluent and smooth.
• A good translation is idiomatic.
• A good translation conveys the literary subtleties of the original meaning.
• A good translation distinguishes between the metaphorical and the literal meaning.
• A good translation reconstructs the cultural/historical context of the original meaning.
• A good translation makes explicit what is implicit in abbreviations, and in allusions to
sayings, songs, and nursery rhymes.
• A good translation will convey, as much as possible, the meaning of the original text
v. Personal requirements (social and self-management skills) for translation
Translation-related Skills
There are a number of skills that are not translation-specific, but general in nature and can be
applied to, or required by other fields of knowledge and specialization. Yet, they are relevant in
some way to the discipline of translation however indirectly. Here is the full list of these skills:
a) Professional skills (the principles of the profession of translation: honesty, faithfulness,
commitment, organization of work, good manners, professional agreement, disagreement,
negotiation, acceptance/refusal of work, keeping to agreed-upon legal conditions,
keeping translation specifications of the SLT, honoring the ethics of the profession on top.
b) Cognitive skills: defined as all the processes related to human mind and knowledge,
applied in different fields of knowledge, especially language learning, stylistics and
psychology. They include: attention, memory, logic and reasoning, auditory processing,
visual processing, process speed, executive, and thinking skills. How can cognitive skills
be put to use in translation? These skills are related in a way or another to the daily
practice of the translator both theoretically and practically.
c) Curiosity Skills: Venturing a Challenge: One of the best attributes a translator can have
is the curiosity to learn, develop himself/herself and explore new areas of skills,
research, unfamiliar subjects of translations, neologisms he/she comes across, or hear
about, spot potential and upcoming translation problems of newly explored areas of
specialization and types of texts and how to solve them, trace potential problems
translation jobs and, finally, the best means to get to the hearts of clients.
A good translator should be always curious and courageous enough to attempt translating any
challenging new text to acquire further experience in a new area no matter how
demanding it may be.
d) Ideological skills (the translator's discretion of expressing and negotiating his/her as well
as understanding the SL writer's ideologies, intentions, mentalities: how and when?).
e) Personal skills: the individual aptitude, passion, readiness and aptness to become a
translator in the first instance. So they are related to translation skills more indirectly than
directly, for, in a sense, the latter is based on the former, that is, without personal aptitude

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and passion for translation, a translator would not undertake translation as his/her own
career. Passion for translation is the precondition to be a success as a professional, and
specializing in particular one or two types of translation would ensure this success, yet
more emphatically. Translating what you like makes you like your job at heart, and feels
at home with it.
f) General knowledge skills (translators are required to be equipped with updated common
knowledge and extensive general education to be able to correct general knowledge
mistakes and misprints in translation and keep up with the latest information in the world)
g) Inductive and deductive reasoning skills (the translator's abilities to deduce pragmatic
meanings, implications, implicatures, and sub-text hidden meanings of a text, etc.; and
how he/she to reach conclusions by deduction, how to extract conclusion from the
general to apply it to the specific, how to apply reasoning in translation, etc).
h) Cloud-based Networking skills (cooperation among translators can be described as
inevitable, fruitful and useful to all of them.
i) Argument skills (principles of arguing, the translator's awareness of the techniques of
arguing in a convincing way, flexibility of argumentation and expression of opinions,
aptness to listen to and accept opposite views, when to raise an argument with, or against
the author's attitude and point of view, when and why to raise an argument, etc. Now how
to make use of argument skills in translation? Do translators argue in their job?
Translators do not argue with the SLT author as long as he/she does not insult anybody or
transgress some of the TL readership's values (whether, religious, cultural, social,
ideological or personal). However, in case the author trespasses any of these values, the
translator will respond and put forward a counter-argument.).
j) Computer skills (basic computer skills (of using the computer skillfully, software,
typing, inserting, typesetting, style-sheeting, page setup, printing, drawing, etc.) are a
must in translation these days, how to manage to deal with computer challenges and
problems and overcome them, administering and organizing the software the translator
works with, the documents he/she receives regularly and how to solve any problem
arising, taking a course in computer skills, when a translator's computer skills are lacking,
he/she should ask a friend, an expert or a fellow translator for advice, use online major
sites (Google, etc.) facilities, online research skills for including researching a field,
finding appropriate references, glossaries, and checking the latest in the field of
translation and computer software, solving problems in the event of technology failure,
the ability to use and optimize more efficient free open sources of translation memory
tools (like Omega T and Okapi Rainbow), partnering up with other reliable persons or
support sources in the field with respect to machine translation, Information Technology
(IT), Institute of Translation and Interpreting (ITI), etc.).
k) Marketing skills (business translation vs. translation business, possibly a translator
(especially a freelancer) is required to know how to market his/her translation
successfully, the best place/body to market his/her product, product promotion, meeting
the best marketing standards and values, economic and economical means and aims,
ethical marketing, business negotiation, etc.)

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14. Proposition about Translation

When discussing translation, various propositions or theories come into play. These propositions
often revolve around how language, culture, meaning, and context are handled during the
translation process. Here are some key propositions about translation:

1. Translation is an Act of Interpretation: Translation is not a simple word-for-word

conversion but an act of interpretation, where the translator must understand the meaning,
nuances, and intentions of the original text. The translator needs to convey the original message
in a way that makes sense to the target audience while preserving the spirit of the source.

2. Meaning is Central to Translation: One of the core propositions is that translation must
focus on conveying meaning, not merely the form of the original text. This implies that a
translation may sometimes depart from the exact wording but should retain the original ideas,
emotions, and intentions.

3. Cultural Context Matters: Translation is deeply tied to culture. A translator must be aware
of cultural differences and local customs to produce a translation that resonates with the target
audience. This could involve adapting references, idioms, and concepts that may not directly
exist in the target language.

4. There is No Perfect Translation: The "untranslatability" theory posits that some aspects of a
text can never be perfectly transferred into another language. This is often the case with
idiomatic expressions, puns, or cultural references. As a result, translation often involves
compromise or finding equivalent expressions rather than exact matches.

5. Equivalence is a Key Concept: One proposition in translation theory is the idea of

"equivalence" — that is, the translated text should maintain equivalence to the original text in
terms of meaning, tone, and style. Different theories propose different types of equivalence, such
as formal (focus on form) and dynamic (focus on meaning) equivalence.

6. The Translator‟s Role as a Mediator: The translator is often seen as a mediator between the
source culture and the target culture. The translator doesn‘t just translate words; they also convey
the context, emotions, and deeper cultural meanings embedded in the text.

7. Fidelity vs. Creativity: Translation is often described as a balancing act between being
faithful to the source text (fidelity) and making the translation flow naturally in the target
language (creativity). This tension may lead to discussions on whether a translator should
prioritize accuracy or readability.

8. Machine Translation vs. Human Translation: With the rise of artificial intelligence and
machine translation, there is ongoing debate about the quality and role of human versus machine
translation. Some argue that machines can handle technical or straightforward translations well,
but they struggle with nuances, idioms, and cultural context that humans handle much better.

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9. Translation as a Literary and Artistic Process: Some theorists view translation as a form of
literary or artistic creation in its own right, suggesting that translators can exercise creativity and
bring their own voice to the process, while still respecting the original work.

10. Translation is a Dynamic Process: Translation is seen as a dynamic process because

languages are not static, and neither is culture. As society evolves, translations must adapt to new
contexts, meanings, and technological developments. This leads to continuous reinterpretation
and adaptation of texts over time.

15. Testing Translation

Testing translation typically involves assessing the quality of a translation to ensure it meets
certain criteria, such as accuracy, fluency, and cultural appropriateness. Here are some key
methods and approaches used to test translation:

1. Back Translation: Wherein the target text is then translated back into the source language by
a third-party translator. It‘s expensive, slow, and doesn‘t always mean anything, as the varying
level of skill on the part of the translators has a lot to do with how the back-translation turns out.
This involves translating a text from the target language back into the source language, usually
by a different translator. The back-translated version is then compared with the original to
identify any discrepancies or errors. This method helps to verify the accuracy of the translation
and check if the meaning is preserved in both directions.

2. Parallel Text Comparison: Comparing the translated text with other existing translations of
the same text (if available). This allows for identifying common translation choices, checking for
consistency, and evaluating the effectiveness of various approaches. This helps to gauge whether
the translation aligns with standard or accepted practices in the translation community.

3. Readability Testing: This involves assessing how easily the target audience can read and
understand the translated text. Common readability tests include measures like sentence length,
vocabulary complexity, and overall fluency of the text. It ensures that the translation is natural
and accessible to the target audience, especially in texts like user manuals, marketing materials,
and websites. In this test, the same exercise is performed: A fluent speaker is asked to read the
translation, only this time it‘s read out loud. The metric here is how easy it is for them to read
your work. Every stumble, hesitation, or point of confusion is noted carefully. The goal is to
have no rough spots where a fluent speaker stumbles.

4. Native Speaker Evaluation: A native speaker of the target language evaluates the translation
for its fluency, accuracy, and appropriateness. They provide feedback based on their cultural and
linguistic understanding. Native speakers can detect subtleties in language that non-native
speakers may miss, such as idiomatic expressions, cultural references, and the overall tone of the
translation.

5. Error Analysis: This involves a detailed analysis of the translated text to identify specific
types of errors (e.g., lexical, syntactic, cultural, or technical). These errors can be categorized

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based on their severity and impact on meaning. By identifying errors, this approach helps to
improve translation quality and refine the translator's skills.

6. Expert Review: Translation experts or subject matter specialists review the translation to
assess its technical accuracy, especially in specialized fields (e.g., legal, medical, or scientific
texts). This may include checking for terminology consistency and domain-specific knowledge.
Expert reviews ensure that the translation is accurate, technically sound, and appropriate for
specialized contexts.

7. Automated Translation Quality Assessment: Tools like BLEU (Bilingual Evaluation

Understudy), METEOR, and TER (Translation Edit Rate) use algorithms to assess the
quality of machine-generated translations. These metrics compare machine translation outputs to
reference translations and assign scores based on how closely the machine output matches the
reference. Automated metrics can provide objective measures of translation quality, particularly
when evaluating large volumes of text.

8. Cultural Sensitivity Testing: This method focuses on ensuring that the translation is
culturally appropriate and does not contain any offensive or out-of-place references, especially
when translating materials for a diverse or international audience. It helps to avoid cultural
misunderstandings or the accidental inclusion of inappropriate content in the translation.

9. Contextual Consistency Testing: This tests whether the translation is consistent with the
broader context of the source material. For instance, does the translation maintain the tone,
intent, and style of the original? This is particularly important for literary and marketing
translations, where the style and tone are crucial to the overall message.

10. Audience Feedback: Gathering feedback from the target audience, especially in the context
of media, marketing, or entertainment, to assess how well the translation resonates with them.
Audience feedback ensures that the translation not only conveys the message but also appeals to
the audience‘s preferences, cultural sensibilities, and expectations.

11. Self-Check: the first is simple: A self-check where you read your own translation and
compare it directly to the original source text. While you may subconsciously overlook errors
because they‘re errors you make in a blind spot, this technique does at least catch simple
mistakes and conceptual errors you can make when you work on something piecemeal.

12. Comprehension Testing: this simple test can be very useful. A person fluent in (and
preferably a native speaker of) the target language reads a section of the translation, and is then
asked to describe what they have read. If they have difficulty, or if they cannot piece together the
meaning of the text, then obviously there is a problem.

13. Naturalness Testing: the final test can be useful, but is a bit harder to define. What you‘re
asking a fluent reader to do is read the translation and make note of any portion that seems
unnatural to them – awkward constructions, unusual vocabulary choices, what have you. It takes
a trained tester to be able to do this effectively, however.

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16. Translation in the Information Technology Era

Translation in the information technology era has undergone significant changes, primarily
driven by advancements in tools, platforms, and global communication. The digital
transformation has reshaped the way translation is done, making it faster, more accessible, and
more collaborative. Here are some key aspects of translation in the information technology era:

1. Machine Translation (MT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI)

 Machine Translation: Tools like Google Translate, DeepL, and Microsoft Translator
have revolutionized translation by allowing for instant translation between languages.
These systems rely on large datasets and algorithms to generate translations.
 Neural Machine Translation (NMT): NMT, which uses deep learning models, has
significantly improved the quality of machine-generated translations. It understands
context better than older statistical machine translation models, making translations more
natural and accurate.
 AI-Powered Translation Tools: AI is continuously improving translation systems by
learning from vast amounts of linguistic data. These tools not only translate words but
also adapt to different styles, tones, and specialized terminologies, making them more
effective in various fields (like legal, medical, or technical translations).

2. Cloud-Based Translation Platforms

 Translation Management Systems (TMS): Platforms like SDL Trados Studio,

Memsource, and Smartling provide a cloud-based environment for translators, enabling
them to manage large translation projects more efficiently. These systems help coordinate
translation efforts, manage glossaries, track versions, and maintain consistency across
texts.
 Collaboration Tools: Cloud technology enables translators to collaborate in real-time,
share resources, and provide feedback, all of which improve the overall quality and speed
of translation projects.

3. Crowdsourced Translation

 Community-Based Translation: Many companies and organizations now use

crowdsourcing to translate content. Platforms like Crowdin and Transifex allow a large
number of people (native speakers of the target languages) to participate in the translation
process. This is particularly useful for websites, apps, and software, where localization
into multiple languages is crucial.
 Open-Source Projects: Projects like Wikipedia and software development communities
rely on crowdsourced translations to create multilingual versions of their platforms,
fostering global collaboration.

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4. Localization

 Beyond Translation: Localization (L10N) goes beyond translation by adapting content

to the cultural and linguistic norms of a specific target audience. This is especially
important for websites, software, and marketing materials where cultural references,
images, and even design choices might need to be adjusted.
 Automated Localization Tools: Software tools now automatically detect and manage
content that needs to be localized, making it easier for businesses to expand globally.
Some platforms even offer automatic suggestions for culturally sensitive translations.

5. Real-Time Translation

 Instant Messaging and Communication Tools: With the rise of global business
interactions, tools like Skype, Zoom, and Slack now offer real-time translation features,
breaking down language barriers in real-time communication. These tools use AI to
transcribe and translate spoken language into text, enabling seamless international
conversations.
 Voice Translation: Technologies like Google Translate‘s speech-to-speech translation
allow real-time voice translation, helping travelers and businesses communicate in
different languages instantly.

6. Automated Subtitling and Captioning

 Speech Recognition Technology: Platforms like YouTube, Facebook, and Instagram

automatically generate captions and subtitles for videos in multiple languages. This is
made possible by speech recognition algorithms paired with machine translation.
 AI-Enhanced Subtitling: AI systems can now automatically sync translated subtitles
with the timing of video content, ensuring that viewers in different languages can enjoy
videos without manual intervention.

7. Personalized Translation Services

 User-Generated Content: Social media platforms, online forums, and review sites now
make it possible for users to translate content into different languages, with the added
benefit of context-specific nuances. This fosters user-driven translation and interaction on
a global scale.
 Customization in Business: Businesses are increasingly using AI-driven tools to
personalize translations based on user behavior, location, and preferences, ensuring a
more tailored and localized experience.

8. Blockchain in Translation

 Smart Contracts for Translation Work: Blockchain technology is beginning to make

its way into translation projects by providing transparency and security in translation
agreements. Smart contracts on the blockchain can automate payments, verify
translations, and protect intellectual property rights.

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  Decentralized Translation Networks: Blockchain platforms are being developed to
connect translators directly with clients through decentralized networks, eliminating
intermediaries and allowing for more direct, secure transactions.

9. Translation Memory (TM) and Terminology Management

 Translation Memory: TMs are databases that store previous translations for reuse in
future projects. This helps maintain consistency across projects and reduces the amount
of time spent translating repetitive content, making the process more efficient.
 Terminology Management: Tools like TermBase help translators manage specialized
terms, ensuring that terms are translated consistently across different documents,
especially in technical and scientific fields.

10. Ethical Considerations in AI Translation

 Bias and Accuracy: While AI-powered translation systems are improving, they are not
free from biases. Machine translation systems can perpetuate stereotypes or inaccuracies,
especially when it comes to translating nuanced or culturally sensitive content. There is
an increasing push to address these ethical challenges and make AI translation more
inclusive.
 Human vs. Machine: Despite technological advancements, human translators are still
crucial, particularly for tasks that require cultural insight, creativity, or domain-specific
knowledge. Many experts believe the future of translation will involve a synergy between
human expertise and AI tools.

11. Global Access to Translation

 Democratizing Translation: With the availability of free and affordable online

translation tools, individuals and organizations worldwide now have access to translation
services that were previously out of reach. This has opened up opportunities for
communication, education, and business across language barriers, fostering a more
connected global community.
 Education and Learning: Translation technology has also played a key role in language
learning by providing instant translations of phrases, vocabulary, and grammar. This is
helping individuals learn new languages more effectively through apps, websites, and AI-
based tutors.

In summary, the information technology era has radically transformed the field of translation,
making it faster, more efficient, and increasingly automated. However, the human element
remains critical in ensuring that translations are accurate, culturally appropriate, and context-
sensitive. As AI continues to evolve, we can expect even more seamless integration of translation
technology into our daily lives, further bridging the gaps between languages and cultures. Would
you like to explore any of these trends in more detail?

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 2. INTERPRETATION

What is Interpretation?

Translating and interpreting is an interesting and challenge job for a number of reasons.
Translating or interpreting is to enable the trainees to form as rapidly as possible correct
structures in the transfer of written or spoken texts from one language to another. The translator
or interpreter must create in the reader‘s or listener‘s mind the exact impression that the source
writer or speaker intended to convey. Most of translators and interpreters must be ready to work
in any subject. This seemingly impossible requirement is, in fact, attainable partly because it is
more important to transfer the precise meaning of the original text than to produce faithfully in
the target language the words, phrases or sentence produced in the source language.

How Does Interpretation Differ from Translation?

Five key differences

1. Spoken versus written: interpretation is the transference of meaning between spoken

languages, while translation is the transference of meaning between written languages.

2. Real time versus delayed: Interpreting occurs in real time. It happens in person, on the
phone, or through a television/ video service. Because translation involves the written
word, it typically takes place long after a text is created, which gives the translator time
to access resources (dictionaries, glossaries, subject matter experts, etc.) to produce an
accurate and effective end document (or website, etc.).

3. Level of accuracy: Interpretation and translation demand different levels of accuracy.

While interpreters aim to be completely accurate, it‘s difficult to achieve in a live
conversation. They may omit some details of the original speech as they interpret into the
target language. Conversely, translators have time to evaluate and revise each word and
sentence before delivering their product, so they can achieve a greater level of accuracy
and greater fidelity to the original.

4. Direction and fluency: An interpreter must be fluent enough in both the original
language and the target language to be able to translate in both directions, on the spot,
without any reference material. Interpreters are highly qualified people, and the work is
quite demanding! It‘s so demanding that interpreters work in pairs and must switch off
every 20 0r 30 minutes or so to prevent mental fatigue. Typically, professional translators
only work in one direction translating into their native language. As such, translators do
not have to be as fluent in the source language as an interpreter must be. The key skills of
a translator are to understand the source language and to use their knowledge of the target
country‘s cultural and language norms to create an effective translated product.

5. Intangibles: Both translators and interpreters are faced with the challenge of making
metaphors, analogies, and idioms understandable to the audience in the target language.

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However, interpreters must also capture tone, voice quality, and the other intangible elements of
the spoken word and convey those meaningfully to the audience.

Despite the differences in the skills of translators and interpreters, both are bilingual
professionals who share a passion for conveying meaning to people who would otherwise be
unable to understand the information at hand.

Types of interpretation (interpreting)

There are different types of interpreting. But the following are the most common types of
interpreting

1. Media interpreting: it is provided particularly for live Television coverage such as press
conference, live or taped interviews with political figures, musicians, artists, sport men or
people from business circle.

2. Conference interpretation: it is the interpretation of official meeting.

3. Medical interpreting: it consists of communication among medical personnel and

patient and his or her family facilitated by an interpreter.

4. Legal and court interpreting: it occurs in courts of justice, administrative tribunals (a

type of court with the authority to deal with a particular problem) or disagreement.

5. Sign language interpreting: here an interpreter will render the speaker‘s meaning
expressed into the sign or an interpreter will render the meaning expressed in signs into
the spoken language.

6. Escort /guide/ interpreting: in this type of translation an interpreter accompanies a

person or delegation on a tour on visit or to a meeting or interview.

Modes of interpretation

Modes of interpreting can be divided as simultaneous and consecutive.

A. Simultaneous interpretation: is giving immediate response at the same time. In other

language the interpreter renders the message in target language as quickly as he or she
can formulate it from the source language while the source language speaker
continuously speaks. Simultaneous interpreting is the most common mode used by sign
language interpreters.

B. Consecutive interpretation: the speaker stops frequently, typically everyone to five

minutes, to allow the interpreter to render what was said into the target language. The
speaker‘s pauses come at the end of a paragraph or topic. While waiting, the interpreter
sits or stands beside the speaker, listening and taking notes as the speaker progresses

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through the message. It is the process of interpreting or the interpreter gives response
with a gap between interpreter and source speaker.

It is commonly done into the interpreters ―A‖ and ―B‖ languages. The interpreter takes notes
while listening to a speech then does his/her interpretation during pauses.

The interpreter speaks after the source language speaker has finished speaking. Listen and take
notes as the speaker progresses through the message.

C. Whispered: The interpreter sits or stands next to a small target-language audience and
whispers a simultaneous interpretation. This method is generally used only when a few
audience members do not speak the source language.

D. Relay: A source-language interpreter expresses the message to a group of interpreters

who have a language in common and each speaks another language as well. In turn, these
interpreters convey the message to their respective target audiences. For example, a

German speech is first interpreted in English to a group of interpreters, and is then

interpreted by each into French, Japanese, Spanish, and Italian.

Qualities of effective interpreter

 Familiar with the general subject of the spoken language that is to be interpreted.
 Intimately familiar with the cultures of both the original language and the target
language.
 Extensive vocabulary in the original language and the target language.
 Expresses thoughts clearly and accurately in the target language.
 Excellent note-taking skills (when consecutive interpreting).
 Quick decision making skills (generally there is no time to assess which variant is best).
Interpreter‟s competencies
Interpreting is a hard and honorable job which plays a crucial role in the success of any
operation. Interpreting itself can be described in simple terms as: the interpreter has first to listen
to the speaker, understand and analyze what is being said, and then construe the speech in the
appropriate form in a different language. In order to fulfill this role, interpreters need to have the
following set of basic competencies.
Cultural guide: A competent interpreter is an intermediary not only for language but also for
culture. This is extremely important. As the task of the interpreter is to facilitate communication,
the interpreter must know not only the meaning of words in another language, but he or she must
also understand the meaning of concepts in both cultures. It is important to note that although the
same language may be spoken in different countries, words may have different meanings.
An interpreter needs to educate him or herself on the meanings of different words in different
countries to help avoid a breakdown in communication.
Confidentiality: Interpreters must maintain confidentiality at all times.
Accuracy: An interpreter must interpret accurately. No information should be added or omitted.
In addition, a professional interpreter will also convey the spirit of the message, and interpret in a
way that the listener will understand.

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Example: An interviewee uses foul language and expresses dislike of the mission member. Even
though the interpreter may feel uncomfortable about possibly offending the mission member, he
or she has to interpret as accurately as possible so that the mission member gets all the
information and can make an accurate assessment.
Objectivity: Interpreters must not provide advice or give their own opinions. The interpreter
facilitates communication only, and does not accept responsibility for the communication
outcome.
Neutrality: The interpreter uses the same form of speech as the speaker: i.e., the first person.
Assertiveness: The interpreter must be assertive when necessary to prevent a breakdown in
communication. If the interpreter notices that the mission member and the addressee do not
understand each other despite the fact that he or she is interpreting correctly, the interpreter needs
to be assertive in asking for a pause to give him or her time to explain.
Responsibility: The interpreter must be well informed before providing interpretation. An
interpreter who knows what to expect when going on an assignment can prepare him or herself
for the occasion, thus improving the quality of the interpretation.
Preparedness: The interpreter must be familiar with the terms commonly used during fieldwork
in meetings, negotiations, etc.; in order to interpret this correctly, interpreters should be familiar
with the terminology in both source language and target language. Some concepts may not be
familiar in one or the other culture and interpreters should be able to interpret them in a
meaningful way to the addressee.
Knowledge: Interpreters must have extensive general knowledge. Any topic can come up in an
encounter between a mission member and a local person. It is very difficult to interpret what you
don‘t understand. Interpreters must therefore be well-read and familiar with a wide range of
issues and topics.
Professionalism: It is a sign of professionalism to ask mission members to describe a concept in
different words when an interpreter does not know the exact meaning.
Qualities of professional interpreters
The following qualities are commonly mentioned as essential for good general interpreting:
Language skills: Interpreters need to have a good command of their working languages to
interpret accurately.
Analytical skills: Analysis is foremost among the strategies employed by interpreters. It is so
essential that it can be considered an intrinsic part of the process. It is very important to analyze a
speech before interpreting it.
Listening and recall: Effective interpreting requires effective listening skills. The particular
kind of listening that interpreters perform is defined as "active listening". This attentive listening
is quite different from other forms of listening, and has to be learned by the interpreter. Virtually
all experts on interpreting also identify memory or recall as essential. In interpretation, memory
and understanding are inseparable: the one is a function of the other. Having a good memory is
especially important.
Interpersonal skills: Despite the stereotype of the conference interpreter who spends all day in
the booth addressing faceless bureaucrats in a disembodied voice, many conferences involve
direct contact between interpreters and participants.
Ethical behavior: Ethics are a major consideration for all interpreters. Delicate situations can
arise in meetings, particularly when working across ethnic boundaries in post-conflict
communities. These situations require interpreters to thoroughly understand their role and
exercise good judgment.

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Speaking skills: Most people associate speaking skills with appearances before large audiences
at public events such as congresses or press conferences. Indeed, public speaking is a key
component in the training of all types of interpreters. Even those interpreters who generally
interpret in more intimate settings need to be able to express ideas well. Effective speaking skills
range from quality of voice to choice of idiom, vocabulary, phrasing etc. So both words and
delivery are important in the overall effectiveness of the interpretation.
Cultural knowledge: It is almost universally acknowledged that interpreters working in certain
settings need to be acutely aware of cultural differences. Interpreters are not just linguistic but
also cultural intermediaries. In all of their work, interpreters must bridge the cultural and
conceptual gaps between mission members and other participants in a meeting.

Subject knowledge: Some mission members may wrongly believe that interpreters do not need
to prepare beforehand and gain some understanding of the subjects to be discussed in order to
interpret accurately (―You don't need to understand it, just translate it!‖). However, all experts
on interpreting recognize the need to acquire both technical terminology and knowledge of the
subject in relevant fields.

Additional Issues in Interpretation

In the field of interpretation, which is the real-time verbal translation of spoken language, there
are several additional challenges and issues that interpreters face. These challenges go beyond
just the basic task of translating meaning; they involve the nuances of communication, cultural
contexts, and the specific demands of different interpretation settings. Here are some of the
additional issues:

1. Speed and Time Constraints

 Challenge: Interpretation happens in real-time, meaning interpreters need to process and

translate spoken language instantly. This requires quick thinking, a broad vocabulary, and
deep knowledge of both languages. Interpreters often don‘t have the luxury of revisiting
or adjusting their translations.
 Solution: Effective interpreters develop mental strategies, such as chunking information,
listening for key ideas, and summarizing when necessary, to keep pace with the speaker.

2. Handling Accents, Dialects, and Regional Variations

 Challenge: In many multilingual settings, interpreters must deal with various accents,
dialects, and regional linguistic variations that can affect pronunciation, vocabulary, and
idiomatic expressions.
 Solution: Interpreters need to be familiar with these regional variations and, if possible,
prepare for them in advance. In certain cases, clarification from the speaker may be
required, but this isn‘t always feasible in a fast-paced conversation.

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3. Cultural Context and Sensitivity

 Challenge: Language is deeply tied to culture, and interpreting involves navigating

cultural references, norms, and expressions. Without proper cultural understanding,
interpreters might misinterpret or fail to convey the right tone or meaning.
 Solution: Interpreters must be culturally aware and adapt their interpretation to the
cultural context. This may involve adapting humor, colloquialisms, or references that
may not translate directly across cultures.

4. Technical Jargon and Specialized Vocabulary

 Challenge: In fields like medicine, law, and technology, interpreters often have to handle
complex terminology that requires specialized knowledge. Misinterpreting technical
terms can have serious consequences.
 Solution: Interpreters working in specialized fields often undergo training in the relevant
terminology and may consult glossaries or reference materials. For long-term
engagements, building a glossary of terms is also helpful.

5. Emotional Tone and Speaker‟s Intent

 Challenge: In spoken communication, emotional tone, intent, and non-verbal cues (like
body language) play an important role in conveying meaning. Interpreters must be able to
capture not only the words but also the emotions and intentions behind them.
 Solution: Interpreters use techniques to convey the emotional tone (e.g., using
appropriate intonation or phrasing) while ensuring that the original intent of the speaker
is preserved.

6. Simultaneous vs. Consecutive Interpretation

 Challenge: Simultaneous interpretation requires interpreters to interpret while the

speaker is still talking, which demands high levels of concentration and multitasking.
Consecutive interpretation, on the other hand, involves listening to the speaker for a
few minutes before translating, giving the interpreter more time to process the
information.
 Solution: Both forms of interpretation require specialized training. Simultaneous
interpreters often work in pairs to reduce cognitive fatigue, while consecutive interpreters
take notes and rely on memory and context to provide an accurate translation.

7. Interpreter Fatigue and Stress

 Challenge: Interpreting can be mentally exhausting, especially during long sessions or in

high-stakes environments like courtrooms or international conferences. Fatigue can affect
the quality of interpretation and lead to errors.
 Solution: Interpreters need to practice self-care and take regular breaks, particularly
during long events. Working in teams and rotating shifts (especially for simultaneous
interpretation) can help prevent exhaustion.

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8. Ambiguity in Source Language

 Challenge: Speakers may use ambiguous, vague, or unclear language that can be difficult
to interpret accurately. This can happen in legal, medical, or casual settings where context
is key to understanding the intended meaning.
 Solution: Interpreters may need to ask for clarification in some cases, though this isn't
always possible in real-time interpretation. They may need to rely on context to make an
educated guess about the intended meaning, but this can increase the risk of error.

9. Non-Verbal Communication

 Challenge: Interpreters also need to interpret non-verbal cues such as body language,
facial expressions, and gestures. These cues can provide important context but may vary
significantly across cultures.
 Solution: Interpreters must be adept at recognizing and conveying non-verbal
communication, and they may need to adapt their interpretation style depending on the
cultural norms of the parties involved.

10. Confidentiality and Ethics

 Challenge: Interpreters often work with sensitive information, particularly in medical,

legal, and diplomatic settings. Confidentiality and neutrality are paramount to ensuring
trust in the interpretation process.
 Solution: Interpreters must adhere to strict ethical guidelines, including confidentiality
agreements, and avoid letting personal biases or emotions influence their interpretation.
They must also be impartial, especially in conflict settings.

11. Interpreter Visibility and Neutrality

 Challenge: Interpreters in high-profile settings may struggle with balancing visibility and
neutrality. Sometimes, they are thrust into the limelight, either by virtue of their role or
the sensitivity of the subject matter, which can lead to pressure.
 Solution: In many professional contexts, interpreters strive to remain in the background
to maintain neutrality. It‘s important for interpreters to avoid any actions or behaviors
that might compromise their impartiality, even when faced with challenging or
controversial content.

12. Technological Challenges and Tools

 Challenge: The use of technology, such as remote interpretation (e.g., over video calls or
teleconferencing), introduces issues related to sound quality, connection stability, and
latency. A poor connection can interfere with the interpreter‘s ability to deliver accurate
interpretations.
 Solution: Interpreters need to be familiar with remote interpretation tools and platforms
(e.g., Zoom, Kudo, Interprefy) and must adapt to the challenges posed by virtual settings.

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 In such environments, it's crucial to ensure high-quality audio and video for accurate
communication.

13. Ethnic and Linguistic Diversity

 Challenge: In some multilingual settings, the presence of multiple dialects, languages,

and ethnic groups may require interpreters to work with several language pairs,
sometimes simultaneously. This can increase the complexity and demand on the
interpreter‘s skills.
 Solution: Interpreters in such settings need to be prepared for diverse language
combinations and must have strong cultural competence to understand and navigate
linguistic and ethnic differences.

14. Emerging Demand for Specialized Interpreting

 Challenge: In a globalized world, new domains of interpreting are emerging. For

example, interpreters are increasingly needed in fields such as sign language
interpretation, emergency interpreting (for humanitarian crises), or virtual reality
environments.
 Solution: Interpreters need to continually upgrade their skills, undergo training in
specialized domains, and adapt to new formats or contexts that require unique
interpretation approaches.

Conclusion: Interpretation in today‘s world involves much more than simply translating words
from one language to another. It requires a combination of technical skill, cultural sensitivity,
real-time problem-solving, and ethical responsibility. As global communication continues to
expand, addressing these issues is crucial for ensuring that interpreters can facilitate clear and
accurate exchanges across linguistic and cultural boundaries.

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