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HUM122Fundamentals of Psychology
Lecture 1Handouts

Introduction to Psychology
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Myths of Psychology
1. Psychologists read faces; they mix their preconceived ideas with their training.
2. They are like magicians.
3. Like Psychiatric patients, Psychologists are crazy people too.
4. Going to visit Psychologists means you have something abnormal, or you are considered
mad.

Facts about Psychology

Psychology emerged from biology and philosophy and is closely linked to other disciplines
including sociology, medicine, linguistics, and anthropology.
1. Psychology is an organized body of knowledge.
2. It collects and analyzes knowledge.
3. Psychologists are trained to live a balanced life
4. Anyone can visit a psychologist starting from a counseling session to a major disorder.

What is Psychology- Definition

Psychology is the science of the mind and behavior. The word "psychology" comes from the
Greek word psyche meaning "breath, spirit, soul", and the Greek word logia meaning the study
of something. Psychology is both an applied and academic field that studies the human mind and
behavior. Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain how we think, act, and feel.
The emergence of psychology as a separate and independent field of study truly began when
Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.

Throughout the history of psychology, several different schools of thought have been formed to
explain human thought and behavior. These schools of thought often rise to dominance for some
time. While they are sometimes perceived as competing forces, each perspective has contributed
to our understanding of psychology.

Current Definitions
Hilgard, Atkinson, & Atkinson (1975) have compiled the changing definitions of psychology
starting from that of William James (1890) to that of Kenneth Clark and George Miller (1970).
Bagga& Singh (1990) have also cited the following two definitions of Woodworth and Munn,
respectively:
  “Psychology is the scientific study of the activities of the individual in relationto his
environment”.
 “Psychology today concerns itself with the scientific investigation of behavior, including
from the stand-point of behavior, much of what earlier psychologists dealt with as
experience”.
 Some of the more recent definitions of Psychology, in chronological order, are
 as follows:
 Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior. It includes the application of
this science to human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986)
 The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. (Feldman,1996)
 The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an
organism‟s physical state, mental state and external environment (Tavris and Wade,
1997)
 Psychology is all about human behavior, about mental processes, and about the context in
which behavior and mental processes occur. (Das, 1998)
 The science of behavior and mental processes. (Lahey,1998)
 The science of behavior and cognitive processes. (Baron, 1999)
 Scientific study of behavior and mind. (Nairne, 2003)
 A science in which behavioral and other evidence is used to understand the internal
processes leading people (and members of other species ) to behave as they do. (Eysenck,
2004)
 The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. (Ciccarelli&Meyer,2006; Coon
&Mitterer, 2007, 2008)
The science that studies behavior and mental processes.( Rathus,2008)

As is evident in the above definitions, study of behavior (human and animal) has been
emphasized in all of them. In addition, most authors have also included „cognitive/mental
processes‟ in their definitions of psychology. But, what is behavior? We will now look at the
nature and characteristics of behavior.

Psychology and Behavior

When many people think about psychology, they often associate it immediately withthe
diagnosis and treatment of abnormal behavior. However, it is important to remember that
psychology also studies normal behavior.

The mind is highly complex and enigmatic. Many wonder how psychologists can study such an
intricate, seemingly abstract, and extremely sophisticated thing. Even if scientists look inside the
brain, as in an autopsy or during a surgical operation, all they see is gray matter (the brain).
Thoughts, cognition, emotions, memories, dreams, perceptions, etc. cannot be seen physically,
like a skin rash or heart defect.
 1. To describe human thought and behavior
2. To explain why these behaviors occur
3. To predict how, why, and when these behaviors will occur again in the future
4. To modify and improve behaviors to better the lives of individuals and society as a
whole
5. Behavior is learned and can be unlearned
6. Social learning perspectives are used in practice (social skills, modeling, etc)
7. Behavior Modification is done according to the condition
8. Behavior is shaped by culture

Psychology as a Science
Psychology is Empirical. The idea that knowledge should be gained through experience, i.e.
empirically, turned into a method of inquiry that used careful observation and experiments to
gather facts and evidence. Psychology is a discipline that seeks to study the thoughts and actions
of man (as well as the behavior of animals) scientifically. To understand exactly what this means
a clear definition of science is required. Science is a marvelous development in the history of
human thought,bringing about amazing benefits and wonders for the modern world.

It is a systematic approach to understanding people, their thoughts, emotions, and behavior. The
application of this understanding helps solve human problems.
 BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
It has two main branches:

1. Pure Psychology: It deals with the psychological research and data which helps to
formulate the principles of activity
2. Applied Psychology: It applies the information given by Pure Psychology, to the problems
of actual life.

1. Pure Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of human and animal behavior with the object of
understanding why living beings behave as they do. It involves psychological research and data
that help to formulate the principles of activity

1. Experimental Psychology
2. Social Psychology
3. Abnormal Psychology
4. Developmental Psychology
5. Comparative Psychology
6. Physiological Psychology

2. Applied Psychology
The basic premise of applied psychology is the use of psychological principles and theories to
overcome problems in other areas, such as mental health, business
management, education, health, product design, ergonomics, and law.

1. Clinical Psychology
2. Industrial Psychology
3. Educational Psychology
4. Application of Psychology in Medicine
5. Application of Psychology in Law

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
1. Describing and Explaining Behavior
Differentiating between normal, healthy, and unhealthy behaviors is the cornerstone of
psychology, requiring psychologists to have a keen sense of observation. Psychologists are
interested in explaining behavior rather than merely describing it. They seek to understand
why people do the things they do and what factors contribute to development, personality,
social behavior, and mental health problems. Throughout psychology's history, many
different theories have emerged to help explain various aspects of human behavior. The
second goal of psychology, explaining. The attempt to explain behavior based on
 observation is rather difficult due to many factors. For instance, behavior varies among
cultures and can change over time. Psychologists' attempts to explain behavior reflect the
fundamental goal of all science--understanding our universe and our place in it. Several
theorists, from Freud and Jung to Skinner and Rogers, have offered various theories to
explain personality, development, and motivation. Explanations are limited, of course,
because they often are culturally restricted; that is, one explanation might not explain similar
behavior in another culture or society. Explanation is often determined through qualitative
and quantitative observation, including experimentation.

2. Predicting and Influencing Behavior

Psychologists try to determine if a person is likely to make healthy decisions when
confronted with certain situations. Most of the time, they will use experiments to make their
predictions. Psychology also attempts to predict behavior. The purpose of prediction is to
determine when an individual will make healthy or unhealthy choices or how an individual
will perform within the environment and stimuli. Consider the advantages of predicting
whether a student will be successful at a certain college, based on past behavior in a similar
environment. Though prediction is not foolproof, it can permit institutions and individuals to
make more informed decisions and choices about their futures.

The finalgoal of psychology is to influence behavior. This may involve changing unhealthy
behavior as well as promoting existing healthy behavior. There are many methods used to
influence behavior such as positive reinforcement or rewarding good behavior. Modifying
behavior can be beneficial or harmful, but within ethical constraints, psychology seeks to
encourage individuals and groups voluntarily to modify behavior for long-term health gain.
Personality and development theories vary in their approachesto behavior changes. Some
behaviorists believe in repetitive reinforcement, while positivists believe in honest cognitive
discourse. Psychology can be used in education, social correction, and organizational
structures to elicit preferred behaviors and attitudes.

DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY

Following are the different perspective in psychology:

a) Biological Psychology
b) Behavioral/Clinical Psychology
c) Cognitive Psychology
d) Social-Cultural Psychology
e) Personality Psychology
f) Experimental Psychology
g) Educational Psychology
h) Industrial Psychology
 i) Criminal Psychology
j) Computational Psychology

a) Biological psychology
Biology is defined as the study of life (from the Greek bios meaning „life‟ and logos meaning
„study‟). A biological perspective is relevant to the study of psychology in three ways:

a. Comparative method: different species of animal can be studied and compared. This
can help in the search to understand human behavior.
b. Physiology: how the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain functions,
and how changes in structure and/or function can affect behavior. For example, we
could ask how prescribed drugs to treat depression affect behavior through their
interaction with the nervous system.

Biological psychology, also referredto as physiological psychology or behavioral neuroscience,

examines the physiological bases of behavior. Biological psychology is concerned primarily with
the connection between psychological processes and the underlying physiological events—the
mind-body phenomenon. Its focus is the function of the brain and the rest of the nervous system
in activities (e.g., thinking, learning, feeling, sensing, and perceiving) that are recognized as
characteristic of humans and other animals. Biological psychologycontinually investigates the
physical basis for the reception of internal and external stimuli by the nervous system,
particularly the visual and auditory.
Biological psychology explores the connections between biology and psychological events,
including how information travels throughout our bodies (neural impulses, axons, dendrites,
etc.), and how various neurotransmitters influence sleep, and dreaming, among others, just to
name a few. It encompasses the study of how all body processes, including the electrical and
chemical processes essential for nervous system communication.

b) Behavioral Psychology
Behavioral psychology is a branch of psychology that concentrates on observable behaviors.
Conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment are key concepts used by behaviorists. Learn more
about classical conditioning and operant conditioning as well as some of the major behaviorist
thinkers.
Behavioral psychology maintains that

a. Behavior is both conditioned and determined by its outcomes or consequences (rewards

and punishments);
b. Human behavior can be understood by investigating animal behavior;
c. Only the observable and measurable aspects of a behavior are worth investigating;
d. Repetition alone brings mastery which is the same as understanding;
 e. Knowledge is something given by an instructor and taken (acquired) by a learner;
f. An instructor should focus on changing the learner's behavior and not his or her thinking
patterns; and
g. Mind (and thus consciousness) does not exist as far as scientific investigation is
concerned.

Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based on the idea that
all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous psychologists such as
John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early
half of the twentieth century. Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in therapeutic
settings to help clients learn new skills and behaviors.

1. Conditioning
a. Classical conditioning is a behavioral intervention technique in which two stimuli that are
repetitively paired together elicit the same behavioral response separately.
b. Operant conditioning is a technique that emphasizes the association between voluntary
behavior and consequence.

2. Reinforcement
Reinforcement is a psychological term that describes to the way behaviors increase or decrease
based on whether people associate it with a positive experience (a "reward") or a negative
experience (a "punishment").
3. Punishment
Negative punishment is an important concept. In behavioral psychology, the goal
of punishment is to decrease the behavior that precedes it. In the case of negative punishment,
involves taking something good or desirable away to reduce the occurrence of a particular
behavior.
 c) Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive Psychology is the study of human thought processes and cognitions. Cognitive
psychologists investigate topics such as attention, memory, perception, decision-making,
problem-solving, and language acquisition.

This branch investigates internal mental processes, such as problem-solving, memory, learning,
and language (how people think, perceive, communicate, remember, and learn). This branch of
psychology is closely related to other disciplines, such as neuroscience, philosophy, and
linguistics. Cognitive psychology focuses on the way humans process information, examining
how we treat information that comes into the person (what behaviorists would call stimuli), and
how this treatment leads to responses. In other words, cognitive psychologists are interested in
the variables that mediate between stimulus/input and response/output. Cognitive psychologists
study internal processes including perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking. At the
center of cognitive psychology lies how people acquire, process, and store information. Many
argue that cognitive psychology is the study of intelligence. Practical applications for cognitive
research may includeimproving memory, enhancing the accuracy of decision-making, or
settingand designing educational programs to enhance learning. Unlike behaviorism, which
focuses solely on observable behaviors, cognitive psychology is concerned with internal mental
states. Unlike psychoanalysis, which heavily relies on subjective perceptions, cognitive
psychology uses scientific research methods to study mental.

d) Social-Cultural Psychology
Baron, Byrne &Suls (1989) define social psychology as .......“the scientific field that seeks to
understand the nature and causes of individual behavior in social situations”. Social psychology
is about understanding individual behavior in a social context. Socio-cultural psychology focuses
on the fact that our interactions with others in society affect not only our thought process, but
also our perception, and how we make decisions.

Our socio-cultural thought process begins in childhood and steadily gains momentum as we
grow older. This branch of psychology explains how we create our identity or self-image and
shape our perception.

It uses scientific methods to understand and explain how feelings, behaviors, and thoughts of
people are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other people. A social
psychologist will look at group behavior, social perception, non-verbal behavior, conformity,
aggression, prejudice, and leadership. Social perception and social interaction are seen as key to
understanding social behavior. Simply, social psychology studies the impact of social influences
on human behavior.
 e) Personality Psychology
Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and its differences,
examining the processes that contribute to individual uniqueness and define us as individuals.

Its areas of focus include:

a. Construction of a coherent picture of the individual and his or her major
psychological processes
b. Investigation of individual differences
c. Investigating human nature and human similarities

The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology, encompassing numerous
theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional (trait) perspective,
psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist, and social learning perspective. However,
many researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain
perspective; instead, they take an eclectic approach.

f) Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychology is an area of psychology that employs scientific methods to investigate
the mind and behavior. Experimental psychologists work in various settings including colleges,
universities, research centers, government, and private businesses. Experimental psychologists
work in a wide variety of settings including colleges, universities, research centers, government,
and private businesses. Some of these professionals may focus on teaching experimental
methods to students, while others research cognitive processes, animal behavior, neuroscience,
personality, and many other subject areas.

The experimental method in psychology aims to explain the activities of animals (including
humans) and the functional organization of mental processes by manipulating variables that may
give rise to behavior; it is primarily concerned with discovering laws that describe manipulable
relationships. The term generally connotes all areas of psychology that use the experimental
method.

g) Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the
effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology
of schools as organizations. It involves the learning process of early childhood and adolescence,
including the social, emotional, and cognitive processes. Educational psychology focusses on
understanding how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted
children and those subject to specific disabilities. Educational psychology can in part be
understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by
psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between
medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs variousspecialties within
educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum
development, organizational learning, special education, and classroom management.
Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning
sciences.

This branch of psychology involves not just the learning process of early childhood and
adolescence but includes the social, emotional, and cognitive processes that are involved in
learning throughout the entire lifespan.

h) Industrial Psychology
Industrial-organizational psychology is an applied area of psychology that utilizes psychological
theories and principles to solve problems related to the workplace and organizations' challenges.
It is concerned with the effective management of an industrial labor force, particularly with
problems encountered by workers in a mechanized environment.

It is also known as industrial-organizational psychology, I-O psychology, work psychology,

organizational psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology,
personnel psychology, or talent assessment) - studies the performance of people at work and in
training, develops an understanding of how organizations function and how people and groups
behave at work. The occupational psychologist aims to increase effectiveness, efficiency, and
satisfaction at work.

i) Criminal Psychology
Criminal psychology is the study of the wills, thoughts, intentions, and reactions of criminals,
encompassing all aspects of criminal behavior. This psychology is particularly uneasy with tests
of social structure that are based on assessments of age, race, ethnicity, and gender at the
personal level.

j) Computational Psychology
It is concerned with constructing computer models of human cognitive processes and is based on
an analogy between the human mind and computer programs. The brain and computer are
viewed as general-purpose symbol-manipulation systems, capable of supporting software
processes.

k) Development of psychology
1. Development describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from
conception to death.
2. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and
why people change throughout life.
3. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual,
social, perceptual, and personality development.
Summary of Some Career Paths in Psychology

Psychology field Description Career opportunities

This field examines the

physiological bases of behavior in
Most bio psychologists work in research
animals and humans by studying
Biopsychology and settings—for instance, at universities, for the
the functioning of different brain
neuroscience federal government, and in private research
areas and the effects of hormones
labs.
and neurotransmitters on
behavior.

Clinical and counseling psychologists provide

therapy to patients with the goal of improving
These are the largest fields of
Clinical and their life experiences. They work in hospitals,
psychology. The focus is on the
counseling schools, social agencies, and private practice.
assessment, diagnosis, causes, and
psychology Because the demand for this career is high,
treatment of mental disorders.
entry to academic programs is highly
competitive.

This field uses sophisticated

Cognitive psychologists work primarily in
research methods, including
Cognitive research settings, although some (such as
reaction time and brain imaging,
psychology those who specialize in human-computer
to study memory, language, and
interactions) consult for businesses.
thinking of humans.

Many work in research settings, although

These psychologists conduct
others work in schools and community
Developmental research on the cognitive,
agencies to help improve and evaluate the
psychology emotional, and social changes that
effectiveness of intervention programs such as
occur across the lifespan.
Head Start.

Forensic psychologists apply

psychological principles to Forensic psychologists work in the criminal
Forensic understand the behavior of judges, justice system. They may testify in court and
psychology lawyers, courtroom juries, and may provide information about the reliability
others in the criminal justice of eyewitness testimony and jury selection.
system.
Psychology field Description Career opportunities

Health psychologists are

Health psychologists work with medical
concerned with understanding
professionals in clinical settings to promote
Health psychology how biology, behavior, and the
better health, conduct research, and teach at
social situation influence health
universities.
and illness.

There are a wide variety of career

opportunities in these fields, generally
Industrial-organizational working in businesses. These psychologists
Industrial-
psychology applies psychology to help select employees, evaluate employee
organizational and
the workplace with the goal of performance, and examine the effects of
environmental
improving the performance and different working conditions on behavior.
psychology
well-being of employees. They may also work to design equipment and
environments that improve employee
performance and reduce accidents.

These psychologists study people Most work in academic settings, but the skills
and the differences among them. of personality psychologists are also in
Personality The goal is to develop theories demand in business—for instance, in
psychology that explain the psychological advertising and marketing. PhD programs in
processes of individuals, and to personality psychology are often connected
focus on individual differences. with programs in social psychology.

School psychologists work in elementary and

secondary schools or school district offices
This field studies how people
School and with students, teachers, parents, and
learn in school, the effectiveness
educational administrators. They may assess children‟s
of school programs, and the
psychology psychological and learning problems and
psychology of teaching.
develop programs to minimize the impact of
these problems.

This field examines people‟s

interactions with other people.
Social and cross- Many social psychologists work in marketing,
Topics of study include
cultural advertising, organizational, systems design,
conformity, group behavior,
psychology and other applied psychology fields.
leadership, attitudes, and personal
perception.
Psychology field Description Career opportunities

This field studies the

psychological aspects of sports
behavior. The goal is to Sports psychologists work in gyms, schools,
Sports psychology understand the psychological professional sports teams, and other areas
factors that influence performance where sports are practiced.
in sports, including the role of
exercise and team interactions.

The importance of psychology

1. Self-Knowledge
2. Learning can be viewed as one purpose of life, and self-knowledge can be viewed as an
important element of learning.
3. Learning About Others
4. Learning about oneself, in the field of psychology allows us to learn about others.
5. Solving Important Problems
6. Theories and findings in psychology may help us to solve important problems.

References:
 Stangor, C., &Walinga, J. (2019). Introduction to psychology-1st Canadian edition introduction to psychology-
1st canadian edition. Retrieved (2019, March) from https://opentextbc. ca/introductiontopsychology.

 https://profilelogin.admissione.online/UploadFiles/Documents/ProfileLgoin/Subtitle/NColge_1372_General%2
0Psychology.pdf