UNIT V

Multivibrators and Time

Base Generators
A multivibrator circuit is nothing but a switching circuit. It generates non-sinusoidal waves
such as square waves, rectangular waves and Saw tooth waves etc. Multivibrators are used as
frequency generators, frequency dividers and generators of time delays and also as memory
elements in computers etc.
A Transistor basically functions as an amplifier in its linear region. If a transistor amplifier
output stage is joined with the previous amplifier stage, such a connection is said to be
coupled. If a resistor is used in coupling two stages of such an amplifier circuit, it is called
as Resistance coupled amplifier

What is a Multivibrator?
According to the definition, A Multivibrator is a two-stage resistance coupled amplifier with
positive feedback from the output of one amplifier to the input of the other.
Two transistors are connected in feedback so that one controls the state of the other. Hence
the ON and OFF states of the whole circuit, and the time periods for which the transistors are
driven into saturation or cut off are controlled by the conditions of the circuit.
The following figure shows the block diagram of a Multivibrator.

Types of Multivibrators
There are two possible states of a Multivibrator. In first stage, the transistor Q1 turns ON while
the transistor Q2 turns OFF. In second stage, the transistor Q1 turns OFF while the transistor
Q2 turns ON. These two states are interchanged for certain time periods depending upon the
circuit conditions.
Depending upon the manner in which these two states are interchanged, the Multivibrators are
classified into three types. They are
Astable Multivibrator
An Astable Multivibrator is such a circuit that it automatically switches between the two
states continuously without the application of any external pulse for its operation. As this
produces a continuous square wave output, it is called as a Free-running Multivibrator. The
dc power source is a common requirement.
The time period of these states depends upon the time constants of the components used. As
the Multivibrator keeps on switching, these states are known as quasi-stable or halfstable
states. Hence there are two quasi-stable states for an Astable Multivibrator.
Monostable Multivibrator
A Monostable Multivibrator has a stable state and a quasi-stable state. This has a trigger
input to one transistor. So, one transistor changes its state automatically, while the other one
needs a trigger input to change its state.
As this Multivibrator produces a single output for each trigger pulse, this is known as One-
shot Multivibrator. This Multivibrator cannot stay in quasi-stable state for a longer period
while it stays in stable state until the trigger pulse is received.
Bistable Multivibrator
A Bistable Multivibrator has both the two states stable. It requires two trigger pulses to be
applied to change the states. Until the trigger input is given, this Multivibrator cannot change
its state. It’s also known as flip-flop multivibrator.
As the trigger pulse sets or resets the output, and as some data, i.e., either high or low is stored
until it is disturbed, this Multivibrator can be called as a Flip-flop.
To get a clear idea on the above discussion, let us have a look at the following figure.
Astable Multivibrator
An astable multivibrator has no stable states. Once the Multivibrator is ON, it just changes
its states on its own after a certain time period which is determined by the R C time constants.
A dc power supply or Vcc is given to the circuit for its operation.

Construction of Astable Multivibrator

Two transistors named Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one another. The collector of
transistor Q1 is connected to the base of transistor Q2 through the capacitor C1 and vice versa.
The emitters of both the transistors are connected to the ground. The collector load resistors
R1 and R4 and the biasing resistors R2 and R3 are of equal values. The capacitors C1 and C2 are
of equal values.
The following figure shows the circuit diagram for Astable Multivibrator.

Operation of Astable Multivibrator

When Vcc is applied, the collector current of the transistors increase. As the collector current
depends upon the base current,
Ic=βIB
As no transistor characteristics are alike, one of the two transistors say Q1 has its collector
current increase and thus conducts. The collector of Q1 is applied to the base of Q2 through C1.
This connection lets the increased negative voltage at the collector of Q1 to get applied at the
base of Q2 and its collector current decreases. This continuous action makes the collector
current of Q2 to decrease further. This current when applied to the base of Q1 makes it more
negative and with the cumulative actions Q1 gets into saturation and Q2 to cut off. Thus the
output voltage of Q1 will be VCE (sat) and Q2 will be equal to VCC.
The capacitor C1 charges through R1 and when the voltage across C1 reaches 0.7v, this is
enough to turn the transistor Q2 to saturation. As this voltage is applied to the base of Q2, it
gets into saturation, decreasing its collector current. This reduction of voltage at point B is
applied to the base of transistor Q1 through C2 which makes the Q1 reverse bias. A series of
these actions turn the transistor Q1 to cut off and transistor Q2 to saturation. Now point A has
the potential VCC. The capacitor C2 charges through R2. The voltage across this capacitor
C2 when gets to 0.7v, turns on the transistor Q1 to saturation.
Hence the output voltage and the output waveform are formed by the alternate switching of
the transistors Q1 and Q2. The time period of these ON/OFF states depends upon the values of
biasing resistors and capacitors used, i.e., on the RC values used. As both the transistors are
operated alternately, the output is a square waveform, with the peak amplitude of VCC.
Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 are shown in the following figures.

Frequency of Oscillations
The ON time of transistor Q1 or the OFF time of transistor Q2 is given by
 t1 = 0.69R1C1
Similarly, the OFF time of transistor Q1 or ON time of transistor Q2 is given by
t2 = 0.69R2C2
Hence, total time period of square wave
t = t1 + t2 = 0.69(R1C1 + R2C2)
As R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, the frequency of square wave will be
1 1 0.7
𝑓= = =
𝑡 1.38𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
Advantages
The advantages of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −
• No external triggering required.
• Circuit design is simple
• Inexpensive
• Can function continuously
Disadvantages
The drawbacks of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −
• Energy absorption is more within the circuit.
• Output signal is of low energy.
• Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be achieved.
Applications
Astable Multivibrators are used in many applications such as amateur radio equipment, Morse
code generators, timer circuits, analog circuits, and TV systems.

Monostable Multivibrator
A monostable multivibrator, as the name implies, has only one stable state. When the
transistor conducts, the other remains in non-conducting state. A stable state is such a state
where the transistor remains without being altered, unless disturbed by some external trigger
pulse. As Monostable works on the same principle, it has another name called as One-shot
Multivibrator.

Construction of Monostable Multivibrator

Two transistors Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one another. The collector of transistor
Q1 is connected to the base of transistor Q2 through the capacitor C1. The base Q1 is connected
to the collector of Q2 through the resistor R2 and capacitor C. Another dc supply voltage –
VBB is given to the base of transistor Q1 through the resistor R3. The trigger pulse is given to
the base of Q1 through the capacitor C2 to change its state. RL1 and RL2 are the load resistors of
Q1 and Q2.
One of the transistors, when gets into a stable state, an external trigger pulse is given to change
its state. After changing its state, the transistor remains in this quasi-stable state or Meta-stable
state for a specific time period, which is determined by the values of RC time constants and
gets back to the previous stable state.
The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a Monostable Multivibrator.

Operation of Monostable Multivibrator

Firstly, when the circuit is switched ON, transistor Q1 will be in OFF state and Q2 will be in
ON state. This is the stable state. As Q1 is OFF, the collector voltage will be VCC at point A
and hence C1 gets charged. A positive trigger pulse applied at the base of the transistor Q1 turns
the transistor ON. This decreases the collector voltage, which turns OFF the transistor Q2. The
capacitor C1 starts discharging at this point of time. As the positive voltage from the collector
of transistor Q2 gets applied to transistor Q1, it remains in ON state. This is the quasi-stable
state or Meta-stable state.
The transistor Q2 remains in OFF state, until the capacitor C1 discharges completely. After
this, the transistor Q2 turns ON with the voltage applied through the capacitor discharge. This
turn ON the transistor Q1, which is the previous stable state.
Output Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the trigger input given at the
base of Q1 are shown in the following figures.

The width of this output pulse depends upon the RC time constant. Hence it depends on the
values of R1C1. The duration of pulse is given by
T=0.69R1C1
The trigger input given will be of very short duration, just to initiate the action. This triggers
the circuit to change its state from Stable state to Quasi-stable or Meta-stable or Semi-stable
state, in which the circuit remains for a short duration. There will be one output pulse for one
trigger pulse.
Advantages
The advantages of Monostable Multivibrator are as follows −
• One trigger pulse is enough.
• Circuit design is simple
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages
The major drawback of using a monostable multivibrator is that the time between the
applications of trigger pulse T has to be greater than the RC time constant of the circuit.
Applications
Monostable Multivibrators are used in applications such as television circuits and control
system circuits.

Bistable Multivibrator
A Bistable Multivibrator has two stable states. The circuit stays in any one of the two stable
states. It continues in that state, unless an external trigger pulse is given. This Multivibrator is
also known as Flip-flop. This circuit is simply called as Binary.

Construction of Bistable Multivibrator

Two similar transistors Q1 and Q2 with load resistors RL1 and RL2 are connected in feedback to
one another. The base resistors R3 and R4 are joined to a common source –VBB. The feedback
resistors R1 and R2 are shunted by capacitors C1 and C2 known as Commutating Capacitors.
The transistor Q1 is given a trigger input at the base through the capacitor C3 and the transistor
Q2 is given a trigger input at its base through the capacitor C4.
The capacitors C1 and C2 are also known as Speed-up Capacitors, as they reduce
the transition time, which means the time taken for the transfer of conduction from one
transistor to the other.
The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a self-biased Bistable Multivibrator.
Operation of Bistable Multivibrator
When the circuit is switched ON, due to some circuit imbalances as in Astable, one of the
transistors, say Q1 gets switched ON, while the transistor Q2 gets switched OFF. This is a
stable state of the Bistable Multivibrator.
By applying a negative trigger at the base of transistor Q1 or by applying a positive trigger
pulse at the base of transistor Q2, this stable state is unaltered. So, let us understand this by
considering a negative pulse at the base of transistor Q1. As a result, the collector voltage
increases, which forward biases the transistor Q2. The collector current of Q2 as applied at the
base of Q1, reverse biases Q1 and this cumulative action, makes the transistor Q1 OFF and
transistor Q2 ON. This is another stable state of the Multivibrator.
Now, if this stable state has to be changed again, then either a negative trigger pulse at
transistor Q2 or a positive trigger pulse at transistor Q1 is applied.
Output Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the trigger inputs given at the
bases of QW and Q2 are shown in the following figures.
Advantages
The advantages of using a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows −
• Stores the previous output unless disturbed.
• Circuit design is simple
Disadvantages
The drawbacks of a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows −
• Two kinds of trigger pulses are required.
• A bit costlier than other Multivibrators.
Applications
Bistable Multivibrators are used in applications such as pulse generation and digital operations
like counting and storing of binary information.

Schmitt Trigger
Another type of binary circuit which is ought to be discussed is the Emitter Coupled
Binary Circuit. This circuit is also called as Schmitt Trigger circuit. This circuit is
considered as a special type of its kind for its applications.
The main difference in the construction of this circuit is that the coupling from the output C2 of
the second transistor to the base B1 of the first transistor is missing and that feedback is
obtained now through the resistor Re. This circuit is called as the Regenerative circuit for this
has a positive feedback and no Phase inversion.
It consists of two transistors Q1 and Q2 coupled through an emitter resistor RE, Resisters R1 and R2
form a voltage divider across VC1 and ground. This provide a small forward bais to the base-emitter
junction of Q2.when power is ON, with no input signal, transistor Q2 conducts. The rise of current IE
of Q2 causes voltage drop across RE so VE=IERE. this voltage provides reverse bais at base-emitter
junction of Q1 and it is driven to its cut-off region and will be goes to OFF state. At this stage output
will be zero

If a sinusoidal signal is applied to base of Q1, when the voltage increases above zero, nothing will
happen till it crosses Upper Trigger Level (UTL). As the input voltage is above UTL (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉𝑅𝐸 +
𝑉𝐵𝐸1) the transistor conducts. The point at which Q1 conducts is called Upper Trigger Point (UTP). As
Q1 conducts its collector current become zero and which makes Q2 OFF, at this moment the output is
VCC
The transistor Q1 will continue to conduct till the input voltage crosses Lower Trigger Level (LTL).
At LTL the emitter base junction is reverse baised, so Q1 will be OFF and Q2 start conducting. The
point at which Q2 start conducting is called Lower Trigger Point (LTP), at this moment the output
goes to zero
The difference between UTP and LTP is known as Hysteresis voltage
The Schmitt trigger circuit works as a Comparator and hence compares the input voltage
with two different voltage levels called as UTP (Upper Trigger Point) and LTP (Lower
Trigger Point). If the input crosses this UTP, it is considered as a HIGH and if it gets below
this LTP, it is taken as a LOW. The output will be a binary signal indicating 1 for HIGH and
0 for LOW. Hence an analog signal is converted into a digital signal. If the input is at
intermediate value (between HIGH and LOW) then the previous value will be the output.
This concept depends upon the phenomenon called as Hysteresis. The transfer characteristics
of electronic circuits exhibit a loop called as Hysteresis. It explains that the output values
depends upon both the present and the past values of the input. This prevents unwanted
frequency switching in Schmitt trigger circuits
Advantages
The advantages of Schmitt trigger circuit are
• Perfect logic levels are maintained.
• It helps avoiding Meta-stability.
• Preferred over normal comparators for its pulse conditioning.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of a Schmitt trigger are
• If the input is slow, the output will be slower.
• If the input is noisy, the output will be noisier.
Applications of Schmitt trigger
Schmitt trigger circuits are used as Amplitude Comparator and Squaring Circuit. They are
also used in Pulse conditioning and sharpening circuits.
 Time Base Generators
A Saw tooth wave increases linearly with time and has a
sudden decrease. This is also called as a Time base signal.
Actually, this is the ideal output of a time base generator.
What is a Time Base Generator?
An Electronic generator that generates the high frequency saw tooth waves can be termed
as a Time Base Generator. It can also be understood as an electronic circuit which generates
an output voltage or current waveform, a portion of which varies linearly with time. The
horizontal velocity of a time base generator must be constant.
To display the variations of a signal with respect to time on an oscilloscope, a voltage that
varies linearly with time, has to be applied to the deflection plates. This makes the signal to
sweep the beam horizontally across the screen. Hence the voltage is called as Sweep Voltage.
The Time Base Generators are called as Sweep Circuits.

Features of a Time Base Signal

To generate a time base waveform in a CRO or a picture tube, the deflecting voltage increases
linearly with time. Generally, a time base generator is used where the beam deflects over the
screen linearly and returns to its starting point. This occurs during the process of Scanning.
A cathode ray tube and also a picture tube works on the same principle. The beam deflects
over the screen from one side to the other (generally from left to right) and gets back to the
same point.
This phenomenon is termed as Trace and Retrace. The deflection of beam over the screen
from left to right is called as Trace, while the return of the beam from right to left is called
as Retrace or Fly back. Usually this retrace is not visible. This process is done with the help
of a saw tooth wave generator which sets the time period of the deflection with the help of RC
components used.
Let us try to understand the parts of a saw-tooth wave.
In the above signal, the time during which the output increases linearly is called as Sweep
Time (TS) and the time taken for the signal to get back to its initial value is called
as Restoration Time or Fly back Time or Retrace Time (Tr). Both of these time periods
together form the Time period of one cycle of the Time base signal.
Actually, this Sweep voltage waveform we get is the practical output of a sweep circuit
whereas the ideal output has to be the saw tooth waveform shown in the above figure.
Types of Time base Generators
There are two types of Time base Generators. They are −
• Voltage Time Base Generators − A time base generator that provides an output
voltage waveform that varies linearly with time is called as a Voltage Time base
Generator.
• Current Time Base Generator − A time base generator that provides an output
current waveform that varies linearly with time is called as a Current Time base
Generator.
Applications
Time Base Generators are used in CROs, televisions, RADAR displays, precise time
measurement systems, and time modulation.

Errors of Sweep Signals

After generating the sweep signals, it is time to transmit them. The transmitted signal may be
subjected to deviation from linearity. To understand and correct the errors occurred, we must
have some knowledge on the common errors that occur.
The deviation from linearity is expressed in three different ways. They are −
• The Slope or Sweep Speed Error
• The Displacement Error
• The Transmission Error
Let us discuss these in detail.
The Slope or Sweep Speed Error (es)
A Sweep voltage must increase linearly with time. The rate of change of sweep voltage with
time must be constant. This deviation from linearity is defined as Slope Speed
Error or Sweep Speed Error.
difference in slope at the beginning and end of sweep
Slope or Sweep speed eror es =
initial value of slope

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
( 0) − ( 0)
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=0 𝑑𝑡 𝑡=𝑇𝑠
=
𝑑𝑉0
( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=0
The Displacement Error (ed)
An important criterion of linearity is the maximum difference between the actual sweep
voltage and the linear sweep which passes through the beginning and end points of the actual
sweep.
This can be understood from the following figure.
The displacement error ed is defined as
(actual speed)∼(linear sweep that passes beginning and ending of actual sweep)
ed =
amplitude of sweep at the end of sweep time

(𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑠′ )𝑚𝑎𝑥

=
𝑉𝑠
Where Vs is the actual sweep and V’s is the linear sweep.
The Transmission Error (et)
When a sweep signal passes through a high pass circuit, the output gets deviated from the
input as shown below.

This deviation is expressed as transmission error.

(input)∼(output)
Transmission Error = input at the end of the sweep

𝑉′𝑠 − 𝑉
𝑒𝑡 =
𝑉′𝑠
Where V’s is the input and Vs is the output at the end of the sweep i.e. at t = Ts.
If the deviation from linearity is very small and the sweep voltage may be approximated by
the sum of linear and quadratic terms in t, then the above three errors are related as
𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑡
𝑒𝑑 = =
8 4
𝑒𝑠 = 2𝑒𝑡 = 8𝑒𝑑
The sweep speed error is more dominant than the displacement error.

the basic circuits of those time base generator circuits.

Voltage Time base Generator

A time base generator that provides an output voltage waveform that varies linearly with time
is called as a Voltage Time base Generator.
Let us try to understand the basic voltage time base generator.
A Simple Voltage Time base Generator
A basic simple RC time base generator or a Ramp generator or a sweep circuit consists of a
capacitor C which charges through VCC via a series connected resistor R2. It contains a BJT
whose base is connected through the resistor R1. The capacitor charges through the resistor
and discharges through the transistor.
The following figure shows a simple RC sweep circuit.

By the application of a positive going voltage pulse, the transistor Q turns ON to saturation
and the capacitor rapidly discharges through Q and R1 to VCE (sat). When the input pulse ends,
Q switches OFF and the capacitor C starts charging and continues to charge until the next
input pulse. This process repeats as shown in the waveform below.
When the transistor turns ON it provides a low resistance path for the capacitor to discharge
quickly. When the transistor is in OFF condition, the capacitor will charge exponentially to
the supply voltage VCC, according to the equation
V0=VCC[1−exp(−t/RC)]
Where
• VO = instantaneous voltage across the capacitor at time t
• VCC = supply voltage
• t = time taken
• R = value of series resistor
• C = value of the capacitor

Current Time base Generator

A time base generator that provides an output current waveform that varies linearly with time
is called as a Current Time base Generator.
Let us try to understand the basic current time base generator.
A Simple Current Time base Generator
A basic simple RC time base generator or a Ramp generator or a sweep circuit consists of a
common-base configuration transistor and two resistors, having one in emitter and another in
collector. The VCC is given to the collector of the transistor. The circuit diagram of a basic
ramp current generator is as shown here under.
A transistor connected in common-base configuration has its collector current vary linearly
with its emitter current. When the emitter current is held constant, the collector current also
will be near constant value, except for very smaller values of collector base voltages.
As the input voltage Vi is applied at the base of the transistor, it appears at the emitter which
produces the emitter current iE and this increases linearly as Vi increase from zero to its peak
value. The collector current increases as the emitter current increases, because iC is closely
equal to iE.
The instantaneous value of load current is
iLiC≈(vi−VBE)/RE
The input and output waveforms are as shown below.

Bootstrap Time Base Generator

A bootstrap sweep generator is a time base generator circuit whose output is fed back to the
input through the feedback. This will increase or decrease the input impedance of the circuit.
This process of bootstrapping is used to achieve constant charging current.

Construction of Bootstrap Time Base Generator

The boot strap time base generator circuit consists of

two transistors, Q1 which acts as a switch and Q2 which acts as an emitter follower. The
transistor Q1 is connected using an input capacitor CB at its base and a resistor RB through VCC.
The collector of the transistor Q1 is connected to the base of the transistor Q2. The collector of
Q2 is connected to VCC while its emitter is provided with a resistor RE across which the output
is taken.
A diode D is taken whose anode is connected to VCC while cathode is connected to the
capacitor C2 which is connected to the output. The cathode of diode D is also connected to a
resistor R which is in turn connected to a capacitor C1. This C1 and R are connected through
the base of Q2 and collector of Q1. The voltage that appears across the capacitor C1 provides
the output voltage Vo.
The following figure explains the construction of the boot strap time base generator.
Operation of Bootstrap Time Base Generator
Before the application of gating waveform at t = 0, as the transistor gets enough base drive
from VCC through RB, Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF. The capacitor C2 charges to VCC through the
diode D. Then a negative trigger pulse from the gating waveform of a Monostable
Multivibrator is applied at the base of Q1 which turns Q1 OFF. The capacitor C2 now
discharges and the capacitor C1 charges through the resistor R. As the capacitor C2 has large
value of capacitance, its voltage levels (charge and discharge) vary at a slower rate. Hence it
discharges slowly and maintains a nearly constant value during the ramp generation at the
output of Q2.
During the ramp time, the diode D is reverse biased. The capacitor C2 provides a small current
IC1 for the capacitor C1 to charge. As the capacitance value is high, though it provides current,
it doesn’t make much difference in its charge. When Q1 gets ON at the end of ramp time,
C1 discharges rapidly to its initial value. This voltage appears across VO. Consequently, the
diode D gets forward biased again and the capacitor C2 gets a pulse of current to recover its
small charge lost during the charging of C1. Now, the circuit is ready to produce another ramp
output.
The capacitor C2 which helps in providing some feedback current to the capacitor C1 acts as
a boot strapping capacitor that provides constant current.
Output Waveforms
The output waveforms are obtained as shown in the following figure.

The pulse given at the input and the voltage VC1 which denotes the charging and discharging
of the capacitor C1 which contributes the output are shown in the figure above.
Advantage
The main advantage of this boot strap ramp generator is that the output voltage ramp is very
linear and the ramp amplitude reaches the supply voltage level.

Miller Sweep Generator

The transistor Miller time base generator circuit is the popular Miller integrator circuit that
produces a sweep waveform. This is mostly used in horizontal deflection circuits.
Let us try to understand the construction and working of a Miller time base generator circuit.

Construction of Miller Sweep Generator

The Miller time base generator circuit consists of a switch and a timing circuit in the initial
stage, whose input is taken from the Schmitt gate generator circuit. The amplifier section is
the following one which has three stages, first being an emitter follower, second
an amplifier and the third one is also an emitter follower.
An emitter follower circuit usually acts as a Buffer amplifier. It has a low output
impedance and a high input impedance. The low output impedance lets the circuit drive a
heavy load. The high input impedance keeps the circuit from not loading its previous circuit.
The last emitter follower section will not load the previous amplifier section. Because of this,
the amplifier gain will be high.
The capacitor C placed between the base of Q1 and the emitter of Q3 is the timing capacitor.
The values of R and C and the variation in the voltage level of VBB changes the sweep speed.
The figure below shows the circuit of a Miller time base generator.

Operation of Miller Sweep Generator

When the output of Schmitt trigger generator is a negative pulse, the transistor Q4 turns ON
and the emitter current flows through R1. The emitter is at negative potential and the same is
applied at the cathode of the diode D, which makes it forward biased. As the capacitor C is
bypassed here, it is not charged.
The application of a trigger pulse, makes the Schmitt gate output high, which in turn, turns
the transistor Q4 OFF. Now, a voltage of 10v is applied at the emitter of Q4 that makes the
current flow through R1 which also makes the diode D reverse biased. As the transistor Q4 is
in cutoff, the capacitor C gets charged from VBB through R and provides a rundown sweep
output at the emitter of Q3. The capacitor C discharges through D and transistor Q4 at the end
of the sweep.
Considering the effect of capacitance C1, the slope speed or sweep speed error is given by
𝑽𝒔 𝑹 𝑪
𝒆𝒔 = (𝟏 − 𝑨 + + )
𝑽 𝑹 𝒊 𝑪𝒊
Applications
Miller sweep circuits are the most commonly used integrator circuit in many devices. It is a
widely used saw tooth generator.