KUNJUMOL K A 10 PHYSICS SJHS PUNNPRA

Compare & Study

1.Law of Conservation of Energy&Joule's Law
* Law of Conservation of Energy→Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be
converted from one form to another
* Joule's Law→ The heat generated (H) in a current carrying conductor is directly proportional to
the product of the square of the current (I) in the conductor, the resistance of the conductor (R) and
the time (t) of flow of current.
H = I2Rt joule
*Joule Heating or Ohmic Heating → The process by which heat is developed in a circuit on
passing current through it is known as the Joule Heating or Ohmic Heating
*Factors influencing the heat developed → current,resistance, time
*Factor that influences heat the most → current

2.The potential difference & work done

1Volt →The potential difference between two points will be one volt if one joule of work is
done in moving one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
W=Q x V V=W/Q
3.Arrangement of Resistors in Circuits

Resistors in series Resistors in parallel

←Circuit diagram→

Increases ←Effective resistance→ Decreases

Different ←Potential difference→ Same

Same ←Current→ Different

No Control using separate Yes

←switches→
R=R1+R2 ←Effective resistance→ R = R1R2
R1+R2
R = nr If ‘n’resistors with ‘r’ohm are
R=r/n
←connected→
Bulbs of less power glows with When the bulbs are
Bulbs of more power glows
more brightness
←connected→ with more brightness

4.Electric power&Amperage
Electric power →The amount of energy consumed by an electrical appliance
in unit time is its power
Amperage →Amperage (A) is the ratio of the power of an equipment to the voltage applied.
→ Amperage increases with the thickness of the conductor

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5.Heating coil,Fuse wire,Filament
Device+Effect Main part Material Peculiarities
Heating Appliances Heating coil Nichrome • high resistivity
(Heating Effect) •high melting point
• ability to remain in
red hot condition for a
long time without
getting oxidised
Safety Fuse Fuse wire Tin+Lead • low melting point
(Heating Effect) • high resistivity
Incandescent Lamp Filament Tungston • high resistivity
(Lighting Effect) • high melting point
• high ductility
• ability to emit white
light in the white hot
condition
6.Incandescent lamp,Discharge lamp,LED
Incandescent lamp
1.Why is the bulb filled with an inert gas / nitrogen?
* Vaporisation can be reduced by filling some inert gas at low
pressure inside the bulb.
2.Why is the bulb evacuated?
* In order to avoid oxidation of tungsten.
3.Nichrome is not used as filament in incandescent lamps. Why?
* It can remain only in red hot condition but it can’t
give light.
4.What is the disadvantage of the incandescent lamps?
* A major part of the electrical energy supplied to an incandescent
lamp is lost as heat. Hence the efficiency of these devices is less.
5.The working of a filament lamp.
* Electricity passes through the Tungsten filament
ꜜ
* The filament becomes white hot
ꜜ
* Gives out light
Discharge lamp
1.The main parts of a Discharge lamp.
*Glass tubes
*Two electrodes
*Gas molecules
2.The working of a Discharge lamp.
*When a high potential difference is applied to the electrodes
ꜜ
*The gas molecules get excited
ꜜ
*Excited atoms come back to their original states for
attaining stability
ꜜ
*The energy stored in them will be radiated as light

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3.What are the advantages of using discharge lamps instead
of incandescent lamps?
* Loss of electricity in the form of heat is less * More life span
* More light is obtained * Less consumption of electricity
LED bulb
1.Full form of LED -Light emitting diode
2.The advantages of LED
* As there is no filament, there is no loss of energy in the form of heat.
* Since there is no mercury in it, it is not harmful to
environment.
* Very low power consumption.
7.Parts and use of on LED bulb
Part Use
Base unit Connects the
bulb to the holder
Heat sink Absorb heat from the base
Base plate Fixes it to the holder
Back conductor Screws Fixes wires from LED
drive to the base unit
Power Supply board (LED driver) Convert AC into DC and supply
necessary output voltage
Printed Circuit Board (LED Chip Board) LEDs are fixed on this board
Diffuser cup light comes out of the bulb

8.Equations
Current I=Q/t Q-Charge , t-Time
Charge Q=I x t I-Current , t-Time
Heat H=P x t P-Power
H=VIt I-Current
H=I2Rt V-Voltage
H=V2t/R R-Resistance
Power P=VI
P=I2R
P=V2/R
Amperage I=W/V W-Wattage , V-Voltage
Electrical Energy E.E = Power(watt)xTime(hour)
1000
Transformer Vs = Ns Np-No.of turns in the primary
Vp Np Ns-No.of turns in the secondary
Vp-Primary voltage
Ip = Vs Vs-Secondary voltage
Is Vp Ip-Primary current
Is-Secondary current
VpxIp=VsxIs

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Spherical Mirror 1/f=1/u+1/v F-Focal length
f = uv u-Distance to the object
u+v v-Distance to the image
Magnification m=hi/ho ho-Height of the object
m=-v/u hi-Height of the image
Refractive index of the medium n= c/v c-Speed of light in air
v-Speed of light in the medium
Lenses 1/f=1/v-1/u
F = uv
u−v
Magnification m=hi/ho
m=v/u

9.Units
Quantity Unit
Charge(Q) Coulomb(C)
Pot.Difference/Voltage(V) Volt(V)
Current(I) Ampere(A)
Resistance(R) Ohm(Ω)
Heat(H) Joule(J) , Calorie
4.2J=1calorie
Power(P) Watt(w) , Joule/second(J/s)
Electrical Energy(Commercial) kilowatt hour ( kWh)

10.Short Circuit , Overloading

The circumstances that cause high electric current, leading to the melting of fuse wire
*Short Circuit and Overloading
*Short Circuit →the positive and the negative terminals of a battery or the two
wires from the mains come into contact
*Overloading →the total power of all the appliances connected to it is more than what
the circuit can withstand

11.The magnetic field around a current carrying conductor.

Conductor above the Conductor below the
magnetic needle magnetic needle

Anticlockwise ←Direction of current from A to B→ Clockwise

Clockwise ←Direction of current from B to A→ Anticlockwise

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12.The polarity of a current carrying solenoid

Clockwise ←Current → Anticlockwise

←Polarity→

South North

13.AC Generator , DC Generator , DC Motor

AC Generator DC Generator DC Motor

Figure

Working principle Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Motor Principle

Induction Induction
Energy change Mechanical→Electrical Mechanical→Electrical Electrical→Mechanical
Main parts Field magnet Field magnet Field magnet
Armature Armature Armature
Slip rings Split rings Split rings
Brushes Brushes Brushes

14.Bar magnet , Solenoid

Bar magnet Solenoid

*Magnetism is permanent *Magnetism is temporary

*Polarity is fixed *Polarity can be reversed
*Strength cannot be changed. *Strength can be changed

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15.Maxwell’s Right Hand Thumb Rule , Fleming's Left Hand Rule ,
Fleming's Right Hand Rule

Maxwell’s Right Hand Fleming's Left Hand Rule Fleming's Right Hand Rule
Thumb Rule
Direction of the magnetic field Direction of motion of a Direction of induced current
around a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
conductor
Straight &Coiled conductor Motor Generator

16.emf obtained from an AC generator, a battery & a DC generator

Source Graph Peculiarities

AC generator *Direction changes
continuously
*emf increases and decreases

Battery *Direction does not

change(Unidirectional)
*emf constant

DC generator *Direction does not

change(Unidirectional)
*emf increases and decreases

17.Mutual Induction ,Self Induction

Mutual Induction Self Induction

AC is given to one of the two coils nearby AC is given to a solenoid
emf is induced in the secondary coil Back emf is induced in the same coil
Voltage increases or decreases depending on the Voltage decreases
number of turns in the secondary

Transformer Inductor

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18.Transformer
Step up Transformer Step down Transformer

←Figure→

More in secondary ←Number of turns→ More in primary

Np < Ns Np > Ns
In primary ←Thick wires→ In secondary

More in secondary ←Voltage→ Less in secondary

Vp < Vs Vp > Vs
More in primary ←Current→ More in secondary
Ip > Is Ip < Is

19.The various stages of rotation of an armature coil and emf graph

Angle of 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

rotation
Rate of change 0 maximum 0 maximum 0
of flux
Induced emf 0 maximum 0 maximum 0
20.Moving coil loudspeaker , Moving coil michrophone

1. Microphone – Converts sound signals to the electrical signals.

2. Amplifier – Strengthen the weak signals obtained from a microphone.
3. Loudspeaker – Converts the electrical signals to the sound signals again.

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 Moving coil loudspeaker Moving coil michrophone

←Figure→

Motor principle ←Working principle→ Electromagnetic induction

Electrical Energy → Sound Energy ←Energy change→ Sound Energy→Electrical Energy
The electric pulses from amplifier ←Working→ Sound is produced→
reaches → Diaphragm vibrates→
Voice coil vibrates→ Voice coil vibrates→
Diaphragm vibrates→ Electric signals are produced
Sound is reproduced

21.Power Transmission ,Distribution &Household Electrification

Power Transmission ,Distribution
*In India electricity is produced at 11 kV (11000 V)
*The voltage is increased upto 220 kV to reduce transmission loss
*The voltage is lowered at different stages and is made available to the distribution
transformer at 11 kV.
*Transformer in a power station→ Step up transformer
*Transformer in a sub station → Step down transformer
* Distribution transformer → Step down transformer
*4 wires are coming out from a distribution transformer(1neutral &3 phases)
*Potential difference between
Phase-Phase →400V
Phase-Neutral →230V
Earth-Phase →230V
Earth-Neutral →0V
*230 V required for house hold purposes
*Lines essential for household electrification
Phase line, Neutral line, and Earth line.
Household Electrification
*The electric line reaching our home connected first to Watt - hour meter
*The electricity used is measured using a Watt- hour meter
*The earth line start from the Main switch
*The fuses are connected in Phase line
*The colours used for wires in phase, neutral and earth lines
Phase line – Red
Neutral line – Black
Earth line – Green
*The household devices connected in parallel

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22.Safety measures in household electrification
Safety Fuse MCB ,ELCB,RCCB Three pin Plug
Fuse wire melts and break the Automatically break the circuit Phase, Neutral and Earth lines
circuit Earth line comes into contact
with the pin E
Phase line comes into contact
with the body of the appliance
Heating effect Heating and magnetic effect The length and thickness
of the earth pin is more
Being longer it comes into
contact with the circuit first and
the last to break the
contact

23.Speed of light and optical density

*Optical density is a measure that shows how a medium influences the speed of light
*As the optical density increases, the speed of light decreases.
*Speed of light is maximum in vacuum 3x108 m/s
*Optical densities in the increasing order (ascending order): Air < Water < Glass < Diamond
*Speed of light in the increasing order (ascending order): Diamond < Glass < Water < Vacuum
24.Refraction in different Media
*Refraction is the deviation in the path of light that enters obliquely from one transparent medium
to another
*The difference in the optical densities that causes the refraction
*From a medium of lower optical density to that of a greater one→deviates towards the normal.

*From a medium of greater optical density to that of a lower one→deviates away from the normal.
*Light ray falling normally on a medium → No deviation
*Examples of refraction from daily life
1.Pencil kept inclined in water appears bent
2.Coin appears to be raised above the actual position in water
3.Line on a paper covered with glass slab appears bent or raised
25.Refractive index and Absolute refractive index
*The refractive index of one medium with respect to another is called
relative refractive index.
*The refractive index of a medium with respect to vacuum is called
absolute refractive index.

*Refractive index n21 = Speed of light in Medium 2 = V1

Speed of light in Medium 1 V2

*Absolute refractive index of the medium = Speed of light in air = c

Speed of light in the medium v
The speed of the light varies with refractive index.
*As refractive index of the medium increases the speed of light decreases.
*As refractive index of the medium decreases the speed of light increases
Atmospheric refraction
→Light coming from distant stars passes through different layers of air
→ Each layer differs from the other in their optical densities
→Light undergoes successive refraction
→So stars appear like twinkling

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26.Critical angle and Total Internal Reflection

Critical angle
* When a ray of light passes from a medium of greater optical density to that of lower optical
density,the angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction becomes 90° is the critical angle.
*The critical angle of water is 48.6° and that for glass, it is 42°
Total Internal Reflection
*When a ray of light passes from a medium of higher optical density to a medium of lower optical
density at an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle, the ray is reflected back to the same
medium without undergoing refraction. This phenomenon is the total internal reflection
Practical applications of total internal reflection in our day to day life.
*Medical field → Endoscope.
*In the field of telecommunications → Optical fibre cables
*A person who looks at an aquarium can see the base reflected on the surface of water
*Sparkling of diamonds

27.Laws of reflection and Laws of refraction

Laws of reflection
*The angle of incidence and angle of reflection are equal.
*The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the surface are in the same
plane.
Laws of refraction
*The angle of incidence, the angle of refraction and the normal at the point of incidence
on the surface of separation of the two media will always be in the same plane.
*The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction,
sin i ,will always be a constant. This is known as Snell’s Law.
sin r

28.Plane mirror , Concave mirror , Convex mirror

Plane mirror Convex mirror Concave mirror

*Image is behind the *Image is formed in Position of Position of image
mirror. between the pole of the object and features
*Distance of object mirror and the principal At infinity At F
from the mirror and focus. small,real,inverted
distance of the image *The image is
from the mirror are diminished,virtual and Beyond C Between F and C
equal. erect. small,real,inverted
*The image is virtual, At C At C
erect and is of the same same size,real,inverted
size as that of the
object Between C and F Beynd C
Enlarged,real,inverted
At F At infinity
Between F and P Behind the mirror
Enlarged.virtual,erect

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Situations in daily life where we can make use of these mirrors

29.Concave lens , Convex lens

Terms and characteristics associated with convex and concave lenses

1. Optic centre→ midpoint of a lens (P)

2. Centre of curvature→centre of the imaginary spheres of which the sides of the lens are parts
3. Principal axis→imaginary line that passes through the optic centre joining the two
centres of curvature
4. Focal length → distance from the optic centre to the principal focus
5.Principal focus

Convex lens Concave lens

The point on the principal axis where the The point on the principal axis from where the
parallel rays converge after refraction refracted rays appear to originate as they
The principal focus is real diverge
The principal focus is virtual
The points to be taken care of while drawing ray diagrams
* A ray of light passes through the optic centre of a thin lens →does not undergo deviation

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*A ray parallel to the principal axis of a convex lens →passes through the principal focus

*A ray parallel to the principal axis of a concave lens →appears to diverge from the focus

*A ray passing through the principal focus of a convex lens→passes parallel to the principal axis

30.Ray diagram of formation of images by convex lenses

Position of the Ray Diagram Position of Nature and size
object the image of the image
1. At infinity At F Real, Inverted
Diminished

2.Beyond 2F Between Real, Inverted

F and 2F Diminished

3.At 2F At 2F Real, Inverted

Same size

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4.Between F Beyond 2F Real, Inverted
and 2F Magnified

5.At F At infinity Real, Inverted

Magnified

6.Between F Behind the Virtual, Erect

and lens lens Magnified

31.Near point , Far point , Power of Accommodation.

Near point→The nearest point at which the objects can be seen distinctly.
The near point of an eye with healthy vision is 25 cm.
Far point →The farthest point at which the objects can be seen distinctly.
The far point of an eye with healthy vision is at infinity.
Power of Accommodation →The ability of the eye to form an image on the retina
by adjusting the focal length of the lens in the eye,
by varying the curvature of the lens.
*Nearer objects→ the ciliary muscles are contracted
→ the curvature of the lens increases
→the focal length decreases

* Far objects→the ciliary muscles are relaxed

→the curvature of the lens decreases
→the focal length increases
32.Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness),Myopia(Near-sightedness),Presbyopia
Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness) Myopia(Near-sightedness)

Distant objects can be seen clearly Nearer objects can be seen clearly
Nearer objects cannot be seen clearly Distant objects cannot be seen clearly
Near point more than 25 cm Far point will not be at infinity
The image of nearby objects formed behind the The image of distant objects formed in front of
retina retina
The size of the eye ball is smaller. The size of the eye ball is larger.
Power of the lens is low (focal length is high) Power of the lens is high (focal length is low)

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Can be rectified by using a convex lens Can be rectified by using a concave lens

Presbyopia
For elderly people the distance to the near point is greater than 25 cm.
This is due to the diminishing ability of the ciliary muscles.
For such people the power of accommodation will be less. .
This can be overcome using convex lens of suitable power.
33.Power of lens and focal length
*Power is reciprocal of focal length expressed in metres
*P=1/f (f in metre)
*Unit of power is dioptre. It is represented by D.
*The power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative
34.Monochromatic and Composite light
Monochromatic→single colour→Laser
Composite→ composed of more than one colour →Sunlight,Torch light
35.Dispersion and Rainbow
Dispersion→splitting up of a composite light into its constituent colours
→the regular array of colours formed by dispersion is the visible spectrum

*Deviates the most →Violet→shortest wavelength

*Deviates the least → Red →longest wavelength
*Reason for dispersion →Deviation of each colour depends on the wavelength

Rainbow
* Morning →Sun in the East →rainbow in the West
* Evening →Sun in the West →rainbow in the East
*Reason →Dispersion of light caused by the water droplets
in the atmosphere
*Sunlight passing through water droplet undergoes
→two times refraction
→one time internal reflection
*Colour seen at the upper edge of the rainbow→Red
colour seen at the lower edge→Violet
*Line of vision→ the line connecting the centre of rainbow
and the eye of the observer
*Formation of Rainbow
→The rays of light falls parallel to the line of vision
→undergoes refraction and internal reflection
→ each ray of colour emerges making definite angle (Red → 42.7°,Violet → 40.8°)
→droplets from which same colour emerges appear in the form of an arc
* When the position of the sun is near the horizon, the rainbow appears to be bigger.
* When seen from an aeroplane, the rainbow is seen as a circle.
* When the sun is much above the horizon, the rainbow disappears.

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36. Recombination of colours , Persistence of vision
*To recombine the constituent colours obtained from a prism
→Place a prism similar to the first in inverted position,
adjacent to the first
*Persistence of vision
→When an object is viewed by person,
its image remains in the retina of the eye for a time
interval of 0.0625s (1/16s)after seeing it
*Examples of persistence of vision
→Newton’s colour disc appears white when rotated fast
→A torch rotated rapidly appears as an illuminated circle.
→Raindrops look like glass rods during rain
37.Scattering of light and wavelength,Tyndal Effect
Scattering→change in direction brought out by the irregular and partial
reflection of light when it hits the particles of the medium
*Scattering and wavelength
Maximum scattering →Violet, Indigo and Blue( smallest wavelength)
Minimum scattering →Red (greater wavelength)
*Rate of scattering →related to the size of the particle
→size increases, the rate of scattering increases
*If the size of the particles is greater than the wavelength of light
→the scattering is same for all colours.
Reason for the following
*Colours of the rising and the setting sun
*The western horizon remains reddish for some more time even after sunset
*Red colour has been given to the tail lamps of vehicles and signal lights
→Red light has highest wavelength and least scattering. So red light is able
to travel the longest distance through the atmosphere
Tyndal Effect
*When rays of light pass through a colloidal fluid or suspension, the tiny particles get
illuminated due to scattering and the path of light is made visible.
*As the size of the particles increases, the intensity of scattering increases
38.Fuels and Combustion of fuels
Fuels→ substances that release plenty of heat energy on burning.

Solids Liquids Gases

* Fire wood * Kerosene * Biogas
* Wood charcoal * Petrol * LPG
* Coke * Diesel * CNG
Combustion of fuels
* Fuels burn with the help of oxygen.
*Complete combustion →reaction in which fuels react intensively with oxygen
→carbon dioxide, steam, heat and light are produced
*Partial combustion →oxygen is not sufficient
→ large quantities of carbon monoxide, soot and a little of
carbon dioxide will be formed
*Conditions favourable for complete combustion
→The solid fuels must be dry.
• →Liquid fuels must evaporate easily.
• →The ignition temperature should be attained.
• →Sufficient oxygen must be available for burning.

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*Drawbacks of partial combustion
→Loss of fuel→Economic loss→ Fuel loss
→ Atmospheric pollution→Wastage of time
→More smoke is produced
Fossil Fuels →formed by the transformation of plants and animals that went
under the earth's crust millions of years ago.
→transformation took place in the absence of air under
high pressure and high temperature.
→not replenished or renewed (non renewable energy sources)

Fossil Fuels
Coal Petroleum CNG Natural gases
*most abundant on the earth *products obtained from *LNG( liquefied natural gas )
*main component →carbon fractional distillation→ &
*four types based on carbon Petroleum gas- Petrol – Diesel- *CNG(compressed natural gas)
content→peat, lignite, Kerosene - Naphtha – Fuel oil – *main component → methane
anthracite, bituminous coal Lubricating oil - Grease – Wax *used as fuels in vehicles,
*products when distilled in the LPG(Liquefied Petroleum Gas) industries and thermal power
absence of air→ammonia, coal →colourless, odourless gas station
gas, coal tar, coke →denser than air *LNG→ can be liquefied and
*for odour →ethyl mercaptan transported to distant places
*main component →butane through pipe lines
*expiry date→month&year
A 24:January to March2024
B24:April to June2024
C 24:July to September2024
D24:October to December2024
*BLEVE Boiling Liquid
Expanding Vapour Explosion

39.Biomass and Biogas

*Biomass→firewood, dried cow dung etc.(obtained from plants and animals)
Biomass can be
burned→atmospheric pollution
dumped→ atmospheric pollution,diseases
deposited in biogas plant→Biogas,manure(slurry),no atmospheric pollution
Main component of biogas→methane
40.Fuel Efficiency and Calorific value

*Calorific value→The amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel

→ Its unit is kilojoule/kilogram(kJ/kg)
Most efficient fuel(high calorific value)→ Hydrogen
Hydrogen used as fuel→in rockets, in hydrogen fuel cell
Reason for not used as domestic fuel→highly inflammable
→explosive
→difficult to store and transport

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41.Power Stations

Power Stations Energy change

Hydro electric power station Moolamattom Potential energy →
Kuttiadi Kinetic energy → Mechanical
Pallivasal energy → Electrical energy
Sabarigiri
Thermal power station Neyveli Chemical energy →
Kayamkulam Heat energy → Mechanical
Ramagundam energy → Electrical energy

Nuclear power station Tarapur Nuclear energy → Heat

Kalpakkam energy → Mechanical energy
Kota → Electrical energy
Koodamkulam

42.Energy Sources

Electrical energy Solar panel→solar cell(p-n junction diode)→photovoltaic

Solar Energy effect
Solar Thermal Power Plant
Heat energy Solar Water Heater
Solar Cooker

Energy from wind Wind mill →Kanyakumari, Ramakkalmed and at Kanjikode

Energy from sea Tidal Energy
Energy from waves
Ocean thermal energy→Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Plants (OTEC)

Energy from the Geo thermal energy →no hotspot in Kerala

earth
Energy from the Nuclear energy(Einstein’s equation E = mc2) matter lost → energy
nucleus *Nuclear fission→nuclei of greater mass are split into lighter nuclei
→atom bomb,Nuclear reactor
*Nuclear fusion →ighter nuclei are combined to form heavier ones
→ hydrogen bomb, energy in stars and the Sun

43.Renewable and Renewable Non Sources of energy

* Renewable →Energy obtained from sunlight, wind,rain, high tide
→replenish energy as it is being used up
→do not pollute the environment
*Non renewable→Petroleum, coal, natural gases, nuclear energy
→not replenished or renewed in proportion to their consumption
→pollute the environment

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44.Green Energy and Brown Energy
* Green Energy →energy produced from renewable sources
(Clean energy)→does not cause environmental pollution
→solar energy,wind energy, energy from waves and energy from biomass
*Brown Energy →energy produced from non renewable sources
→cause environmental pollution including global warming
→petroleum and coal, and the nuclear energy

Prepared by
Kunjumol K A
St.Joseph’s High School
Punnapra

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