ROCKS AND MINERALS

Introduction to the Rock Cycle

• process transforming rocks into different types over
time.
• Driven by Earth’s internal heat, pressure, and surface
processes (weathering, erosion, sedimentation).
• Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic rocks.
Stages of the Rock Cycle
• Igneous Rocks:
• Formed from cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
• Intrusive (beneath surface): Slow cooling, large crystals (e.g., granite).
• Extrusive (on surface): Rapid cooling, small crystals or glassy texture (e.g.,
basalt).
• Weathering and Erosion:
• Weathering: Breakdown of rocks by physical, chemical, or biological
processes.
• Erosion: Transportation of particles by wind, water, or ice.
• Sedimentary Rocks:
• Formed from deposition, compaction, and cementation of sediments.
• Examples: Sandstone, shale, limestone.
Stages of the Rock Cycle
• Metamorphic Rocks:
• Rocks transformed by intense heat and pressure without melting.
• Examples: Marble (from limestone), schist (from shale).
• Melting:
• Rocks (any type) melt due to extreme heat, forming magma.
• Magma cools to form new igneous rocks.
Simplified Rock Cycle Flow
• Igneous Rock → Weathering & Erosion → Sediments →
Lithification → Sedimentary Rock → Heat & Pressure →
Metamorphic Rock → Melting → Magma → Cooling →
Igneous Rock
Igneous Rocks:
• Types by Formation Location
• Intrusive (Plutonic):
• Slow cooling underground, large crystals (e.g., granite).
• Extrusive (Volcanic):
• Rapid cooling on the surface, small or no crystals (e.g., basalt,
pumice, obsidian).
Types of Igneous Rocks by Composition
•Felsic: High silica, light-colored (e.g., granite).
•Intermediate: Moderate silica (e.g., andesite, diorite).
•Mafic: Low silica, dark-colored (e.g., basalt, gabbro).
•Ultramafic: Very low silica (e.g., peridotite).
Igneous Rocks:
Key Characteristics
• Crystal Size: Large (intrusive), small/glassy (extrusive).
Common Uses
• Granite: Construction, monuments.
• Basalt: Road base, decorative stone.
• Pumice: Abrasive in cleaning, cosmetics.
• Obsidian: Cutting tools (ancient), decorative items (modern).
Sedimentary Rocks:
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
• Clastic:
• Made from fragments of pre-existing rocks.
• Examples: Conglomerate (rounded particles), sandstone (sand particles), shale (fine
clay).
• Chemical:
• Formed from mineral precipitation.
• Examples: Limestone (calcium carbonate), rock salt (halite), gypsum (calcium sulfate).
• Organic (Biogenic):
• Formed from organic material.
• Examples: Coal (plant debris), chalk (marine organism shells).
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary Rocks:
Key Characteristics
• Layering (Stratification): Distinct layers from sediment deposition.
• Fossils: Evidence of past life and environments.
• Texture: Grain size varies (fine in shale, coarse in conglomerates).

Uses of Sedimentary Rocks

• Construction: Limestone, sandstone, shale.
• Energy Resources: Coal, oil shale.
• Industrial Applications:
• Rock salt for de-icing roads.
• Limestone for cement and steel production.
• Historical Insight: Fossils provide clues about Earth's history.
Metamorphic Rocks:

• Formed when existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic)

undergo transformation due to heat, pressure, and/or chemical
processes.
• Transformation occurs without melting (melting forms igneous rocks).
Types of Metamorphic Rocks
1. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
• Have a layered or banded appearance due to mineral alignment under pressure.
• Examples:
• Slate: Fine-grained, smooth, formed from shale.
• Schist: Medium to coarse-grained with shiny mica flakes.
• Gneiss: Coarse-grained with alternating light and dark bands.
2. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
• No visible layers; minerals are randomly arranged.
• Examples:
• Marble: Formed from limestone, smooth texture, used in art and architecture.
• Quartzite: Formed from quartz sandstone, hard and weather-resistant.
• Anthracite: High-grade coal formed from bituminous coal.
Marble
QUARTZITE
Types of Metamorphism
1. Contact Metamorphism
• Occurs when rocks are heated by nearby magma or lava.
• Produces non-foliated rocks (e.g., marble, quartzite).
• Limited to areas surrounding the heat source.
2. Regional Metamorphism
• Caused by large-scale pressure and heat during mountain formation.
• Produces foliated rocks (e.g., schist, gneiss).
• Found at convergent plate boundaries.
3. Dynamic Metamorphism
• Occurs in fault zones under high pressure.
• Produces rocks like mylonite.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks
Key Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks
• Texture:
• Foliated (layered or banded).
• Non-Foliated (no visible layers).
• Hardness: Generally harder than the parent rock.
Foliated and Non-foliated Rocks
Examples of Parent Rock Transformations
• Limestone → Marble
• Shale → Slate → Schist → Gneiss
• Sandstone → Quartzite
• Bituminous Coal → Anthracite
Uses of Metamorphic Rocks
• Marble: Sculpture, flooring, construction.
• Slate: Roofing, tiles, blackboards.
• Quartzite: Construction, decorative stones.
• Anthracite: High-energy coal for heating and electricity.