Unit 3 Diverse Logic of Building a Theory

What is theory and why do we need theory in social science .

Theory is an essential tool for social science as it helps to explain, predict, and understand
the behavior of individuals and groups within a society. It is a set of interconnected ideas,
concepts, and principles that seek to explain a particular phenomenon. In social science,
theory can take different forms, including empirical, deductive, inductive, and critical.

Here are some of the key reasons why theory is essential in social science:

Provides a framework for understanding: Theory offers a framework for interpreting social
phenomena and provides a systematic way to organize and analyze data. It helps
researchers to make sense of complex and often contradictory data by providing a coherent
explanation of the relationship between different variables.

Helps in prediction: Theories can be used to make predictions about future events or
behavior. For instance, theories of socialization can be used to predict the behavior of
individuals in a particular social group, or theories of political science can be used to predict
the outcome of elections or social movements.

Guides research: Theory guides research by defining research questions, identifying

relevant variables, and developing hypotheses. It provides a basis for designing research
studies, selecting appropriate research methods, and interpreting data.

Facilitates communication: Theories provide a common language and vocabulary that

facilitates communication and collaboration among researchers. They help to clarify
concepts, distinguish between different ideas, and provide a basis for evaluating competing
explanations.

Enables the identification of patterns: Theories help researchers to identify patterns and
regularities in social behavior. This can lead to the identification of new phenomena, the
development of new theories, and the refinement of existing ones.

Contributes to the development of policies and interventions: Theories can inform the
development of policies and interventions aimed at addressing social problems. For
example, theories of social inequality can be used to develop interventions aimed at
reducing poverty or improving access to education.

Supports critical thinking: Theories encourage critical thinking by challenging assumptions

and providing alternative explanations. They enable researchers to question established
ideas and to explore new perspectives and possibilities.

In conclusion, theory is an essential tool for social science. It provides a systematic way to
organize and analyze data, guides research, and facilitates communication among
researchers. It also contributes to the development of policies and interventions aimed at
addressing social problems, supports critical thinking, and enables the identification of
patterns in social behavior.
What is a hypothesis? Discuss the steps involved in testing a hypothesis.
In social science, a hypothesis is a proposed explanation or prediction for a specific
phenomenon or relationship between variables. It is a tentative statement or proposition
that can be tested through empirical research.

A hypothesis is usually developed based on existing theories or observations about a

particular social phenomenon or behavior. It is often formulated as an if-then statement,
which proposes that if a certain condition or factor exists, then a particular outcome or
effect should follow.

For example, a social science researcher may develop a hypothesis that "increasing access
to education leads to higher levels of employment among disadvantaged populations." This
hypothesis can then be tested by collecting and analyzing data on the education levels and
employment rates of different groups of people.

The process of testing a hypothesis involves designing a research study, collecting data,
analyzing the data, and drawing conclusions based on the results. If the results of the study
support the hypothesis, it can be considered a valid explanation or prediction for the
phenomenon being studied. If the results do not support the hypothesis, it may be revised
or rejected in favor of a different explanation or prediction.

COMMON METHODS OF TESTING A HYPOTHESIS

There are three methods of testing hypothesis:

(i) Pre-testing and post-testing paradigm: Researcher examines the field before introducing
the variable and after the variable is introduced. For example, examining the city before
construction of roads and after the construction of roads. The dangers of this paradigm are
that researcher is not certain about the variable under consideration. Extraneous factors
always pose a problem in this kind of experiment.

(ii) Static group comparison paradigm: In this type of paradigm, researcher compares two
similar field situations. Comparison is done in the first case he doesn't introduces
independent variable and in the other he introduces the variable and then performs the
function of comparison.

(iii) Non-equivalent control group paradigm: In this the researcher compares the field
situations before and after introduction of the independent variable. He also makes a
comparison with a field where variable is not introduced at all. The major problem occurs
when some kind of selection has taken place for introducing external variable.
Rival Hypothesis Construction:

A rival hypothesis construction refers to the process of generating alternative

explanations or theories to a given phenomenon or set of data. It involves
identifying other possible explanations that could account for the observed
results, which could potentially challenge or contradict the original hypothesis.

The purpose of constructing rival hypotheses is to test the robustness of the

original hypothesis and to ensure that it is the most plausible explanation for
the observed results. By considering alternative explanations, researchers can
strengthen their claims and increase the validity of their findings.

There are four factors that form the basis of rival hypothesis:

The effect of selection: Selection bias occurs when participants are not
randomly selected for a study or when the selection process is not controlled,
leading to a non-representative sample. This can impact the results of the
study, as the sample may not accurately reflect the larger population, leading
to limited generalizability of the findings. To minimize selection bias,
researchers should use a random selection process or carefully control the
selection criteria to ensure that the sample is representative of the larger
population.

Reactive measurement effects: This refers to the potential impact of the

research measurement on the participant's behavior or response. This effect
can occur when participants modify their behavior or response to align with
the perceived expectation or hypothesis of the researcher, leading to skewed
or inaccurate data. To mitigate this effect, researchers can use different
measurement methods, provide clear instructions to participants, or use
double-blind techniques.

The effects of uncontrolled extraneous variables: Extraneous variables are

factors that can impact the outcome of the study but are not directly related to
the research question or hypothesis. These variables can lead to confounding
effects, making it difficult to isolate the effect of the independent variable on
the dependent variable. Researchers should attempt to control for extraneous
variables through randomization, matching, or statistical analysis.

Interaction effect involving selection: An interaction effect occurs when the

effect of one variable on the dependent variable depends on the level of
another variable. In the case of selection, the interaction effect may occur if
the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is different
for different groups of participants. This can occur if the sample is not
representative, and there are differences between groups based on selection
criteria. To address this issue, researchers should attempt to control for the
interaction effect through stratification or statistical analysis.
THEORY BUILDING AND RESEARCHER'S VALUES

Researchers, like any other individuals, hold personal values that guide their
actions and decisions in their research endeavors. While these values can vary
depending on the individual researcher's background, culture, and personal
beliefs
Selection of problems: Researcher is directed by quite a few contemplations in the choice of
topic. For example, a feminist might be interested in doing a research on women's
problems, etc.

The determination of the contents of conclusions: All social scientist have fair idea of what
is the characteristic of the reality which they try to prove. Well-built concentration about
the society, ethical viewpoints usually scramble into the theory. At the time of colonial rule
many anthropologist received balance as the societies at that time were indicating how that
balance can be maintained. Any interruption in the balance was considered as deviant. Then
the social scientist and anthropologists join together with the administrators and often was
one and the same person.

• Identification of facts: It is impracticable to differentiate between facts and values and the
contributions of theoretical understanding. The remedy to solve the contemporary theories
is to make value direction clear so that the student makes a clear picture in his mind. The
other point of view to say that resources should be utilized up to the maximum level. Earlier
ethnographic writers usually avoid using the cruel, kind, bad, etc. If by chance they have
used such words they used to give a detailed explanation of using such word and in which
context they have used it.

• The assessment of evidence: It is always a matter of concern of the sociologist that

conclusions are value loaded. Some of the data is overlooked or ignored by the social
scientists because of instinctive influence of the values In statistical investigations, values
are not lined out. Value commitments are basically of two types-overt and covert.

The most frequent bias which is inevitable is the situational and historical impact on the
student is the time and place from where he belongs. The origin of scientific thinking is also
a consequence of the history of society