EFFECTS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AMONG WOMEN IN NAMINYAGWE

VILLAGE, KAPYANGA SUBCOUNTY-BUGIRI DISTRICT

BY
IKONO ROSE
VU-BSW-2201-0942 DAY

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL

WORK AND SOCIAL STUDIES ,FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL
SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF DEGREE IN SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL ADMINISTRATION
OF VICTORIA UNIVERSITY

JANUARY, 2025

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 DECLARATION

I Ikono Rose declare that this project was my original work and has never been submitted to

any institution for any award of any category.

Signature………………………………………………………

Registration number…………………………………………..

Date …………………………………………………………..

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 APPROVAL

This research project entitled, “effects of domestic violence among married women” has

been under my supervision and I hereby approve it for submission.

MRS. ENID MUGARURA

Signature………………………………………. Date: ………………………………….

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 DEDICATION
This research project is dedicated to my loving mother, Nekesa Angelina and Omolo Egesa
Jackson, father.

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 Definition of terms
Domestic violence. This is the pattern of abusive behavior in a romantic relationship,

marriage of cohabitation.

Theory. Is a sysmatic and formalized expression of ideas, principles and concept that explain

and predict the phenomena.

Marriage. Is a regally and socially recognized union between two individuals.

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Table of content

Contents
DECLARATION....................................................................................................................................ii
APPROVAL.........................................................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION......................................................................................................................................iv
Definition of terms.............................................................................................................................v
Table of content................................................................................................................................vi
CHAPTER ONE....................................................................................................................................1
Introduction...................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................................2
1.4 Purpose of the Study...............................................................................................................3
1.5 Research Objectives................................................................................................................3
1.6 Research Questions.................................................................................................................3
1.7 Significance of the Study..........................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO...................................................................................................................................5
LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................................................5
2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................5
2.2 Forms of domestic violence.....................................................................................................5
2.3 Factors contributing to Domestic Violence..............................................................................7
2.4 Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Development..............................................................10
2.4 .0 Effects of exposure to domestic violence on the developing brain....................................12
CHAPTER THREE...............................................................................................................................16
METHODOLOGY...............................................................................................................................16
3.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................16
3.2 Research method...................................................................................................................16
3.3Research Design......................................................................................................................16
3.4 Research Approach................................................................................................................16
3.4 Population.............................................................................................................................16
3.5 Sample and Sampling Procedures..........................................................................................16
3.5.1 Purposive sampling technique............................................................................................17
3.5.2 Simple random sampling....................................................................................................17
3.6 Data Collection Tools.............................................................................................................17
3.6.1 Secondary data...................................................................................................................17

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 3.6.2 Primary data.......................................................................................................................17
3.7 Reliability and Validity of Instruments...................................................................................17
3.8 Data Collection Procedure.....................................................................................................18
3.9 Data Analysis..........................................................................................................................18
3.10 Ethical consideration...........................................................................................................18
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................19

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.0 Introduction
Domestic violence is a complex issue to research as the extent and forms of its occurrence
remain largely hidden and there is a great degree of social acceptance of the issue. Data
should be interpreted carefully as women often under-report violence out of a feeling of
shame or because they do not view certain acts as violent (lIPS and OR Macro, 2015;
NCLEN, 2000; Jejeebhoy, 2018b).
According to NFHS 2, 21 percent of ever-married women in India have been physically
mistreated by their husbands, in-laws or other persons since age 15; 19 percent have been
beaten by their husbands; and 11 percent had been beaten in the 12 months prior to the
study (TIPS and ORC Macro, 2000).
While National Crimes Records Bureau figures reveal an increase in reporting of gender-
based violence from 31 percent in 1995 to 45 percent in 1999 (NCRB, 1995-99), evidence
is also emerging from population-based surveys suggesting that between 21 to 48 percent
of women from different socio-cultural settings in India have experienced physical
violence (INCLEN, 2000; Jejeebhoy. l998b; Verma and Collumbien, 2003; Visaria,
1999b).
These estimates are corroborated by studies investigating reporting patterns of men, with
21 - 40 percent of men in different studies reporting perpetrating physical violence
(Duvvury, et al. 2002;
Martin et al., 1999; Verma and Collumbien, 2003). Estimates from facility-based surveys,
such as hospitals, courts, NGOs and police records, reflect similar prevalence rates (Daga,
et al. 1998; Jaswal, 2000). A closer scrutiny of the prevalence rates reveals some state-
wise variation.
Tamil Nadu shows the highest prevalence, with 40 percent of the women reporting
experiencing physical violence since age 15. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Meghalaya,
Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Orissa, Bihar and Jammu and Kashmir have prevalence
rates higher than 20 percent. Himachal Pradesh shows the lowest prevalence rate at 5.8
percent, followed by Kerala (10.1 percent) and Gujarat (10.2 percent) (lIPS and ORC
Macro, 2000).

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An examination of the National Crimes Records Bureau statistics reveals that reporting of
crimes against women at home, or cruelty by husband and his relatives, are higher in
districts like Kayunga and Mukono (80 cases per million Journal of Emerging Trends in
Educational
Research and Policy Studies (JETERAPS) 1 (2): 65-75 Scholar link Research Institute
Journals, 2010 jeteraps.scholarlinkresearch.org Journal of Emerging Trends in
Educational Research and Policy Studies (JETERAPS) 1 (2): 65-75 population) and
Gujarat (82 cases per million population) (NCRB, 1995-99). While it is difficult to draw
definite conclusions from data about the state wise variation, it can be clearly said that
domestic violence is a country-wide phenomena
The Kenyan case might not be different. Women in Kenya are specifically vulnerable;
violence against women is widespread and persists in all layers of society. The Attorney-
General of Kenya acknowledged in 1999 that “Violence against women pervades all
social and ethnic groups. It is a societal crisis that requires concerted action to stem its
scourge... Culture does influence the relationship between the various groups in society
and ... some cultural practices, beliefs and traditions have had the tendency to relegate
women to second class status in society thereby not only violating their rights as human
beings (but also) leading to discrimination against women. Some customs and cultural
practices have found their way not only into law as justification for violence against
women.) (Amos, W. 1999).
As a result, this study will seek to establish the effect of domestic violence among women
in bugiri district, Kapyanga Sub County with the hope of it being an eye-opener to the
reality of the situation. For the purpose of this study, the term “domestic violence”
includes violence against women and girls by an intimate partner, including a cohabiting
partner, and by other family members, whether this violence occurs within or beyond the
confines of the home.
While recognizing that other forms of violence are equally worthy of attention, this study
does not cover the violence inflicted on women by strangers outside the home — in
public places such as streets, Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and
Policy Studies (JETERAPS) 1 (2): 65-75 workplaces or in custody, or in situations of
civil conflict or war. It did not look at the issue of violence against domestic workers, as
this is perpetrated by individuals who are not related. As a result, this study will seek to
establish effect of domestic violence among women in Bugiri district.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem
Domestic violence against women is a serious and widespread problem in kapyanga sub
county. This is mainly due to traditional culture permitting a man to discipline his wife.
Domestic violence if not prevented is associated with adverse outcomes for children’s
development .Marital conflict has been found to be the strongest risk factor for behavioral
problems in children such as social, attention and thought problems ,the more frequent and
intense episodes of inter parental conflict (violence), the more likely it is that children exhibit
problem behaviors. Victims suffer physical injuries, psychological disturbances, emotional
and social maladjustments .Based on the above; the researcher feels it necessary to establish
the impact of domestic violence on family relationships and development to domestic
violence, more so in low-income residential areas.

Therefore, this study seeks to find out reliable and more accurate information concerning the
effects of domestic violence among women in Bugiri district western region.

1.4 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study shall be to analyze the effects of domestic violence among
women in Naminyagwe village, kapyanga sub county Bugiri district.

1.5 Research Objectives

I. To identify the different forms of domestic violence existing among families in our
community
II. To identify the causes of domestic violence among families.
III. To examine the impact of domestic violence on family relationship and development
1.6 Research Questions
1. What are the different forms of domestic violence existing within our community?
2. What are the causes of domestic violence?
3. How does domestic violence impact family relationship and development?
1.7 Significance of the Study
The study shall inform the stake holder such as government, ministries responsible for the
welfare of the public such as gender and ethics minister, parliamentarians, human rights
activists, non-government organizations on the many forms of domestic violence that exist
within our community. This is important in developing a gender or plan to address this vice.
The study will be able to trap firsthand information on the impact of domestic violence

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among women. The families in bugiri particularly (Kapayanga) will benefit from the research
because it will help them to handle and counsel those families affected by domestic violence
to reduce and eliminate this in- human and degrading act. The community leaders shall
benefit from the study by learning about the causes of domestic violence among families and
new skills of addressing this problem. Having an understanding of the forms, cause and
impact of domestic violence on the family relationship and its development. Constructive and
systematic steps to rectify the vice will be taken above instantly and the sooner the better.
The measures will include enacting laws to protect women and children against abuse,
offering sensitization and community awareness about the dangers of violence in homes,
provision of free services to the public like Medicare. Education and other social services.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter shall present a review of existing literature relevant to the effects of domestic
violence among women in Bugiri district, a case study of Kapyanga subcounty It shall be
based on the assessment of various scholars, writers and researchers who have studied this
problem before and analyze the accuracy and their appropriateness of their findings as well as
assessing the applicability of their conclusions and recommendations.

2.2 Forms of domestic violence

Emotional
Emotional abuse (also called psychological abuse or mental abuse) can include humiliating
the victim privately or publicly, controlling what the victim can and cannot do, withholding
information from the victim, deliberately doing something to make the victim feel diminished
or embarrassed, isolating the victim from friends and family, implicitly blackmailing the
victim by harming others when the victim expresses independence or happiness, or denying
the victim access to money or other basic resources and necessities. Degradation in any form
can be considered psychological abuse. Emotional abuse can include verbal abuse and is
defined as any behavior that threatens, intimidates, undermines the victim’s self-worth or
self-esteem, or controls the victim’s freedom. This can include threatening the victim with
injury or harm, telling the victim that they will be killed if they ever leave the relationship,
and public humiliation. Constant criticism, name-calling, and making statements that damage
the victim’s self-esteem are also common verbal forms of emotional abuse. Emotional abuse
includes forceful efforts to isolate the victim, keeping them from contacting friends or family.
This is intended to eliminate those who might try to help the victim leave the relationship and
to create a lack of resources for them to rely on if they were to leave. Isolation results in
damaging the victim’s sense of internal strength, leaving them feeling helpless and unable to
escape from the situation. People who are being emotionally abused often feel as if they do
not own themselves; rather, they may feel that their significant other has nearly total control
over them. Women or men undergoing emotional abuse often suffer from depression, which

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puts them at increased risk for suicide, eating disorders, and drug and alcohol abuse. (Amos
Wako, (1999)

Verbal
Verbal abuse is a form of emotionally abusive behavior involving the use of language. Verbal
abuse can also be referred to as the act of threatening. Through threatening a person can
blatantly say they will harm you in any way and will also be considered as abuse. It may
include profanity but can occur with or without the use of expletives. Verbal abuse may
include aggressive actions such as name-calling, blaming, ridicule, disrespect, and criticism,
but there are also less obviously aggressive forms of verbal abuse. Statements that may seem
benign on the surface can be thinly veiled attempts to humiliate; falsely accuse; or manipulate
others to submit to undesirable behavior, make others feel unwanted and unloved, threaten
others economically, or isolate victims from support systems .( Amos Wako, (1999).

Economic
Economic abuse is a form of abuse when one intimate partner has control over the other
partners access to economic resources. Economic abuse may involve preventing a spouse
from resource acquisition, limiting the amount of resources to use by the victim, or by
exploiting economic resources of the victim. The motive behind preventing a spouse from
acquiring resources is to diminish victims capacity to support his/herself, thus forcing
him/her to depend on the perpetrator financially, which includes preventing the victim from
obtaining education, finding employment, maintaining or advancing their careers, and
acquiring assets. In addition, the abuser may also put the victim on an allowance, closely
monitor how the victim spends money, spend victims money without his/her consent and
creating debt, or completely spend victims savings to limit available resources.( Amos Wako,
(1999)

Honor killings
An honor killing is the homicide of a member of a family or social group by other members,
due to the belief of the perpetrators that the victim has brought dishonor upon the family or
community. Although these crimes are most often associated with the Middle East, they
occur in other places too. Honor killings are acts of vengeance, usually death, committed by
male family members against female family members, who are held to have brought dishonor
upon the family. A woman can be targeted by (individuals within) her family for a variety of

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reasons, including: refusing to enter into an arranged marriage, being the victim of a sexual
assault, seeking a divorce even from an abusive husband or (allegedly) committing adultery.
The mere perception that a woman has behaved in a way that dishonors’ her family is
sufficient to trigger an attack on her life. (Amos Wako, (1999)

Acid throwing
Acid throwing, also called an acid attack or vitriol age is defined as the act of throwing acid
onto the body of a person “with the intention of injuring or disfiguring [them] out of jealousy
or revenge”. Perpetrators of these attacks throw acid at their victims, usually at their faces,
burning them, and damaging skin tissue, often exposing and sometimes dissolving the bones.
The long term consequences of these attacks include blindness and permanent scarring of the
face and body. Acid attacks are often connected to domestic disputes in places such as
Pakistan and Bangladesh. These attacks are most common in Cambodia, Afghanistan, India,
Bangladesh, and Pakistan and other nearby countries. (Amos Wako, (1999)

Dowry violence and bride burning

In parts of the world, such as South Asia, the custom of dowry is related to severe forms of
violence, including murder. Bride burning is a form of domestic violence in which a bride is
killed at home by her husband or husband’s family due to his dissatisfaction over the dowry
provided by her family. The act is often a result of demands for more or prolonged dowry
after the marriage. It is a major problem in countries such as India. Dowry death refers to the
phenomenon of women and girls being killed or committing suicide due to disputes regarding
dowry. (Jejeebhoy, Shireen, 1998).

2.3 Factors contributing to Domestic Violence

Understanding the risk factors associated with domestic violence will help you frame some
of your own local analysis questions, determine good effectiveness measures, recognize key
intervention points, and select appropriate responses. Risk factors do not automatically mean
that a person will become a domestic violence victim or an offender. Also, although some
risk factors are stronger than others, it is difficult to compare risk factor findings across
studies because of methodological differences between studies. (Jejeebhoy, Shireen, 1998).
Age The female age group at highest risk for domestic violence victimization is 16 to 24.
Among one segment of this high-risk age group undergraduate college students 22 percent of
female respondents in a Canadian study reported domestic violence victimization, and 14

7
percent of male respondents reported physically assaulting their dating partners in the year
before the survey. And although the victimization of teen girls is estimated to be high, it is
difficult to “untangle defensive responses from acts of initial violence against a dating
partner.” (Jejeebhoy, Shireen, 1998).

Socioeconomic Status
Although domestic violence occurs across income brackets, it is most frequently reported by
the poor who more often rely on the police for dispute resolution. Victimization surveys
indicate that lower-income women are, in fact, more frequently victims of domestic violence
than wealthier women. Women with family incomes less than $7,500 are five times more
likely to be victims of violence by an intimate than women with family annual incomes
between $50,000 and $74,000. Although the poorest women are the most victimized by
domestic violence, one study also found that women receiving government income support
payments through Aid for Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) were three times more
likely to have experienced physical aggression by a current or former partner during the
previous year than non-AFDC supported women. (Visaria. 1999).

Race
Overall, in the United States, blacks experience higher rates of victimization than other
groups: black females experience intimate violence at a rate 35 percent higher than that of
white females, and black males experience intimate violence at a rate about 62 percent higher
than that of white males and about two and a half times the rate of men of other races. Other
survey research, more inclusive of additional racial groups, finds that American
Indian/Alaskan Native women experience significantly higher rates of physical abuse as well.
It is unclear how much of the differences in victimization rates by race is the result of
willingness to reveal victimization to survey interviewers (Tjaden and Thoennes, 2000).

Repeat Victimization
Domestic violence, generally, has high levels of repeat calls for police service. For instance,
police data in West Yorkshire (United Kingdom) showed that 42 percent of domestic
violence incidents within one year were repeat offenses, and one-third of domestic violence
offenders were responsible for two-thirds of all domestic violence incidents reported to the
police. It is likely that some victims of domestic violence experience physical assault only
once and others experience it repeatedly over a period as short as 12 months. British research
suggests that the highest risk period for further assault is within the first four weeks of the last
assault. (Visaria, 1999).

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Psychological
Psychological theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender.
Personality traits include sudden bursts of anger, poor impulse control, and poor self-esteem.
Various theories suggest that psychopathology and other personality disorders are factors,
and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults.
Correlation has been found between juvenile delinquency and domestic violence in
adulthood. Studies have found high incidence of psychopathy among abusers. However, these
psychological theories are disputed: Gelles suggests that psychological theories are limited,
and points out that other researcher have found that only 10% (or less) fit this psychological
profile. He argues that social factors are important, while personality traits, mental illness, or
psychopathy are lesser factors. (Cleaver, et al, 1999)

Mental illness
Many psychiatric disorders are risk factors for domestic violence, including several
personality disorders: all Cluster B PDs, (especially antisocial), paranoid and passive-
aggressive. Bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, drug abuse, alcoholism and poor impulse control
are also risk factors. It is estimated that at least one-third of all abusers have some type of
mental illness. (Holder 1998)

Jealousy
Many cases of domestic violence occur due to jealousy when one partner is either suspected
of being unfaithful or is planning to leave the relationship. An evolutionary psychology
explanation of such cases of domestic violence against a woman is that they represent male
attempts to control female reproduction and ensure sexual exclusivity through violence or the
threat of violence. (Holder, R, 1998)

Behavioral
Behavioral theories draw on the work of behavior analysts. Applied behavior analysis uses
the basic principles of learning theory to change behavior. Behavioral theories of domestic
violence focus on the use of functional assessment with the goal of reducing episodes of
violence to zero rates. This program leads to behavior therapy. Often by identifying the
antecedents and consequences of violent action, the abusers can be taught self control.
Recently more focus has been placed on prevention and a behavioral prevention theory
(Laing, 2000)

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Social stress
Stress may be increased when a person is living in a family situation, with increased
pressures. Social stresses, due to inadequate finances or other such problems in a family may
further increase tensions. Violence is not always caused by stress, but may be one way that
some people respond to stress. Families and couples in poverty may be more likely to
experience domestic violence, due to increased stress and conflicts about finances and other
aspects. Some speculate that poverty may hinder a man’s ability to live up to his idea of
“successful manhood”, thus he fears losing honor and respect. Theory suggests that when he
is unable to economically support his wife, and maintain control, he may turn to misogyny,
substance abuse, and crime as ways to express masculinity. (Laing, 2000)

Social learning theory

Social learning theory suggests that people learn from observing and modeling after others’
behavior. With positive reinforcement, the behavior continues. If one observes violent
behavior, one is more likely to imitate it. If there are no negative consequences (e. g. victim
accepts the violence, with submission), then the behavior will likely continue. Often, violence
is transmitted from generation to generation in a cyclical manner. (Laing, L, 2000)

2.4 Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Development

This is an edited version of a presentation delivered at the Department of Community
Services’ Fourth Domestic Violence Forum held at the NSW Parenting Centre, Old Bidura
House Ballroom, Glebe, on 24 September 2002.When we talk about the impact of domestic
violence on children’s development, we are considering the effects on children of living in a
home where spousal abuse is occurring. Children are living in most homes where there is
domestic violence. Research on children who witness family violence is a special case of
counting the hard-tocount and measuring the hard-to measure’ (Fantuzzo, Boruch, Beriana,
Atkins & Marcus, 1997; p.121), so it is impossible to be definitive about the number of
families affected.

However, several studies have found that 85-90% of the time when a violent incident took
place in a domestic situation, children were present and children were also abused during the
violent incident in about 50% of those cases (Queensland Domestic Taskforce, 1998; Cleaver
et al, 1999,cited in Fleischer, 2000). Childhood is regarded as a period of special protection
and rights in western culture .Children’s development is expected to unfold within a secure
and nurturing environment. Where the environment is infected by violence and fear, all the
normal tasks of growing up are likely to be adversely affected. For example, exposure to

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violence can result in ‘regressive’ symptoms such as increased bedwetting, delayed language
development and more anxiety over separation from parents (Osofsky, 1995, cited in
Margolin & Gordis, 2000).These symptoms may affect children’s ability to learn to get along
with other children or to concentrate in school.

An extensive survey of the research evidence has shown how strongly the experience of
violence is associated with adverse outcomes for children’s development (Zeanah,
Danis,Hirshberg, Benoit, Miller & HelIer, 1999; Mathias, Mertin, & Murray, 1995;
Cummings &Davies, 1994; Margolin & Gordis, 2000). Marital conflict has been found to be
the strongest risk factor for behavioral problems (Marshall & Watt, 1999). It was
significantly associated with externalizing and internalizing behaviors and social, attention
and thought problems when children were assessed at the age of five. And the more frequent
and intense episodes of inter parental conflict were, the more likely it was that children
exhibited problem behaviors.

However, there are some difficulties in interpreting this data that we need to keep in mind.
First of all, research on children exposed to domestic violence has often looked at children in
refuges or shelters. These children are coping not only with the aftermath of frightening
domestic incidents but a sudden change of home, of schooling and friendships, adjustment to
refuge living and what may have been the breaking of the family secret. In short, there are
many significant disruptions to their way of life. They are not typical of most children
exposed to domestic violence. Only a tiny minority of families where domestic violence is
present (about 6%) have contact with statutory services (Office of the Status of Women,
1998). Most affected children are ‘suffering in silence’ at home and researchers do not have
access to them. Because of all the confounding factors and the impossibility of studying a
‘representative’ sample of children exposed to domestic violence, ‘making definitive
statements regarding the child witnessing phenomenon.. .would be a risky endeavour’
(Fantuzzo, Boruch, Beriama, Atkins & Marcus, 1997; p.116). Other studies rely on
‘retrospective’ accounts, for example, adults with mental health problems looking back on
their childhood and remembering incidences of domestic violence. People’s memories are
distorted and selective and retrospective studies are not a reliable way of teasing out cause-
effect relationships.

Poverty, substance abuse, child sexual and physical abuse, parental antisocial personality,
maternal depression, parenting style, all may co-occur and complicate the picture. In

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particular, child physical abuse and domestic violence often co-occur. Estimates place it in
the 30-60% range, perhaps higher than that (Edelson, 1999). An interesting finding was that
where parent child violence was low, witnessing violence between the parents had a
significant and adverse effect on adjustment. However, the effect of witnessing violence
between parents was negligible when the level of parent-child violence was high (O’Keefe,
1995). This fits in with the idea of a ‘hierarchy of needs’ (Maslow,1943), which puts the need
for ‘safety and security’ ahead of ‘love and belonginess’ needs .Hence, the child who is
terrified that they might be hurt or killed may have little emotional energy left over to worry
about his or her parent.

Infancy
Infants are often directly involved in violent domestic incidents. They are held as a shield by
the mother, hit by thrown objects, or intentionally threatened or hurt to terrify the mother.
Even when they are apparently lying passively in their cots, infants are exquisitely sensitive
to their surroundings and especially to the emotional signals given out by their caregivers,
including the caregiver’s depressed, anxious, fearful or angry mood. (McIntosh, 2000)

2.4 .0 Effects of exposure to domestic violence on the developing brain

At birth, a baby’s brain is 25% of its adult weight, increasing to 66% by the end of the first
year due to the ‘brain growth spurt’ which occurs between the seventh prenatal month and the
child’s first birthday. The developing brain is most vulnerable to the impact of traumatic
experiences during this time. New research on brain development suggests that exposure to
extreme trauma will change the organization of the brain, resulting in difficulties in dealing
with stresses later in life (Perry, 1997). It seems to work this way: Raised levels of the steroid
hormone cortisol are a normal response to stress in humans. Frequent and prolonged exposure
to elevated cortisol levels may affect the development of a major stress-regulating system in
the brain (Cynader and Frost, 1999) either heightening the stress feedback system (leading to
hyper vigilance, chronic fear and anxiety, negative mood and problems in attending) or
reducing it, leading to depression (Bellis et al, 1994; Hart et al 1995, 1996; Putnam and
Trickett, 1997, all cited in Margolin and Gordis, 2000). Chronic stress can cause depression
of the immune function as well as other body systems controlled by the brain (Coe, 1999).lt is
not surprising, then, that observed changes in infant behavior include irritability, sleep
disturbances, more extreme ‘startle’ responses and more minor illnesses (Osofsky
&Scheeringa 1997, Zeanah & Scheeringa, 1997, cited in Margolin & Gordis, 2000).

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2.4.1 Disruption of attachment and its consequences
An enormous number of research studies attest to the truth of the statement that ‘the strongest
theoretical influence in modern-day studies of infant-parent relationships is attachment
theory’ (Bee, 2000; p.3 18). Many of these studies show a link between secure attachment in
infancy and later, positive developmental outcomes. Negative consequences have often been
found where infant-parent attachments have been classified as insecure. According to the
theory, a child’s sense of security depends on security of attachment to it earliest caregiver(s)
and the quality of this relationship serves as a model of how to relate to people later in life
and get what you need from them. If children learn in their earliest relationships that adults
are not to be relied upon, the effects are likely to be long-lasting and far-reaching.

Research on attachment in infancy has shown that the more serious the level of partner
violence, the higher the likelihood of insecure, specifically disorganized attachments. It
seems that frightening or frightened behavior of the caregiver might promote disorganized
attachment. While over 70% of infants in ‘average’ households are generally classified as
‘securely attached’ over 50% of babies in a sample of mothers who had been the target of
domestic violence were classified as having ‘disorganized attachment’. The attachment figure
(the mother in these cases) is a source of both fear and comfort and babies are both afraid of
and for, their mothers. In these confusing circumstances, the baby does not develop a
consistent or coherent strategy for obtaining help and comfort from its mother (Zeanah,Danis,
Hirshberg, Benoit, Miller & Heller, 1999).

Childhood

The dangerous circumstances of home life mean that the young child may not develop a
sense of trust or security. So by three years, it has been found that children exposed to
domestic violence may respond to adult anger with greater distress and increases in
aggression directed at peers. One research found boys were more aggressive and girls more
distressed. While others have not found gender differences (Margolin, 1998; Mathias,
Mertin& Murray, 1995). But there is a consistent thread running through the research
findings of higher levels of aggression, greater likelihood of seeing the intentions of others as
hostile, psychosomatic disorders, difficulties with school work, poor academic performance,
school phobia and difficulties in concentration and attention (Curnming & Davies, 1994).

Adolescence

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The impact may be different for adolescents who have been part of an abusive system from
their earliest years compared with those who experience it for the first time in adolescence.
Violence against mothers in childhood is highly associated with ongoing depression in
adolescent girls (Spaccarelli, Sandier & Roosa, 1994). Adolescents from homes where
domestic violence is present are more likely to be homeless (Department of Education
Training and Youth Affairs 2000). The stresses associated with violence in the home may
make usual adolescent risk-taking and escape behaviors worse and they may begin to
participate in family violence themselves (Howard, 1995; Kalmuss, 1984; Mclnnes, 1995).

On children

There has been an increase in acknowledgment that a child who is exposed to domestic
abuse during their upbringing will suffer in their developmental and psychological welfare.
Because of the awareness of domestic violence that some children have to face, it also
generally impacts how the child develops emotionally, socially, behaviorally as well as
cognitively. Some emotional and behavioral problems that can result due to domestic
violence include increased aggressiveness, anxiety, and changes in how a child socializes
with friends, family, and authorities.

Depression, as well as self-esteem issues, can follow due to traumatic experiences. Problems
with attitude and cognition in schools can start developing, along with a lack of skills such as
problem-solving. Correlation has been found between the experience of abuse and neglect in
childhood and perpetrating domestic violence and sexual abuse in adulthood. Additionally, in
some cases the abuser will purposely abuse the mother or father1 in front of the child to cause
a ripple effect, hurting two victims simultaneously. It has been found that children who
witness mother-assault are more likely to exhibit symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD). Consequences to these children are likely to be more severe if their assaulted mother
develops posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and does not seek treatment due to her
difficulty in assisting her child with processing his or her own experience of witnessing the
domestic violence.(Mclntosh, 2000)

Physical

Bruises, broken bones, head injuries, lacerations, and internal bleeding are some of the acute
effects of a domestic violence incident that require medical attention and hospitalization.
Some chronic health conditions that have been linked to victims of domestic violence are

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arthritis, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pain, pelvic pain, ulcers, and migraines. Victims
who are pregnant during a domestic violence relationship experience greater risk of
miscarriage, pre-term labor, and injury to or death of the fetus. (Mcintosh, 2000)

Financial

Once victims leave their perpetrator, they can be stunned with the reality of the extent to
which the abuse has taken away their autonomy. Due to economic abuse and isolation, the
victim usually has very little money of their own and few people on whom they can rely
when seeking help. This has been shown to be one of the greatest obstacles facing victims of
DV, and the strongest factor that can discourage them from leaving their perpetrators. In
addition to lacking financial resources, victims of DV often lack specialized skills, education,
and training that are necessary to find gainful employment, and also may have several
children to support. In 2003, thirty-six major US cities cited DV as one of the primary causes
of homelessness in their areas. It has also been reported that one out of every three homeless
women are homeless due to having left a DV relationship. If a victim is able to secure rental
housing, it is likely that her apartment complex will have zero tolerance’ policies for crime;
these policies can cause them to face eviction even if they are the victim (not the perpetrator)
of violence. While the number of shelters and community resources available to DV victims
has grown tremendously. these agencies often have few employees and hundreds of victims
seeking assistance which causes many victims to remain without the assistance they need.
(McIntosh, 2000)

Long-term

Domestic violence can trigger many different responses in victims, all of which are very
relevant for any professional working with a victim. Major consequences of domestic
violence victimization include psychological/mental health issues and chronic physical health
problems. A victim’s overwhelming lack of resources can lead to homelessness and poverty.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This chapter shall show the methods that a researcher will use in the study. It will give the
research design, target population, sample, data collection methods and tools, data quality
control, data analysis, ethical consideration and limitations.
3.2 Research method
The study shall be based on both primary and secondary data. In the study, several important
categories of respondents shall be involved.

3.3Research Design
The study will employee descriptive survey design that involved gathering of data from
across a section of a target population using set of self-administered questionnaires.
3.4 Research Approach
The study shall use a mixed approach, which will combine both qualitative and quantitative
approaches to collect data. A mixed method refers to the integration of the qualitative and
quantitative methods. Mixed approach is defined as the collection of and analysis of both
qualitative and quantitative data in a single study in which data are collected either
concurrently or sequentially giving a priority and involve the integration of the data at one or
more stages in the process of research (Brewer & Hunter, 1989). Qualitative approach will be
used in this study because it provides room for flexibility through verbal explanation (Denzin
& Lincoln, 1994). Whereas quantitative approach will be used because it allows comparisons,
statistical aggregation of data and measurement of the responses of large participants to a
limited set of questions (Brewer & Hunter, 1989).

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3.4 Population
The target population in the study shall be women, children, and NGO officials in Kapyanga
subcounty. All these groups will constitute the study population because the researcher will
be interested in divergent views from all people concerned with the problem.
3.5 Sample and Sampling Procedures.
In this survey a total of 100 respondents will take part in the study including 10 Ngo officials,
30 women and 60 children will be selected using purposive and simple random sampling
respectively and a sample size of 80 respondents will be selected since it was impossible to
study the whole population. The responses got will be generalized to the whole district

3.5.1 Purposive sampling technique

The data analysis was done by presenting collected data in form of charts, and frequency and
percentage table which were accompanied by interpretations.

3.5.2 Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is the best way yet devised by human beings to obtain a sample
representative of population (Frankel & Walled, 2000). This sampling strategy will be used
by the researcher to select the number of the NGOs. The study will be expected to involve 10
NGO officials, 30 Women and 60 children.
3.6 Data Collection Tools
The study will employee a variety of tools for data collection. According to Patton (1987) the
choice of research tools depend on the purpose of the research, research questions under
investigation and the selected research approach.
3.6.1 Secondary data
In collecting secondary sources of data, literature survey will be conducted in different
libraries on the subject matter. Various sources which included books, journals, reports,
papers and internet materials was studied in order to have a critical overview of the impact of
early marriage on education for girls.
3.6.2 Primary data
Primary data will be collected through administration of interviews, focus group discussions
and questionnaires to the targeted population.
a) Questionnaires
The study will employee both open and close-ended questions in collecting the information.
In this study, questionnaires will be administered in order to capture the information of their
knowledge on effects of domestic violence on women. For questionnaires to be administered,
the most interesting questions will be at the beginning of the questionnaire to catch the

17
respondent’s attention, while the intended questions should be near the end (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 2000).
b) Interviews
In this study the interviews will be administered to the NGO officers this Interviews will be
necessary so as to supplement clarifications of information to be collected through
questionnaire.
3.7 Reliability and Validity of Instruments
Validity and its measures play an important part in determining the appropriate methodology
to employ. Thus, research instruments will refine to certain relevance, coverage and
consistency before they are used in the field. For validation, the instruments shall be tested
and one NGO officer involved in a pilot phase.
3.8 Data Collection Procedure
Data collection will be conducted over a two months period (January to February 2025), with
the assistance of one research assistant (a graduate with research knowledge). The sample
size will be divided into three batches; Ngo officials, children and women The self report
questionnaires will be administered. Group discussions will be conducted among a group of
children.
3.9 Data Analysis
The data will be filled in the questionnaires, copied and analyzed by tallying it and tabling it
in frequency tables, identifying how often certain responses occurred and later evaluation was
done. The information will be later presented in terms of percentages, and frequency tables
were used for presentation. The collected data in form of questionnaires shall be entered in a
computer package called MS- Excel and will be analyzed
3.10 Ethical consideration
All throughout the researcher she introduced herself and the purpose of her visit to
respondents. The researcher shall make sure she first seeks the respondents’ permission
before going on. The respondents will be assured of confidentiality through nonuse of any
ones names, Issues of plagiarism and other research ethics will also be observed.

18
REFERENCES
Amos Wako, (1999), Statement by the Hon. S AmosWako, the Attorney General, during the
16 Days of Activism Against Violence Against Women, 10 December 1999.

Boston, Allyn and Bacon.Bunston, W, and Crean, H, 1999, Supporting children and young
people affected by family violence: parents accepting responsibility —kids are safe
(PARKAS), Victorian Government Department of Human Services, Melbourne

Cleaver, H, et al, 1999, Children’s needs —parenting capacity: The impact of parental mental
illness, problem alcohol and drug use, and domestic violence on children’s development, UK
Department of Health. Coe, C L, ‘Psychosocial factors and psychoneuro immunology within
a lifespan perspective’ in Keating and Hertzman;p.201-219.

Cummings, E M and Davies, P D, 1994,Children and marital conflict: The impact of family
dispute and resolution, Guildford Press, New York.

Cynader, M S and Frost, B J, 1999.’Mechanisms of brain development: neuronal sculpting by

the physical and social environment’, in D P Keating and C Hertzman,eds, Developmental
Health and the Wealth of Nations: Social, Biological and Educational Dynamics, Guilford
Press, New York. Daga, A S., S. Jejeebhoy and S. Rajgopal. (1999).

Domestic Violence against Women: An Investigation of Hospital Causality Records,

Mumbai. Journal of Family Welfare, 45 (1), - 11.

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