Launchpad Cambridge (CIE) AS Biology Revision Notes

Eukaryotic Cell Structures &

Functions
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Naomi Holyoak 12 December 2024

Eukaryotic Cell Structures & Functions

Cells can be divided into two broad types; eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells have a more complex ultrastructure than prokaryotic cells
The term ultrastructure refers to the internal structure of cells

The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells is divided up into membrane-bound

compartments called organelles

Cell organelles
Cell surface membrane
All cells are surrounded by a cell surface membrane which separates the inside of
cells from their surroundings
Cell surface membranes controls the exchange of materials between the internal
cell environment and the external environment
The membrane is described as being partially permeable as it allows the
passage of some substances and not others

The cell membrane is formed from a phospholipid bilayer and spans a diameter of
around 10 nm

Cell surface membrane diagram

Cell surface membranes separate cell contents from the surrounding environment
and control the passage of substances into and out of cells

Nucleus
Present in all eukaryotic cells, the nucleus is a large organelle that is separated
from the cytoplasm by a double membrane
The nucleus contains the DNA, which is arranged into chromosomes
Chromosomes contain DNA and proteins, which are collectively referred to as
chromatin

The nuclear membrane is known as the nuclear envelope, and contains many
pores
Nuclear pores are important channels for allowing mRNA and ribosomes to travel
out of the nucleus, as well as allowing enzymes and signalling molecules to move in
The nucleus contains a region known as the nucleolus, which is the site of
ribosome production

Nucleus diagram

The nucleus of a cell contains the genetic material

Rough & smooth endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is made up of a series of membranes that form
flattened sacs within the cell cytoplasm
The ER is linked with the nuclear envelope
There are two distinct types of ER, with di!erent roles within the cell
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Continuous folds of membrane that are linked with the nuclear envelope
The surface of the RER is covered in ribosomes
The role of the RER is to process proteins that are produced on the
ribosomes

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

The SER does not have ribosomes on the surface
It is involved in the production of lipids, and of steroid hormones such as
oestrogen and testosterone

Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum diagram

The RER has ribosomes on its outer surface and is continuous with the nuclear
envelope, while the SER lacks ribosomes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Be sure to always use the full name of the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
when you first refer these structures in an exam; marks are often not awarded for the
abbreviations RER and SER in the absence of the full key terms.

Golgi body
The Golgi body is often referred to as the Golgi apparatus or the Golgi complex
It consists of a series of flattened sacs of membrane
It can be clearly distinguished from the ER, as it is not connected to other
membrane-bound compartments, and it has a distinctive 'wifi symbol'
appearance
Its role is to modify proteins and package them into vesicles

Golgi body diagram

The Golgi body processes proteins and packages them into vesicles

Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are relatively large organelles surrounded
by a double-membrane
They are smaller than the nucleus and chloroplasts, but can be seen with a light
microscope

The inner membrane is folded to form cristae

Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration within eukaryotic cells
The mitochondrial matrix contains enzymes needed for aerobic respiration
Small, circular pieces of DNA, known as mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes are
also found in the matrix
This allows the production of proteins required for respiration

Mitochondria diagram

Mitochondria have a highly folded inner membrane; this provides a large surface
area for embedded proteins that are involved with aerobic respiration

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm of all cells or as part of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotic cells
Each ribosome is a complex of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins
80S ribosomes (composed of 60S and 40S subunits) are found in eukaryotic cells
Smaller, 70S ribosomes (composed of 50S and 30S subunits) are found in
prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts

Ribosomes are the site of translation during protein synthesis

Ribosome diagram

Ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus and are composed of almost equal amounts
of RNA and protein

Vesicles
Vesicles are small, membrane-bound sacs used by cells for transport and storage
They can be pinched o! the ends of the Golgi body; these are known as Golgi
vesicles
They can fuse with the cell surface membrane to allow exocytosis, or bud from the
membrane during endocytosis

Vesicle diagram

Vesicles carry out transport and storage of substances within cells

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are specialised vesicles which contain hydrolytic enzymes
Hydrolytic enzymes break down biological molecules, e.g.
Waste materials, such as worn-out organelles
Engulfed pathogens during phagocytosis
Cell debris during apoptosis (programmed cell death)

Lysosome diagram

Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes for the breakdown of biological molecules

Centrioles
Centrioles are hollow fibres made of microtubules
Two centrioles at right angles to each other form a centrosome, which organises
the spindle fibres during cell division
Note that centrioles are not found in flowering plants and fungi

Centrioles diagram

Centrioles are involved with the movement of chromosomes during cell division

Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow tubes made of tubulin protein
α and β tubulin proteins combine to form dimers, which are then joined into
protofilaments
Thirteen protofilaments in a cylinder make a microtubule

Microtubules make up the cytoskeleton of the cell

The cytoskeleton is used to provide support and movement of the cell

Microtubules and cytoskeleton diagram

Microtubules are tubes of protein that are involved with the structure of cell
cytoskeletons

Cilia
Cilia are hair-like projections made from microtubules
They can be found of the surface of some cells where they Allow the movement of
substances over the cell surface
E.g. ciliated epithelial cells in the airways waft mucus away from the lungs

Cilia diagram

Ciliated cells form ciliated epithelium in the airways

Microvilli
Microvilli are cell membrane projections that increase the surface area for
absorption
Microvilli are found in parts of the body that carry out absorption, e.g.
The lining of the small intestine
The kidney tubules

Microvilli diagram

Microvilli increase the surface area of the cell surface membrane

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Be careful not to confuse microvilli with villi. Villi are much larger structures made up of
several layers of cells, while microvilli are found on the surfaces of individual cells.
Microvilli will be present on the outermost layer of cells that make up the villi!

Cell wall
Cell walls are outside cell surface membranes and o!er structural support to
some types of cell
Structural support is provided by the polysaccharide cellulose in plants, and
by chitin in fungi

Cell walls are freely permeable and do not play a role in controlling the movement
of substances into and out of cells

Cell wall diagram

Plant cell walls contain cellulose

Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are larger than mitochondria, and are also surrounded by a double-
membrane
Membrane-bound compartments called thylakoids stack together to form
structures called grana
Grana are joined together by lamellae
Photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll are found in the membranes of the
thylakoids, where their role is to absorb light energy for photosynthesis
Chloroplasts contain small circular pieces of DNA and ribosomes used to
synthesise proteins needed in chloroplast replication and photosynthesis

Chloroplast structure diagram

Chloroplasts are found in the green parts of a plant

Plasmodesmata
Plasmodesmata are bridges of cytoplasm between neighbouring plant cells
They allow the transfer of substances between plant cells

Plasmodesmata diagram

Plasmodesmata mean that the cytoplasm of neighbouring plant cells is continuous;

this allows substances to move easily between cells, e.g. sucrose can move easily
from the surrounding cells into the phloem

Large permanent vacuole

Large permanent vacuoles are found in plant cells, where they store cell sap and
provide additional structural support to cells
Vacuoles are sometimes found in animal cells, but these will be small and
temporary

Vacuoles are surrounded by the tonoplast, which is a partially permeable

membrane

Large permanent vacuoles store cell sap inside plant cells

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