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Multivariable Calculus with MATLAB®
Ronald L. Lipsman · Jonathan M. Rosenberg

Multivariable Calculus
with MATLAB®
With Applications to Geometry and Physics
Ronald L. Lipsman Jonathan M. Rosenberg
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
University of Maryland University of Maryland
College Park, MD, USA College Park, MD, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-65069-2 ISBN 978-3-319-65070-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-65070-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017949120

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature
The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

2
z

0
2
2
1
1
0 0
-1
y -1 -2 x

The preface of a book gives the authors their best chance to answer an extremely
important question: What makes this book special?
This book is a reworking and updating for MATLAB of our previous book ( joint
with Kevin R. Coombes) Multivariable Calculus with Mathematica®,
Springer, 1998. It represents our attempt to enrich and enliven the teaching of mul-
tivariable calculus and mathematical methods courses for scientists and engineers.
Most books in these subjects are not substantially different from those of fifty years
ago. (Well, they may include fancier graphics and omit several topics, but those
are minor changes.) This book is different. We do touch on most of the classical
topics; however, we have made a particular effort to illustrate each point with a
significant example. More importantly, we have tried to bring fundamental physi-
cal applications—Kepler’s laws, electromagnetism, fluid flow, energy estimation—
back to a prominent position in the subject. From one perspective, the subject of
multivariable calculus only exists because it can be applied to important problems
in science.
In addition, we have included a discussion of the geometric invariants of curves
and surfaces, providing, in effect, a brief introduction to differential geometry. This
material provides a natural extension to the traditional syllabus.
We believe that we have succeeded in resurrecting material that used to be in
the course while introducing new material. A major reason for that success is that
we use the computational power of the mathematical software system MATLAB to
carry a large share of the load. MATLAB is tightly integrated into every portion
of this book. We use its graphical capabilities to draw pictures of curves and sur-
faces; we use its symbolical capabilities to compute curvature and torsion; we use
its numerical capabilities to tackle problems that are well beyond the typical mun-
dane examples of textbooks that treat the subject without using a computer. Finally,
and this is something not done in any other books at this level, we give a serious
yet elementary explanation of how various numerical algorithms work, and what
their advantages and disadvantages are. Again, this is something that could not be
accomplished without a software package such as MATLAB.

v
vi Preface

As an additional benefit from introducing MATLAB, we are able to improve stu-

dents’ understanding of important elements of the traditional syllabus. Our students
are better able to visualize regions in the plane and in space. They develop a better
feel for the geometric meaning of the gradient; for the method of steepest descent;
for the orthogonality of level curves and gradient flows. Because they have tools for
visualizing cross sections of solids, they are better able to find the limits of integra-
tion in multiple integrals.
To summarize, we think this book is special because, by using it:
• students obtain a better understanding of the traditional material;
• students see the deep connections between mathematics and science;
• students learn more about the intrinsic geometry of curves and surfaces;
• students acquire skill using MATLAB, a powerful piece of modern mathematical
software;
• instructors can choose from a more exciting variety of problems than in standard
textbooks; and
• both students and instructors are exposed to a more holistic approach to the
subject—one that embraces not only algebraic/calculus-based solutions to prob-
lems, but also numerical, graphical/geometric and qualitative approaches to the
subject and its problems.

Conventions

Throughout the book, MATLAB commands, such as solve, are printed in type-
writer boldface. Theorems and general principles, such as: derivatives measure
change, are printed in a slanted font. When new terms, such as torsion, are intro-
duced, they are printed in an italic font. File names and URLs (web addresses) are
printed in typewriter font. Everything else is printed in a standard font.
At the start of each chapter, below the title, is a small illustration. Each is a
graphic generated by a MATLAB command. Most are taken from the MATLAB
solution to one of the problems in the accompanying problem set. A few are taken
from the chapter itself. Finally, in this Preface, the graphic represents a more eclectic
choice. We leave it to the industrious reader to identify the source of these graphics,
as well as to reproduce the figure.

Acknowledgments

We above all want to thank our former collaborators for their contributions to this
project. Kevin Coombes (now at the Department of Biomedical Informatics at Ohio
State University) was a co-author of Multivariable Calculus with Mathematica®
and kindly agreed to let us adapt that book for MATLAB. Brian Hunt was a
co-author of A Guide to MATLAB and taught us many useful MATLAB tricks and
Preface vii

tips. Paul Green helped develop MATLAB exercises for multivariable calculus that
eventually worked their way into this book.
Jonathan Rosenberg thanks the National Science Foundation for its support under
grant DMS-1607162. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations
expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the
views of the National Science Foundation.

College Park, MD, USA Ronald L. Lipsman

October 1, 2017 Jonathan M. Rosenberg
Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Benefits of Mathematical Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 What’s in This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Chapter Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 What’s Not in This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 The MATLAB Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.1 A Word on Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Software Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Problem Set A. Review of One-Variable Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Glossary of MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Options to MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Vectors and Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.1 Applications of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Parametric Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Graphing Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Parametric Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Problem Set B. Vectors and Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Glossary of MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Options to MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3 Geometry of Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Parametric Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Geometric Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.1 Arclength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.2 The Frenet Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

ix
x Contents

3.2.3 Curvature and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.3 Differential Geometry of Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.1 The Osculating Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.2 Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.3 Spherical Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3.4 Helical Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3.5 Congruence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.6 Two More Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Problem Set C. Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Glossary of MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 Studying Equations of Motion with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Problem Set D. Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Glossary of MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5 Directional Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1 Visualizing Functions of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1.1 Three-Dimensional Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.1.2 Graphing Level Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2 The Gradient of a Function of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.1 Partial Derivatives and the Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2.2 Directional Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3 Functions of Three or More Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Problem Set E. Directional Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Glossary of MATLAB Commands and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Options to MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

6 Geometry of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1 The Concept of a Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1.1 Basic Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2 The Implicit Function Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.3 Geometric Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.4 Curvature Calculations with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Problem Set F. Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Glossary of MATLAB Commands and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Options to MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Contents xi

7 Optimization in Several Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

7.1 The One-Variable Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.1.1 Analytic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.1.2 Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.1.3 Newton’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.2 Functions of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.2.1 Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.2.2 Steepest Descent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.2.3 Multivariable Newton’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.3 Three or More Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.4 Constrained Optimization and Lagrange Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Problem Set G. Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Glossary of MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

8 Multiple Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

8.1 Automation and Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.1.1 Regions in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.1.2 Viewing Simple Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.1.3 Polar Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.2 Algorithms for Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.2.1 Algorithms for Numerical Integration in a Single
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.2.2 Algorithms for Numerical Multiple Integration . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.3 Viewing Solid Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.4 A More Complicated Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.5 Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8.6 More General Changes of Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Problem Set H. Multiple Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Glossary of MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

9 Multidimensional Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

9.1 The Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.2 Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.3 Stokes’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9.4 The Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.5 Vector Calculus and Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Problem Set I. Multivariable Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Glossary of MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Options to MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
xii Contents

10 Physical Applications of Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

10.1 Motion in a Central Force Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.2 Newtonian Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10.3 Electricity and Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
10.4 Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
10.5 Heat and Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
10.5.1 The Heat Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
10.5.2 The Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Problem Set J. Physical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Glossary of MATLAB Commands and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Options to MATLAB Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Appendix: Energy Minimization and Laplace’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

11 MATLAB Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

12 Sample Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

12.1 Problem Set A: Problem 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
12.2 Problem Set B: Problem 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
12.3 Problem Set C: Problem 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
12.4 Problem Set D: Problem 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
12.5 Problem Set E: Problem 5, Parts (b) and (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12.6 Problem Set F: Problem 10, Part (e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
12.7 Problem Set G: Problem 10, Part (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
12.8 Problem Set H: Problem 2, Parts (c) and (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
12.9 Problem Set I: Problems 4(b) and 5(a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
12.10 Problem Set J: Problem 3, Parts (a) and (b), but only subpart (ii) . . . 265

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Chapter 1
Introduction
besselj (0, 2 x)

0.5

-0.5
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
x

We wrote this book with the third semester of a physical science or engineering
calculus sequence in mind. The book can be used as a supplement to a traditional
calculus book in such a course, or as the sole text in an “honors” course in the sub-
ject. It can equally well be used in a postcalculus course or problem seminar on
mathematical methods for scientists and engineers. Finally, it can serve as introduc-
tory source material for a modern course in differential geometry. The subject is
traditionally called Calculus of Several Variables, Vector Calculus, or Multivariable
Calculus. The usual content is
• Preliminary Theory of Vectors: Dot and Cross Products; Vectors, Lines, and
Planes in R3 .
• Vector-Valued Functions: Derivatives and Integrals of Vector-Valued Functions of
One Variable; Space Curves; Tangents and Normals; Arclength and Curvature.
• Partial Derivatives: Directional Derivatives; Gradients; Surfaces; Tangent Planes;
Multivariable Max/Min Problems; Lagrange Multipliers.
• Multiple Integrals: Double and Triple Integrals; Cylindrical and Spherical Coor-
dinates; Change of Variables.
• Calculus of Vector Fields: Line and Surface Integrals; Fundamental Theorem of
Line Integrals; Green’s, Stokes’, and Divergence Theorems.
Our goal is to modernize the course in two important ways. First, we adopt a
modern view, which emphasizes geometry as much as analysis. Second, we intro-
duce the mathematical software system MATLAB as a powerful computational and
visual tool. We include and emphasize MATLAB in order to
• remove the drudgery from tedious hand calculations that can now be done easily
by computer;
• improve students’ understanding of fundamental concepts in the traditional syl-
labus;


c Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1
R.L. Lipsman and J.M. Rosenberg, Multivariable Calculus with MATLAB ,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-65070-8 1
2 1 Introduction

• enhance students’ appreciation of the beauty and power of the subject by incor-
porating dramatic visual evidence; and
• introduce new geometrical and physical topics.

1.1 Benefits of Mathematical Software

To elaborate, we describe some specific benefits that follow from introducing MAT-
LAB. First, the traditional multivariable calculus course has a tremendous geomet-
ric component. Students struggle to handle it. Unless they are endowed with artistic
gifts or uncanny geometric insight, they may fail to depict and understand the geo-
metric constructs. Often, they rely on illustrations in their text or prepared by their
instructor. While the quality of those illustrations may be superior to what they can
generate themselves, spoon-fed instruction does not lead to the same depth of un-
derstanding as self-discovery. Providing a software system like MATLAB enables
all students to draw, manipulate, and analyze the geometric shapes of multivariable
calculus.
Second, most of the numbers, formulas, and equations found in standard prob-
lems are highly contrived to make the computations tractable. This places an enor-
mous limitation on the faculty member trying to present meaningful applications,
and lends an air of untruthfulness to the course. (Think about the limited number
of examples for an arclength integral that can be integrated easily in closed form.)
With the introduction of MATLAB, this drawback is ameliorated. The numerical
and symbolic power of MATLAB greatly expands our ability to present realistic
examples and applications.
Third, the instructor can concentrate on non-rote aspects of the course. The stu-
dent can rely on MATLAB to carry out the mundane algebra and calculus that often
absorbed all of the student’s attention previously. The instructor can focus on theory
and problems that emphasize analysis, interpretation, and creative skills. Students
can do more than crank out numbers and pictures; they can learn to explain coher-
ently what the pictures mean. This capability is enhanced by either of the MATLAB
environments in which students will work—a published MATLAB script (formerly
called a script M-file) or a Live Script (created in the Live Editor). Either will afford
the student the capability to integrate MATLAB commands with output, graphics,
and textual commentary.
Fourth, the instructor has time to introduce modern, meaningful subject matter
into the course. Because we can rely on MATLAB to carry out the computations, we
are free to emphasize the ideas. In this book, we concentrate on aspects of geometry
and physics that are truly germane to the study of multivariable calculus. With the
introduction of MATLAB, this material can, for the first time, be presented effec-
tively at the sophomore level.
1.2 What’s in This Book 3

1.2 What’s in This Book

The bulk of the book consists of nine chapters (numbered 2–10) on multivariable
calculus and its applications. Some chapters cover standard material from a non-
standard point of view; others discuss topics that are hard to address without using
a computer and mathematical software, such as numerical methods.
Each chapter is accompanied by a problem set. The problem sets constitute an
integral part of the book. Solving the problems will expose you to the geometric,
symbolic, and numerical features of multivariable calculus. Many of the problems
(especially in Problem Sets C–J) are not routine.
Each problem set concludes with a Glossary of MATLAB commands, accompa-
nied by a brief description, which are likely to be useful in solving the problems in
that set. A more complete Glossary, with examples of how to use the commands, is
included in our website at

http://schol.math.umd.edu/MVCwMATLAB/

where you can also find

• electronic versions of the sample problem solutions;
• MATLAB scripts for each chapter, containing the MATLAB input lines that recre-
ate all of the output and figures from that chapter;
• the special MATLAB function scripts discussed in the book.

1.2.1 Chapter Descriptions

This Chapter, and Problem Set A, Review of One-Variable Calculus, describe the
purpose of the book and its prerequisites. The Problem Set reviews both the ele-
mentary MATLAB commands and the fundamental concepts of one-variable calcu-
lus needed to use MATLAB to study multivariable calculus.
Chapter 2, Vectors and Graphics, and Problem Set B, Vectors and Graphics,
introduce the mathematical idea of vectors in the plane and in space. We explain
how to work with vectors in MATLAB and how to graph curves and surfaces in
space.
Chapter 3, Geometry of Curves, and Problem Set C, Curves, examine parametric
curves, with an emphasis on geometric invariants like speed, curvature, and torsion,
which can be used to study and characterize the nature of different curves.
Chapter 4, Kinematics, and Problem Set D, Kinematics, apply the theory of
curves to the physical problems of moving particles and planets.
Chapter 5, Directional Derivatives, and Problem Set E, Directional Derivatives,
introduce the differential calculus of functions of several variables, including partial
derivatives, directional derivatives, and gradients. We also explain how to graph
functions and their level curves or surfaces with MATLAB.
4 1 Introduction

Chapter 6, Geometry of Surfaces, and Problem Set F, Surfaces, study paramet-

ric surfaces, with an emphasis on geometric invariants, including several forms of
curvature, which can be used to characterize the nature of different surfaces.
Chapter 7, Optimization in Several Variables, and Problem Set G, Optimization,
discuss how calculus can be used to develop numerical algorithms for finding max-
ima and minima of functions in several variables, or to solve systems of equations
in several variables. We also explain how to use MATLAB to test and apply these
algorithms in concrete problems.
Chapter 8, Multiple Integrals, and Problem Set H, Multiple Integrals, develop the
integral calculus of functions of several variables. We show how to use MATLAB to
set up multiple integrals, as well as how to evaluate them. This chapter contains an
introduction to and discussion of numerical methods for multiple integrals, a topic
which in standard mathematics textbooks only shows up in advanced courses in
numerical analysis.
Chapter 9, Multidimensional Calculus, along with Problem Set I, Multivariable
Calculus, covers the usual topics of “vector analysis” found in most multivariable
calculus texts. These include: the Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals, Green’s
Theorem, the Divergence Theorem, and Stokes’ Theorem. The treatment here is spe-
cially adapted for use with MATLAB.
Chapter 10, Physical Applications of Vector Calculus, and Problem Set J, Phys-
ical Applications, develop the theories of gravitation, electromagnetism, and fluid
flow, and then use them with MATLAB to solve concrete problems of practical in-
terest.
Chapter 11, MATLAB Tips, gathers together the answers to many MATLAB
questions that have puzzled our students. Read through this chapter at various times
as you work through the rest of the book. If necessary, refer back to it when some
aspect of MATLAB has you stumped.
The Sample Solutions contain sample solutions to one or more problems from
each Problem Set. These samples can serve as models when you are working out
your own solutions to other problems.
Finally, we have a comprehensive Index of MATLAB commands and mathemat-
ical concepts that are found in this book.
This book is accompanied by a website

http://schol.math.umd.edu/MVCwMATLAB/

where you can find the following:

The Glossary includes all the commands from the Problem Set glossaries—
together with illustrative examples—plus some additional entries.
The Sample Solutions contains the code from the printed sample solutions in the
book. You might find this code useful when working out your own solutions to other
problems.
The Scripts section contains the code from the book chapters, including the func-
tion scripts discussed there. These scripts could be useful for working some of the
problems.
1.3 What’s Not in This Book 5

1.3 What’s Not in This Book

This book is not a totally self-contained introduction to multivariable calculus.

Specifically, it does not have a bank of “routine” multivariable calculus problems.
These are omitted for two reasons: (i) such problems are easily accessible on the
Internet; and (ii) there is now little point in excessive drill in routine multivari-
able calculus problem-solving, as MATLAB can handle such problems quickly and
accurately. Moreover, we have included the topics and methods of multivariable
calculus that are most important and interesting in mathematics and physics; and
de-emphasized, or even omitted, routine matters and topics that are easily obtained
elsewhere. We believe that the dedicated instructor can teach a course in multivari-
able calculus using this book as the sole text, supplemented by material from the
Internet. Or, as earlier stated, the book can be used as an intense supplement to a
traditional multivariable calculus text.
Neither is this book a self-contained introduction to MATLAB. We assume that
you can learn the basics of MATLAB elsewhere. Since we cannot refer to a “stan-
dard text” for this purpose, here is a detailed description of prerequisites, along with
some suggestions about how to come “up to speed” with the software.
This book requires access to MATLAB along with its accessory, the Symbolic
Math Toolbox. This toolbox, along with a lot more (such as the simulation software
Simulink and the Statistics and Machine Learning Toolbox for statistical applica-
tions), is included in the MATLAB Student Suite, currently priced at $99 (in the
US). If you are a student and are planning to take other science and engineering
courses, this is your most cost-efficient option. Alternatively, you can get just MAT-
LAB and the Symbolic Math Toolbox for the student price of about $80. If you are
not a student, you can still get the Home version of MATLAB for non-commercial
use for $149. The majority of college and university computer labs should have
MATLAB and the Symbolic Math Toolbox already installed and ready to use.
If you have not used MATLAB before, our suggestion is to start by watching the
tutorial videos, which you can find on the MathWorks website at

http://www.mathworks.com/support/

and at
https://matlabacademy.mathworks.com/ .

You might also enjoy reading the free e-books [6, 7] by Cleve Moler, the developer
of MATLAB.
6 1 Introduction

Once you have gone through the “Getting Started with MATLAB” and “MAT-
LAB Overview” videos, plus other tutorials of your choice, try working with the
software by yourself to get the hang of it. If you want additional help, there are
many good books available. We, of course, are biased and think that the best of
these is [5] by Brian Hunt and the two of us. Other options include [1–4, 8, 9], cited
in the bibliography below.
Remember that MATLAB comes with very extensive documentation and help.
Typing help followed by the name of a command in the Command Window gives
you concise help on that command. For more extensive help, including examples
and lists of possible options, use the help browser that comes with the software,
which you can call up with the button that looks like ? , or else the website

http://www.mathworks.com/help/ .

1.4 How to Use This Book

If this book is used as a stand-alone text, then most (but not all) of the material can
be covered in a single semester. If the book supplements a traditional text, then it
contains more material than can be covered in a single semester. To aid in selecting
a coherent subset of the material, here is a diagram showing the dependence among
the chapters:
3 4

1 2 6 9 10

5 8

We suggest that you work all the problems in Problem Set A, read Chapter 2,
and then work at least a quarter to a half of Problem Set B. After that, various
combinations of chapters are possible. Here are a few selections that we have found
suitable for a one-semester multivariable calculus course
• Geometry Emphasis: Chapters 3, 5, and 6 with Problem Sets C, E, and F. If time
permits, you could include portions of Chapter 4 and Problem Set D, or Chapter
8 and Problem Set H.
1.5 The MATLAB Interface 7

• Physical Applications Emphasis: Chapters 3, 4, 9, and 10 with Problem Sets C,

D, I, and J. If time permits, it is desirable to add parts of Chapters 5 and 8 with
Problem Sets E and H.
• Calculus and Numerical Methods Emphasis: Chapters 5, 7, 8, and 9 with Problem
Sets E, G, H, and I.
Note that Chapter 11 does not appear on the above flowchart and does not need to be
formally assigned, and instead is intended for help if and when you get stuck doing
something with MATLAB.
In a problem seminar, mathematical methods course, or a differential geometry
course more flexibility is possible, and one could choose a greater variety of prob-
lems from various chapters.
Beginning with Problem Set C, the exercises in the Problem Sets become fairly
substantial; it is easy to spend an hour on each problem. To ease the burden, we
often allow students to collaborate on the problems in groups of two or three. We
ask each collaborating team to turn in a single joint assignment. This system fosters
teamwork, builds confidence, and makes the harder problems manageable.
The problems in this book have been classroom-tested according to two different
schemes. Problems can be assigned in big chunks, as projects to be worked on three
or four times during the term. Alternatively, problems can be assigned one or two at
a time on a more regular basis. Both methods work; which works better depends on
the backgrounds of instructor and students, and whether or not you want to combine
the material from this book with assignments from a standard textbook.

1.5 The MATLAB Interface

You may interact with MATLAB in one of three distinct ways

• Command Window. This is where you type (or enter) MATLAB commands
(such as syms x; solve(xˆ2 - x - 1 == 0, x)) at the prompt. In
the default layout, the Command Window appears in the lower middle of your
MATLAB Desktop, and MATLAB responds just below each command with the
resultant output.
• Scripts. This is where you construct (in the Editor Window) a series of com-
mands, and likely comment lines (preceded by the percent symbol), in a file or
script, which you execute via the Run button. The output appears in the Com-
mand Window. Think of scripts as little programs that instruct MATLAB as to
what to compute. You may save and edit your scripts and so run the same (or
edited) script numerous times. MATLAB has a Publish feature, which will run
your script, assemble the input and output in a logical fashion, and “publish” the
result in an integrated, readable format. You have several choices as to the format;
html (the default) and pdf are the most popular choices.
8 1 Introduction

• Live Editor. This is where the output of your script commands are integrated,
from the start, with the corresponding input in a window in which you can do live
editing. You alter a command (with your mouse or keyboard), evaluate, and the
output is automatically updated. You can intersperse comments between different
output cells. This is like simultaneous script construction (i.e., programming) and
publishing. Either this method or the preceding is extremely handy for transmit-
ting (e.g., to an instructor) the results of your MATLAB investigations.

1.5.1 A Word on Terminology

Until very recently, a MATLAB script was called an M-file. There were two fla-
vors: a script M-file—exactly what we are calling a script; and a function M-file—a
slightly different format in which a function is defined. The latter are still valid, but
they are just called function scripts. Contrast the latter with anonymous functions,
which are inputted at the command line via the @ construct.
For more on interface, terminology and MATLAB basics and protocols, see the
online help or any of the references listed below.

1.6 Software Versions

MATLAB and its accompanying products (such as the Symbolic Math Toolbox) are
constantly being updated. We prepared this book with versions R2016b and R2017a.
With each revision, the syntax for some commands may change, and occasionally
an old command is replaced by a new one with another name. For example, the
MATLAB command integral for numerical integration was only introduced in
version R2012a; before that, the relevant command was quadl. Live Editor scripts
were only introduced in R2016a. In the latest versions of MATLAB, fplot3 has
replaced ezplot3 and the new command fimplicit3 was introduced. We men-
tion this because different readers of this book will undoubtedly be using different
versions of MATLAB. For more than 90% of what we discuss, this will make no
difference. But occasionally you may notice that we refer to a command that has
either been superseded or does not exist in the version you are using. In almost all
cases, searching the documentation should enable you to find a close equivalent.
When major changes occur, we will discuss them on the book website.
Problem Set A. Review of One-Variable Calculus 9

Problem Set A. Review of One-Variable Calculus

All problems should be solved in MATLAB, preferably by creating a script combin-
ing text and MATLAB commands, and then “publishing” the result. Alternatively,
you may use the Live Editor to create a polished Live Script that contains your com-
mands, output, graphs, and commentary. All of your explanations should be well
organized and clearly presented in text cells. You should use the options available
with the plotting routines to enhance your plots. See the Sample Solutions on the
website for examples of what the result should look like.

Problem 1.1. Graph the following transcendental functions using fplot. Use
your judgment and some experimentation to find an appropriate range of values
of x so that the “main features” of the graph are visible.
(a) sin x.
(b) tan x.
(c) ln x. (Remember that the natural logarithm is called log in MATLAB.)
Hint: The logarithm is singular for x = 0 and undefined for x < 0. Allow your
range of values to start at x = 0 and then at some value x < 0. How well does
MATLAB cope?
(d) sinh x.
(e) tanh x.
(f) e−x .
2

Problem 1.2. Let f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + 1.

(a) Graph f . First, let MATLAB choose the interval; then re-graph on (− 12 , 12 ).
(You will see why in part (d) below.)
(b) Use solve to find (in terms of square and cube roots) the exact values
of x where the graph crosses the x-axis. Don’t be surprised if the answers are
complicated and involve complex numbers. Hint: You may find the option
MaxDegree to be helpful.
(c) Use double to convert your values from (b) to numerical values x0 < x1 <
x2 . Compare with what you get by using fzero to find the three real zeros of
f numerically.
(d) Compute the exact value of the area of the bounded region lying below the
graph of f and above the x-axis. (This is the region where x0 ≤ x ≤ x1 .) Then
convert this exact expression to a numerical value and explain in terms of your
picture in (a) why the answer is reasonable.
(e) Determine where f is increasing and where it is decreasing. Use solve to
find the exact values of x where f has a relative maximum or relative minimum
point.
10 1 Introduction

(f) Find numerical values of the coordinates of the relative maximum points
and/or relative minimum points on the graph.
(g) Determine where the graph of f is concave upward and where it is concave
downward.

Problem 1.3. Consider the equation x sin x = 1, for x a positive number.

(a) By graphing the function x sin x, find the approximate location of the first
five solutions.
(b) Why is there a solution close to nπ for every large positive integer n? (Hint:
For large x, the reciprocal 1/x is very close to 0. Where is sin x = 0?)
(c) Use fzero to refine your approximate solutions from (a) to get numerical
values of the true solutions (good to at least several decimal places).

Problem 1.4. Compute the following limits:

x2 + 3x − 4
(a) lim .
x→1 x−1
sin x
(b) lim .
x→0 x

(c) lim x ln x.
x→0+

Problem 1.5. Compute the following derivatives:

d  2 100
(a) x + 5x − 1 .
dx
 
d x2 ex − 1
(b) .
dx x2 + 2
d  5 
(c) sin x cos3 x .
dx
d
(d) arctan(ex ).
dx
Problem 1.6. Compute the following integrals. Whenever possible, find an exact
expression using int. If MATLAB cannot compute a definite integral exactly, com-
pute a numerical value using integral. Alternatively, you can apply double to
any mysterious symbolic antiderivative that you encounter.

(a) (x2 + 5x − 1)10 (2x + 5) dx.

(b) arcsin(x) dx.
 1
(c) x5 (1 − x2 )3/2 dx.
0
Problem Set A. Review of One-Variable Calculus 11
 1
(d) x5 (1 − x)3/2 dx.
0
 ∞
x5 e−x dx.
2
(e)
0
 1
x
(f) ee dx.
0

(g) ex cos3 x sin2 x dx.
 1  
(h) sin x3 dx.
0

Problem 1.7. Use the taylor command to find the Taylor series of the function
sec(x) around the point x = 0, up to and including the term in x10 . Check the docu-
mentation on taylor to see how to get the right number of terms of the series; the
default is to go out only to the term in x4 .

Problem 1.8. The alternating harmonic series

1 1 1 1
1− + − + +···
2 3 4 5
is known to converge (slowly!!) to ln 2.
(a) Test this by adding the first 100 terms of the series and comparing with the
value of ln 2. Do the same with the first 1000 terms.
(b) The alternating series test says that the error in truncating an alternating
series (whose terms decrease steadily in absolute value) is less than the absolute
value of the last term included. Check this in the situation of (a). In other words,
verify that the difference between ln 2 and the sum of the first 100 terms of the
1
series is less than 100 in absolute value, and that the difference between ln 2 and
1
the sum of the first 1000 terms of the series is less than 1000 in absolute value.

Problem 1.9. The harmonic series

1 1 1 1
1+ + + + +···
2 3 4 5
diverges (slowly!!), by the integral test. This test also implies that the sum of the first
n terms of the series is approximately ln n. Test this by adding the first 100 terms of
the series and comparing with the value of ln 100, and by adding the first 1000 terms
of the series and comparing with the value of ln 1000. Do you see any pattern? If so,
test it by replacing 1000 by 10000.
12 1 Introduction

Problem 1.10. The power series

∞
x2n
∑ (−1)n (n!)2
n=0

converges for all x to a function f (x).

(a) Let fk (x) be the sum of the series out to the term n = k. Graph fk (x) for
−8 < x < 8 with k = 10, 20, 40. Superimpose the last two plots. Why is the plot
of f40 (x) for −8 < x < 8 visually indistinguishable from the plot of f20 (x) over
the same domain?
(b) Apply the symsum command in MATLAB to the infinite series. You should
find that MATLAB recognizes f (x). (However, it may not be a function you saw
in your one-variable calculus class.) Plot f (x) for −8 < x < 8 and compare with
your plot of f40 (x) as a means of checking your answer to (a).

Problem 1.11. Use the ezpolar command in MATLAB to graph the following
equations in polar coordinates
(a) r = sin θ .
(b) r = sin(6θ ).
(c) r = 4 sin θ − 2.
(d) r2 = sin 2θ .

Glossary of MATLAB Commands

axis Selects the ranges of x and y to show in a plot

diff Computes the derivative
double Converts the (possibly symbolic) expression for a number to a numeri-
cal (double-precision) value
ezpolar Easy plotter in polar coordinates
figure Start a new graphic
fplot Easy function plotter
fzero Finds (numerically) a zero of a function near a given starting value
hold on Retain current figure; combine new graph with previous one
int Computes the integral (symbolically)
integral Integrates numerically
limit Computes the limit
pretty Displays a symbolic expression in mathematical style
References 13

solve Symbolic equation solver

subs Substitute for a variable in an expression
syms Set up one or more symbolic variables
symsum Finds the (symbolic) sum of a series
taylor Computes the Taylor polynomial; use the optional argument Order to
reset the order

Options to MATLAB Commands

MaxDegree An option to solve, giving the maximum degree of polynomials

for which MATLAB will try to find explicit solution formulas
Order An option to taylor, specifying the degree of the Taylor approximation

References

1. S. Attaway, MATLAB: A Practical Introduction to Programming and Problem Solving, 4th edn.
(Elsevier, 2016)
2. W. Gander, Learning MATLAB: A Problem Solving Approach (Springer, 2015)
3. A. Gilat, MATLAB: An Introduction with Applications, 5th edn. (Wiley, 2015)
4. B. Hahn, D. Valentine, Essential MATLAB for Engineers and Scientists, 5th edn. (Academic
Press, 2013)
5. B. Hunt, R. Lipsman, J. Rosenberg, A Guide to MATLAB: For Beginners and Experienced
Users, 3rd edn. (Cambridge Univesity Press, 2014)
6. C. Moler, Numerical Computing with MATLAB (2004), http://www.mathworks.com/moler/
chapters.html
7. C. Moler, Experiments with MATLAB (2011), http://www.mathworks.com/moler/exm/
8. H. Moore, MATLAB for Engineers, 5th edn. (Pearson, 2018)
9. R. Pratap, Getting Started with MATLAB, 7th edn. (Oxford University Press, 2016)
Chapter 2
Vectors and Graphics

We start this chapter by explaining how to use vectors in MATLAB, with an empha-
sis on practical operations on vectors in the plane and in space. Remember that
n-dimensional vectors are simply ordered lists of n real numbers; the set of all such
is denoted by Rn . We discuss the standard vector operations, and give several appli-
cations to the computations of geometric quantities such as distances, angles, areas,
and volumes. The bulk of the chapter is devoted to instructions for graphing curves
and surfaces.

2.1 Vectors

In MATLAB, vectors are represented as lists of numbers or variables. You write

a list in MATLAB as a sequence of entries encased in square brackets. Thus, you
would enter v = [3, 2, 1] at the prompt to tell MATLAB to treat v as a vector
with x, y, z coordinates equal to 3, 2, and 1, respectively.
You can perform the usual vector operations in MATLAB: vector addition, scalar
multiplication, and the dot product (also known as the inner product or scalar prod-
uct). Here are some examples, in which we use semicolons to suppress output:
>> a = [1, 2, 3];
>> b = [-5, -3, -1];
>> c = [3, 0, -2];
>> a + b
ans =
-4 -1 2

>> 5*c
ans =
15 0 -10


c Springer International Publishing AG 2017 15
R.L. Lipsman and J.M. Rosenberg, Multivariable Calculus with MATLAB ,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-65070-8 2
16 2 Vectors and Graphics

>> dot(a, b)
ans =
-14

The dot(a, b) command computes the dot product of the vectors a and b (the
sum of the products of corresponding entries). As usual, you can use the dot product
to compute lengths of vectors (also known as vector norms).
>> lengthofa = sqrt(dot(a, a))
ans =
3.7417

Actually, MATLAB has an internal command that automates the numerical compu-
tation of vector norms.
>> [norm(a), norm(b), norm(c)]
ans =
3.7417 5.9161 3.6056

Our attention throughout this book will be directed to vectors in the plane and
vectors in (three-dimensional) space. Vectors in the plane have two components;
a typical example in MATLAB is [x, y]. Vectors in space have three compo-
nents, like [x, y, z]. The following principle will recur: Vectors with differ-
ent numbers of components do not mix. As you will see, certain MATLAB com-
mands will only work with two-component vectors; others will only work with
three-component vectors. To convert a vector in the plane into a vector in space,
you can add a zero to the end.
>> syms x y; p1 = [x, y]
p1 =
[ x, y]

>> s1 = [p1, 0]
s1 =
[ x, y, 0]

To project a vector in space into a vector in the x-y plane, you simply drop the final
component.
>> syms x y z; s2 = [x, y, z]

s2 =
[ x, y, z]

>> p2 = s2(1:2)
p2 =
[ x, y]

The first place we notice a difference in the handling of two- or three-dimensional

vectors is with the cross product, which only works on a pair of three-dimensional
2.1 Vectors 17

vectors. To compute the cross product in MATLAB, you can use the cross com-
mand. For example, to compute the cross product of the vectors a and b defined
above, simply type
>> cross(a, b)

ans =
7 -14 7

Note that the cross product is anti-symmetric; reversing the order of the inputs
changes the sign of the output.

2.1.1 Applications of Vectors

Since MATLAB allows you to perform all the standard operations on vectors, it is
a simple matter to compute lengths of vectors, angles between vectors, distances
between points and planes or between points and lines, areas of parallelograms, and
volumes of parallelepipeds, or any of the other quantities that can be computed using
vector operations. Here are some examples.

2.1.1.1 The Angle Between Two Vectors

The fundamental identity involving the dot product is

a · b = a b cos(ϕ ),

where ϕ is the angle between the two vectors. So, we can find the angle between a
and b in MATLAB by typing
>> phi = acos(dot(a, b)/(norm(a)*norm(b)))

phi =
2.2555

We can convert this value from radians to degrees by typing

>> phi*180/pi

ans =
129.2315

2.1.1.2 The Projection Formula

One of the most useful applications of the dot product is for computing the pro-
jection of one vector in the direction of another. Given a nonzero vector b, we
can always write another vector a uniquely in the form projb (a) + c, where c ⊥ b
18 2 Vectors and Graphics

and projb (a) is a scalar multiple of b. To find the formula for the projection, write
projb (a) = xb and take the dot product with b. We obtain

a · b = x b · b + c · b = x b2 + 0.

Thus x = b a·b

2 and projb (a) = b2 b. By the way, even through the formula for
a·b

projb (a) is nonlinear in b, it is linear in a. That is because the dot product is linear
in each variable when the other variable is held fixed. Computing projections is easy
in MATLAB. For example, with our given vectors, we obtain
>> (dot(a, b)/dot(b, b))*b

ans =
2.0000 1.2000 0.4000

Exercise 2.1. Use MATLAB to compute the perpendicular component c.

2.1.1.3 The Volume of a Parallelepiped

The volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the vectors a, b, and c is computed

using the formula V = |a · (b × c)|. In MATLAB, it is easy to enter this formula.
>> abs(dot(a, cross(b, c)))
ans =
7

2.1.1.4 The Area of a Parallelogram

The volume formula becomes an area formula if you take one of the vectors to
be a unit vector perpendicular to the plane spanned by the other two vectors. In
particular, given vectors a and c, a × c is perpendicular to both of them, so a unit
a×c
vector perpendicular to both a and c is a×c and the area of the parallelogram
spanned by a and c is just
 
 a×c  a × c2
 
 a × c · (a × c) = a × c = a × c,

which you compute in MATLAB by typing

>> norm(cross(a, c))
ans =
13.1529

In a similar fashion, you can use the standard mathematical formulas, expressed
in MATLAB syntax, to
(i) project a vector onto a line or a plane;
2.2 Parametric Curves 19

(ii) compute the distance from a point to a plane;

(iii) compute the distance from a point to a line; and
(iv) check that lines and planes are parallel or perpendicular.

2.2 Parametric Curves

We assume that you already know how to use MATLAB’s plotting commands
to graph plane curves of the form y = f (x). In fact, you can do so using either
MATLAB’s symbolic plotting command fplot or its numerical plotting command
plot. The analogs are fplot3 (symbolic) and plot3 (numerical) for curves in
space. There are also analogs, as we shall see, for surfaces in space, z = f (x, y),
namely fsurf or fmesh (symbolic) and surf or mesh (numerical). (Note: The
symbolic f commands replaced the ez commands in MATLAB as of version
R2016a.)
Now it is very common for both curves (in the plane or in space) and surfaces
to be specified by parametric equations, rather than explicitly as just described. As
we shall see, the same commands as above can be used to graph them—albeit with
slightly different syntax. In this section, we will explain how to graph curves defined
by parametric equations, both in the plane and in space, and also how to graph sur-
faces defined by parametric equations. But let us note: Henceforth in this book, and
in the spirit of its subject matter, we shall use symbolic plotting commands when-
ever feasible. We shall resort to numerical plotting routines only when absolutely
necessary.
For illustrative purposes, consider the parametrized unit circle

x = cos t, y = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .

These parametric equations mean that t is a parameter (ranging through the interval
[0, 2π ]), and that associated to each value of t is a pair (x, y) of values defined by
the given formulas. As t varies, the points (x(t), y(t)) trace out a curve in the plane.
Now let us draw the curve, first numerically, then symbolically
>> T = 0:0.1:2*pi; plot(cos(T), sin(T)); axis square
>> syms t; figure; fplot(cos(t), sin(t), [0, 2*pi]); axis square

Both commands result in the graph in Figure 2.1, although the tick marks differ
slightly. Note that we inserted the command figure in the second instruction.
Without it, the second circle would be superimposed on the first instead of it being
created in a second graph.
Now let us start in earnest on parametric curves and surfaces by looking first at
the spiral plane curve defined parametrically by the equations

x = e−t/10 (1 + cos t), y = e−t/10 sin t, t ∈ R.

>> fplot(exp(-t/10)*(1 + cos(t)), exp(-t/10)*(sin(t)), [0 2*pi])
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
red. If you sprinkle flour on the bottom, and it burns quickly, it is too
hot.
If you cannot hold your hand in longer than to count twenty
moderately, it is hot enough.
If you can count thirty moderately, it is not hot enough for bread.
These last are not very accurate tests, as the power to bear heat is
so diverse in different persons; but they are as good rules as can be
given, where there has been no experience.

How to know when Bread is Sour, or Heavy.

If the bread is sour, on opening it quick and deeply with your
fingers, and applying the nose to the opening, a tingling and sour
odor escapes. This is remedied by taking a teaspoonful of saleratus,
for every four quarts of flour, very thoroughly dissolved in hot water,
which is to be put in a hole made in the middle, and very thoroughly
kneaded in, or there will be yellow streaks.
If the bread is light and not sour, it will, on opening it deep and
suddenly, send forth a pungent and brisk, but not a sour odor, and it
will look full of holes, like sponge. Some may mistake the smell of
light bread for that of sour bread, but a little practice will show the
difference very plainly.
If the bread is light before the oven is ready, knead it a little without
adding flour, and set it in a cool place.
If it rises too much, it loses all sweetness, and nothing but care and
experience will prevent this. The best of flour will not make sweet
bread, if it is allowed to rise too much, even when no sourness is
induced.

How to treat Bread when taken from the Oven.

Never set it flat on a table, as it sweats the bottom, and acquires a
bad taste from the table.
Always take it out of the tins, and set it up end way, leaning against
something.
If it has a thick, hard crust, wrap it in a cloth wrung out of cold
water.
Keep it in a tin box, in a cool place, where it will not freeze.

Yeast.
The article in which yeast is kept must, when new yeast is made, or
fresh yeast bought, be scalded and emptied, and then have a salt
spoonful of saleratus put in, and be rinsed out again with warm
water. If it is glass, rinsing twice with warm water will answer. Junk
bottles are best for holding yeast, because they can be corked tight,
and easily cleansed.

Potato Yeast.
By those who use potato yeast, it is regarded as much the best, as it
raises bread quicker than common home-brewed yeast, and, best of
all, never imparts the sharp, disagreeable yeast taste to bread or
cake, often given by hop yeast.
Mash half a dozen peeled boiled potatoes, and mix in a handful of
wheat flour, and two teaspoonfuls of salt, and after putting it
through a colander, add hot water till it is a batter. When blood
warm, put in half a tea-cup of distillery yeast, or twice as much
potato, or other home-brewed. When raised, keep it corked tight,
and make it new very often in hot weather. It can easily be made
when potatoes are boiled for dinner.

Home-made Yeast, which will keep Good a Month.

Four quarts of water, two handfuls of hops, eight peeled potatoes,
sliced, all boiled soft, mixed and strained through a sieve. To this,
add a batter, made one-third of Indian, and two-thirds of rye, in a
pint of cold water, and then boil the whole ten minutes. When cool
as new milk, add a tea-cup of molasses, a tablespoonful of ginger,
and a tea-cup of distillery yeast, or twice as much home-brewed.

Home-brewed Yeast more easily made.

Boil a handful of hops half an hour in three pints of water. Pour half
of it, boiling hot, through a sieve, on to nine spoonfuls of flour, mix,
and then add the rest of the hop water. Add a spoonful of salt, half a
cup of molasses, and when blood warm, a cup of yeast.

Hard Yeast.
This often is very convenient, especially for hot weather, when it is
difficult to keep yeast.
Take some of the best yeast you can make, and thicken it with
Indian meal, and if you have rye, add a little to make it adhere
better. Make it into cakes an inch thick, and three inches by two in
size, and dry it in a drying wind, but not it the sun. Keep it tied in a
bag, in a dry, cool place, where it will not freeze.
One of these cakes is enough for four quarts of flour. When you wish
to use it, put it to soak in milk or water for several hours, and then
use it like other yeast.

Rubs, or Flour Hard Yeast.

This is better than hard yeast made with Indian.
Take two quarts of best home-brewed yeast, and a tablespoonful of
salt, and mix in wheat flour, so that it will be in hard lumps. Set it in
a dry, warm place (but not in the sun) till quite dry. Then leave out
the fine parts to use the next baking, and put up the lumps in a bag,
and hang it in a dry place.
In using this yeast, take a pint of the rubs for six quarts of flour, and
let it soak from noon till night. Then wet up the bread to bake next
day.
Brewer’s and distillery yeast cannot be trusted to make hard yeast.
Home-brewed is the best, and some housekeepers say, the only
yeast for this purpose.

Milk Yeast.
One pint of new milk, and one teaspoonful of fine salt. One large
spoonful of flour. Mix, and keep it blood warm an hour. Use twice as
much as the common yeast. Bread soon spoils made of this.

Wheat Bread of Distillery, or Brewer’s Yeast.

Take eight quarts of flour, and two of milk, a tablespoonful of salt, a
gill and a half of distillery yeast, and sometimes rather more, if not
first rate. Take double the quantity of home-brewed yeast.
Sift the flour, then make an opening in the middle, pour in a part of
the wetting, and put in the salt. Then mix in a good part of the flour.
Then pour in the yeast, and mix it well, then add the rest of the
wetting, using up the flour so as to make a stiff dough. Knead it half
an hour, till it cleaves clean from the hand.
This cannot be wet over night, as, if the yeast is good, it will rise in
one or two hours.
Some persons like bread best wet with water, but most very much
prefer bread wet with milk. If you have skimmed milk, warm it with
a small bit of butter, and it is nearly as good as new milk.
You need about a quart of wetting to four quarts of flour. Each quart
of flour makes a common-sized loaf.

Wheat Bread of Home-brewed Yeast.

Sift eight quarts of flour into the kneading tray, make a deep hole in
the middle, pour into it a pint of yeast, mixed with a pint of
lukewarm water, and then work up this with the surrounding flour, till
it makes a thick batter. Then scatter a handful of flour over this
batter, lay a warm cloth over the whole, and set it in a warm place.
This is called sponge.
When the sponge is risen so as to make cracks in the flour over it
(which will be in from three to five hours), then scatter over it two
tablespoonfuls of salt, and put in about two quarts of wetting, warm,
but not hot enough to scald the yeast, and sufficient to wet it. Be
careful not to put in too much of the wetting at once.
Knead the whole thoroughly for as much as half an hour, then form
it into a round mass, scatter a little flour over it, cover it, and set it
to rise in a warm place. It usually will take about one quart of
wetting to four quarts of flour.
In winter, it is best to put the bread in sponge over night, when it
must be kept warm all night. In summer it can be put in sponge
early in the morning, for if made over night, it would become sour.

Baker’s Bread.
Take a gill of distillery yeast, or twice as much fresh home-brewed
yeast, add a quart of warm (not hot) water, and flour enough to
make a thin batter, and let it rise in a warm place all night. This is
the sponge.
Next day, put seven quarts of sifted flour into the kneading tray,
make a hole in the centre, and pour in the sponge. Then dissolve a
bit of volatile salts, and a bit of alum, each the size of a hickory-nut,
and finely powdered, in a little cold water, and add it, with a heaping
tablespoonful of salt, to the sponge, and also a quart more of blood-
warm water.
Work up the flour and wetting to a dough, knead it well, divide it
into three or four loaves, prick it with a fork, put it in buttered pans,
and let it rise one hour, and then bake it about an hour. Add more
flour, or more water, as you find the dough too stiff, or too soft.
A teaspoonful of saleratus can be used instead of the volatile salts
and alum, but it is not so good.

Wheat Bread of Potato Yeast.

This is made like bread made with home-brewed yeast, except that
you may put in almost any quantity of the potato yeast without
injury. Those who use potato yeast like it much better than any
other. The only objection to it is, that in summer it must be made
often, as it will not keep sweet long. But it is very easily renewed.
The chief advantage is, that it rises quick, and never gives the sharp
and peculiar taste so often imparted to bread and cake by all yeast
made with hops.

Potato Bread.
Rub a dozen peeled and boiled potatoes through a very coarse sieve,
and mix with them twice the quantity of flour, mixing very
thoroughly. Put in a coffee-cup full of home-brewed, or of potato
yeast, or half as much of distillery yeast, also a teaspoonful of salt.
Add whatever water may be needed to make a dough as stiff as for
common flour bread.
An ounce or two of butter rubbed into the flour, and an egg beat and
put into the yeast, and you can have fine rolls, or warm cakes for
breakfast.
This kind of bread is very moist, and keeps well.

Cream Tartar Bread.

Three pints of dried flour, measured after sifting.
Two cups of milk.
Half a teaspoonful of salt.
One teaspoonful of soda (Super Carbonate).
Two teaspoonfuls of cream tartar.
Dissolve the soda in half a tea-cup of hot water, and put it with the
salt into the milk. Mix the cream tartar very thoroughly in the flour:
the whole success depends on this. Just as you are ready to bake,
pour in the milk, knead it up sufficiently to mix it well, and then put
it in the oven as quick as possible. Add either more flour or more
wetting, if needed, to make dough to mould. Work in half a cup of
butter after it is wet, and it makes good short biscuit.

Eastern Brown Bread.

One quart of rye.
Two quarts of Indian meal: if fresh and sweet, do not scald it; if not,
scald it.
Half a tea-cup of molasses.
Two teaspoonfuls of salt.
One teaspoonful of saleratus.
A tea-cup of home-brewed yeast, or half as much distillery yeast.
Make it as stiff as can be stirred with a spoon with warm water. Let it
rise from night till morning. Then put it in a large deep pan, and
smooth the top with the hand dipped in cold water, and let it stand a
while. Bake five or six hours. If put in late in the day, let it remain all
night in the oven.

Rye Bread.
A quart of water, and as much milk.
Two teaspoonfuls of salt, and a tea-cup of Indian meal.
A tea-cup full of home-brewed yeast, or half as much distillery yeast.
Make it as stiff as wheat bread, with rye flour.
 Rice Bread.—No. 1.
One pint of rice, boiled till soft.
Two quarts of rice flour, or wheat flour.
A teaspoonful of salt.
A tea-cup of home-brewed, or half as much distillery yeast.
Milk to make it so as to mould like wheat bread.

Rice Bread.—No. 2.
Three half pints of ground rice.
Two teaspoonfuls (not heaping) of salt.
Two gills of home-brewed yeast.
Three quarts of milk, or milk and water. Mix the rice with cold milk
and water to a thin gruel, and boil it three minutes. Then stir in
wheat flour till as stiff as can be stirred with a spoon. When blood
warm, add the yeast. This keeps moist longer than No. 1.

Bread of Unbolted Wheat, or Graham Bread.

Three pints of warm water.
One tea-cup of Indian meal, and one of wheat flour.
Three great spoonfuls of molasses, or a tea-cup of brown sugar.
One teaspoonful of salt, and one teaspoonful of saleratus, dissolved
in a little hot water.
One tea-cup of yeast.
Mix the above, and stir in enough unbolted wheat flour to make it as
stiff as you can work with a spoon. Some put in enough to mould it
to loaves. Try both. If made with home-brewed yeast, put it to rise
over night. If with distillery yeast, make it in the morning, and bake
when light.
In loaves the ordinary size, bake one hour and a half.

Apple Bread.
Mix stewed and strained apple, or grated apple uncooked, with an
equal quantity of wheat flour; add yeast enough to raise it, and mix
sugar with the apple, enough to make it quite sweet. Make it in
loaves, and bake it an hour and a half, like other bread.

Pumpkin Bread.
Stew and strain some pumpkin, stiffen it with Indian meal, add salt
and yeast, and it makes a most excellent kind of bread.

Walnut Hill’s Brown Bread.

One quart of sour milk, and one teaspoonful of salt.
One teaspoonful of pulverized saleratus, and one tea-cup of
molasses put into the milk.
Thicken with unbolted wheat, and bake immediately, and you have
first-rate bread, with very little trouble.

French Rolls, or Twists.

One quart of lukewarm milk.
One teaspoonful of salt.
A large tea-cup of home-brewed yeast, or half as much distillery
yeast.
Flour enough to make a stiff batter.
Set it to rise, and when very light, work in one egg and two
spoonfuls of butter, and knead in flour till stiff enough to roll.
Let it rise again, and when very light, roll out, cut in strips, and braid
it. Bake thirty minutes on buttered tins.

Raised Biscuit.
Rub half a pound of butter into a pound of flour.
One beaten egg.
A teaspoonful of salt.
Two great spoonfuls of distillery yeast, or twice as much home-
brewed.
Wet it up with enough warm milk to make a soft dough, and then
work in half a pound of butter. When light, mould it into round
cakes, or roll it out and cut it with a tumbler.

Very Nice Rusk.

One pint of milk.
One coffee-cup of yeast. (Potato is best.)
Four eggs.
Flour enough to make it as thick as you can stir with a spoon.
Let it rise till very light, but be sure it is not sour; if it is, work in half
a teaspoonful of saleratus, dissolved in a wine-glass of warm water.
When thus light, work together three quarters of a pound of sugar
and nine ounces of butter; add more flour, if needed, to make it stiff
enough to mould. Let it rise again, and when very light, mould it into
small cakes. Bake fifteen minutes in a quick oven, and after taking it
out, mix a little milk and sugar, and brush over the rusk, while hot,
with a small swab of linen tied to a stick, and dry it in the oven.
When you have weighed these proportions once, then measure the
quantity, so as to save the trouble of weighing afterward. Write the
measures in your receipt-book, lest you forget.
 Potato Biscuit.
Twelve pared potatoes, boiled soft and mashed fine, and two
teaspoonfuls of salt.
Mix the potatoes and milk, add half a tea-cup of yeast, and flour
enough to mould them well. Then work in a cup of butter. When
risen, mould them into small cakes, then let them stand in buttered
pans fifteen minutes before baking.

Crackers.
One quart of flour, with two ounces of butter rubbed in.
One teaspoonful of saleratus in a wine-glass of warm water.
Half a teaspoonful of salt, and milk enough to roll it out.
Beat it half an hour with a pestle, cut it in thin round cakes, prick
them, and set them in the oven when other things are taken out. Let
them bake till crisp.

Hard Biscuit.
One quart of flour, and half a teaspoonful of salt.
Four great spoonfuls of butter, rubbed into two-thirds of the flour.
Wet it up with milk till a dough; roll it out again and again, sprinkling
on the reserved flour, till all is used. Cut into round cakes, and bake
in a quick oven on buttered tins.

Sour Milk Biscuit.

A pint and a half of sour milk, or buttermilk.
Two teaspoonfuls of salt.
Two teaspoonfuls of saleratus, dissolved in four great spoonfuls of
hot water.
Mix the milk in flour till nearly stiff enough to roll, then put in the
saleratus, and add more flour. Mould up quickly, and bake
immediately.
Shortening for raised biscuit or cake should always be worked in
after it is wet up.

A good Way to use Sour Bread.

When a batch of bread is sour, let it stand till very light, and use it to
make biscuit for tea or breakfast, thus:
Work into a portion of it, saleratus dissolved in warm water, enough
to sweeten it, and a little shortening, and mould it into small
biscuits, bake it, and it is uncommonly good. It is so much liked that
some persons allow bread to turn sour for the purpose. Bread can
be kept on hand for this use any length of time.
 CHAPTER XI.
BREAKFAST AND TEA CAKES.
General Directions for Griddle and other Breakfast Cakes.
The best method of greasing a griddle is, to take a bit of salt pork,
and rub over with a fork. This prevents adhesion, and yet does not
allow the fat to soak into what is to be cooked.
In putting cakes on to griddles, be careful to form them a regular
round shape, and put on only one at each dip, and so as not to spill
between the cakes.
In frying mush, cold rice slices, and hominy cakes, cut them half an
inch thick, and fry in fresh lard, with enough to brown them
handsomely. Make the slices smooth and regular.

Buckwheat Cakes wet with Water.

Take a quart of buckwheat flour, and nearly an even tablespoonful of
salt. Stir in warm water, till it is the consistency of thin batter. Beat it
thoroughly. Add two tablespoonfuls of yeast, if distillery, or twice as
much if home-brewed.
Set the batter where it will be a little warm through the night. Some
persons never stir them after they have risen, but take them out
carefully with a large spoon.
Add a teaspoonful of pearlash in the morning, if they are sour. Sift it
over the surface, and stir it well.
Some persons like to add one or two tablespoonfuls of molasses, to
give them a brown color, and more sweetness of taste.

Extempore Buckwheat Cakes.

Three pints of buckwheat.
One teaspoonful carbonate of soda, dissolved in water enough to
make a batter, and when mixed, add a teaspoonful of tartaric acid,
dissolved in a few spoonfuls of hot water. Mix it in, and bake
immediately.
Use salt pork to grease the griddle.

Buckwheat Cakes wet with Milk.

One quart of flour, and in winter stir in lukewarm milk, till it is a thin
batter, and beat it thoroughly, adding nearly an even tablespoonful
of salt.
Add a small tea-cup of Indian meal, two tablespoonfuls of distillery
yeast, or a good deal more if home-brewed; say half a tea-cup full.
Set it where it will keep warm all night, and in the morning add a
teaspoonful of saleratus, sifted over the top, and well stirred in. If
sour, add more saleratus. This is the best kind of buckwheat cakes.

Griddle Cakes of Unbolted Wheat.

A quart of unbolted wheat, and a teaspoonful of salt. Wet it up with
water, or sweet milk, in which is dissolved a teaspoonful of saleratus.
Add three spoonfuls of molasses. Some raise this with yeast, and
leave out the saleratus. Sour milk and saleratus are not as good for
unbolted as for fine flour.
These are better and more healthful cakes than buckwheat.

Best Rice Griddle Cakes.

A pint and a half of solid cold boiled rice, put the night before in a
pint of water or milk to soak.
One quart of milk, added the next morning.
One quart of flour stirred into the rice and milk.
Two eggs, well beaten.
Half a teaspoonful of saleratus, dissolved in a little hot water.
One teaspoonful of salt. Bake on a griddle.
Stale, or rusked bread in fine crumbs, are very nice made into
griddle cakes by the above rule; or they can be mixed with the rice.
The rice must be well salted when boiled.

A very delicate Omelet.

Six eggs, the whites beaten to a stiff froth, and the yolks well
beaten.
A tea-cup full of warm milk, with a tablespoonful of butter melted in
it.
A tablespoonful of flour, wet to a paste with a little of the milk and
poured to the milk.
A teaspoonful of salt, and a little pepper.
Mix all except the whites; add those last; bake immediately, in a flat
pan, or spider, on coals, and when the bottom is done, raise it up
towards the fire, and bake the top, or cover with an iron sheet, and
put coals on it. The remnants of ham, cut fine and added, improve
this. Some like sweet herbs added, and some fine-cut onion.

Wheat Waffles.
One quart of flour, and a teaspoonful of salt.
One quart of milk, with a tablespoonful of melted butter in it, and
mixed with the flour gradually, so as not to have lumps.
Three tablespoonfuls of distillery yeast. When raised, two well-
beaten eggs.
Bake in waffle irons well oiled with lard each time they are used. Lay
one side on coals, and in about two minutes turn the other side to
the coals.

Miss B.’s Waffles (without yeast).

One quart of flour, and a teaspoonful of salt.
One quart of sour milk, with two tablespoonfuls of butter melted in
it.
Five well-beaten eggs. A teaspoonful or more of saleratus, enough
to sweeten the milk. Baked in waffle irons.
Some like one tea-cup full of sugar added.

Rice Waffles.
A quart of milk.
A tea-cup of solid boiled rice, soaked three hours in half the milk.
A pint and a half of wheat flour, or rice flour.
Three well-beaten eggs. Bake in waffle irons.
The rice must be salted enough when boiled.

Good Cakes for Tea, or Breakfast.

One pint of milk, and a salt spoonful of salt.
One teaspoonful of molasses, and a great spoonful of butter.
One egg well beaten, and two tablespoonfuls of distillery yeast, or
twice as much home-brewed.
Stir the ingredients into flour enough to make a stiff batter.
Let it rise all night, or if for tea, about five hours. Add a salt spoonful
of saleratus just before baking it, dissolved in warm water.
Bake in shallow pans, in a quick oven, half an hour.

Fried Rice for Breakfast.

Boil the rice quite soft the day before, so that it will adhere well. For
breakfast, cut it in slices an inch thick, cook it on a griddle, with
enough sweet lard to fry it brown. Cold mush is good in the same
way.
It must be salted properly when boiling.

Fried Hominy.
When cold hominy is left of the previous day, it is very good wet up
with an egg and a little flour, and fried.

Rye Drop Cake (excellent).

One pint of milk, and three eggs.
A tablespoonful of sugar, and a salt spoonful of salt.
Stir in rye flour, till about the consistency of pancakes.
Bake in buttered cups, or saucers, half an hour.

Wheat Drop Cake.

One pint of milk, and a little cream.
Three eggs, and a salt spoonful of salt.
With these materials make a thick batter of wheat flour, or unbolted
flour. Drop on tins, and bake about twenty minutes. If unbolted flour
is used, add a great spoonful of molasses.

Corn Griddle Cakes with Yeast.

Three coffee-cups of Indian meal, sifted.
One coffee-cup of either rye meal, Graham flour, or fine flour.
Two tablespoonfuls of yeast, and a salt spoonful of salt.
Wet at night with sour milk or water, as thick as pancakes, and in
the morning add one teaspoonful of pearlash.
Bake on a griddle. If Graham flour is used, add a very little
molasses.

Pilgrim Cake.
Rub two spoonfuls of butter into a quart of flour, and wet it to dough
with cold water. Rake open a place in the hottest part of the hearth,
roll out the dough into a cake an inch thick, flour it well both sides,
and lay it on hot ashes. Cover it with hot ashes, and then with coals.
When cooked, wipe off the ashes, and it will be very sweet and
good.
The Kentucky corn cake, and common dough, can be baked the
same way. This method was used by our pilgrim and pioneer
forefathers.

Sour Milk Corn Cake.

One quart of sour milk, or buttermilk.
A large teaspoonful of pearlash.
A teaspoonful of salt.
Stir the milk into the meal enough to make a stiff batter, over night.
In the morning dissolve the pearlash in warm water. Stir it up
quickly, and bake it in shallow pans.
If the milk is sweet, it should be made sour by adding to it a
tablespoonful of vinegar.

Corn Muffins (from the South).

One pint of sifted meal, and half a teaspoonful of salt.
Two tablespoonfuls of melted lard.
A teaspoonful of saleratus, in two great spoonfuls of hot water.
Wet the above with sour milk, as thick as for mush or hasty pudding,
and bake in buttered rings on a buttered tin.

Corn Griddle Cakes with Eggs.

Turn one quart of boiling milk, or water, on to a pint of Indian meal.
When lukewarm, add three tablespoonfuls of flour, three eggs well
beaten, and a teaspoonful of salt. Bake on a griddle.

Sachem’s Head Corn Cake.

One quart sifted Indian meal, and a teaspoonful of salt.
Three pints of scalded milk cooled, and a teaspoonful of saleratus,
dissolved in two spoonfuls of hot water, and put into it.
Beat eight eggs, and mix all together. Bake one hour in pans, like
sponge cake.
It looks, when broken, like sponge cake, and is very fine. If the
whites are cut to a froth, and put in, just as it goes to bake, it
improves it very much. Some think this improved by adding a tea-
cup of sugar. Much depends on the baking, and if you fail, it is
probably owing to the baking.

Royal Crumpets.
Three tea-cups of raised dough.
Four great spoonfuls of melted butter, worked into the dough.
Three well-beaten eggs.
One tea-cup of rolled sugar, beaten into the eggs.
Turn it into buttered pans, and bake twenty minutes.
Some like them better without the sugar.

Bachelor’s Corn Cake.

A pint of sifted corn meal, and a teaspoonful of salt.
Two spoonfuls of butter, and a quarter of a cup of cream.
Two eggs well beaten.
Add milk, till it is a thin fritter batter, and bake in deep tin pans. Beat
it well, and bake with a quick heat, and it rises like pound cake.

Mrs. W.’s Corn Cake.

One pint of milk, and one pint of cream.
Two eggs, well beaten, and a teaspoonful of salt.
A teaspoonful of saleratus, dissolved in a little hot water.
Indian meal, enough to make a thick batter.
Throw the salt into the meal. Then stir in the milk and cream slowly.
Beat the eggs, and add them. Add the saleratus last. Bake it one
hour in shallow pans, well buttered.

Corn Muffins.
One quart of Indian meal, sifted.
A heaping spoonful of butter.
One quart of milk, and a salt spoonful of salt.
Two tablespoonfuls of distillery yeast, and one of molasses.
Let it rise four or five hours. Bake in muffin rings.
The same will answer to bake in shallow pans, like corn cake. Bake
one hour.
Graham, or unbolted flour, is good made by this receipt.

Savoy Biscuit.
Beat six eggs into one pound of sugar, until white. Grate the outside
of a lemon into it, mix in three quarters of a pound of flour, and drop
them on buttered paper, a spoonful at a time.

Cream Cakes.
One quart of cream.
One quart of sifted flour.
One salt spoon of salt.
A wine-glass of distillery yeast, or twice as much home-brewed.
When quite light, bake in cups, or muffin rings.

Wheat Muffins.
One pint of milk, and two eggs.
One tablespoonful of yeast, and a salt spoonful of salt.
Mix these ingredients with sufficient flour to make a thick batter. Let
it rise four or five hours, and bake in muffin rings. This can be made
of unbolted flour, adding two great spoonfuls of molasses, and it is
very fine.

Albany Breakfast Cakes.

Ten well-beaten eggs.
Three pints of milk, blood warm.
A quarter of a pound of melted butter, and two teaspoonfuls of salt.
A teaspoonful of saleratus, dissolved in a spoonful of hot water.
Make a thick batter with white Indian meal, and bake in buttered
tins, an inch thick when put in. Bake thirty or forty minutes, in a
quick oven.

Sally Lunn.
Seven cups of sifted flour.
Half a tea-cup of butter, warmed in a pint of milk.
One salt spoonful of salt, and three well-beaten eggs.
Two tablespoonfuls brewer’s yeast. If the yeast is home-made, use
twice as much.
Pour this into square pans, to rise, and then bake it before it sours.
With brewer’s, or distillery yeast, it will rise in two or three hours,
and must not be made over night. With home-brewed yeast, it rises
in four or five hours.

Cream Tea Cakes.

One quart of flour, and a teaspoonful of salt.
One pint of sour cream, and half a tea-cup of melted butter.
Half a teaspoonful of saleratus, in a spoonful of hot water.
Mix lightly in dough, to mould in small cakes and bake in buttered
tins.

Buttermilk Short Cakes.

Two quarts of flour, and a teaspoonful of salt.
Rub in two tea-cups full of soft butter, or lard, or beef drippings.
Work it up into a paste, with sour milk or buttermilk, and add a
heaping teaspoonful of saleratus, dissolved in a spoonful of hot
water.
Make a soft dough, and mould it into cakes, and bake it in buttered
tins. If the shortening is fresh, add another teaspoonful of salt.

Wafers.
Two tablespoonfuls of rolled white sugar.
Two tablespoonfuls of butter.
One coffee-cup of flour, and essence of lemon, or rose water to
flavor.
Add milk enough for a thick batter, bake in wafer irons, buttered,
and then strew on white sugar.

Pennsylvania Flannel Cakes.

One quart of milk, and half a teaspoonful of salt.
Three eggs, the whites beaten separately to a stiff froth.
Mix the milk, salt, and yolks, stir in flour till a batter is made, suitable
for griddle cakes. Then, when ready to bake, stir in the whites.
Rye flour is very fine, used in this way, instead of wheat, but the
cakes adhere so much that it is difficult to bake them. Many love
them much better than the wheat.

Kentucky Corn Dodgers.

Three pints of unsifted yellow corn meal.
One tablespoonful (heaped) of lard.
One pint of milk.
Work it well, and bake in cakes the size of the hand, and an inch
thick.

Ohio Corn Cake.

One pint of thick sour cream, and one quart of milk, or buttermilk. If
cream cannot be got, add a tablespoonful of melted lard, or butter.
Dissolve enough saleratus in the above to sweeten it, and thicken
with yellow corn meal to the consistency of pound cake. Put it in
buttered pans, an inch thick, and bake in a quick oven.

Scarborough Puffs.
Take one pint of new milk, and boil it. Take out one cup full, and stir
into it flour enough to make a thick batter. Pour this into the boiling
milk. Stir and boil until the whole is thick enough to hold a silver
spoon standing upright. Then take it from the fire, and stir in six
eggs, one by one. Add a teaspoonful of salt, and less than a
tablespoonful of butter. Drop them by the spoonful into boiling lard,
and fry like doughnuts. Grate on the outside sugar and spice.—
(Maine Receipt.)

Cream Griddle Cakes.

One pint of thick cream, and a pint of milk.
Three eggs, and a teaspoonful of salt.
Make a batter of fine flour, and bake on a griddle.

Crumpets.
A quart of warm milk, and a teaspoonful of salt.
Half a gill of distillery yeast, and flour enough for a batter, not very
stiff.
When light, add half a cup of melted butter, or a cup of rich cream,
let it stand twenty minutes, and then bake it as muffins, or in cups.

Fine Cottage Cheese.

Let the milk be turned by rennet, or by setting it in a warm place. It
must not be heated, as the oily parts will then pass off, and the
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