Mechatronics & MEMS

MECHATRONICS & MEMS

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Mechatronics & MEMS

DAYANANDASAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VISION
To impart quality technical education with a focus on Research and Innovation emphasising on
Development of Sustainable and Inclusive Technology for the benefit of society.

MISSION
 To provide an environment that enhances creativity and Innovation in pursuit of Excellence.
 To nurture teamwork in order to transform individuals as responsible leaders and
entrepreneurs.
 To train the students to the changing technical scenario and make them to understand the
importance of Sustainable and Inclusive technologies.

DEPARTMENT OFMECHANICAL ENGINEERING

VISION

To Prepare Mechanical Engineers having technical competency and managerial skills driven by human
values and ignite the young minds capable of addressing ever-changing global issues by research and
innovation.

MISSION:

 To provide a platform that imparts Scientific Knowledge and Technical skills.

 To Train students to demonstrate their Communication and Managerial skills with Ethical
practices.
 To engage students in professional activities through Research, Higher Education and Life Long
Learning.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’S)

After successful completion of program, the graduates will be

PEO 1: Graduates shall exhibit the Knowledge and Competency for successful career in
Mechanical Engineering and pursue higher studies.
PEO 2: Graduates shall exhibit the necessary skills and manage to interact in the field of
profession with different Cross Functional Groups.
PEO 3: Graduates shall demonstrate their Engineering Profession by adopting Ethical and
Professional practices.
PEO 4: Graduates shall engage in Professional society interaction, training and research to
enable Life Long Learning.

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PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S)

The Mechanical engineering program students will attain:
PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural
sciences, and engineering sciences
PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions

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PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’S)

After successful completion of program, the graduates will be
PSO 1: Graduates will be able to apply basic science, mathematics and engineering knowledge to
conceptualize, model, design and manufacture physical systems and processes.
PSO 2: Graduates will be able to utilize the knowledge of advanced engineering tools in design &
thermal engineering domain.
PSO 3: Graduates will be able to lead professionally in an industrial environment by applying the
management principles related to organizational planning, leadership, and research, production and
service activities.

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COURSE SYLLABUS
MECHATRONICS & MEMS

Subject Code: 17ME6DEMEM CIE Marks: 50

Hours/Week: 03 SEE Exam Hours: 03
Total Hours: 40 SEE Marks: 100

MODULE - 1
Introduction to Mechatronic Systems: Introduction to Mechatronics, The Design process,
Measurements systems and Control systems: open loop and closed loop, Programmable logic controller,
Sequential controller, Examples of Mechatronic system: Automatic Washing machine, Digital camera
and Airbag Inflation. Engine Management system. 08 Hours
MODULE - 2
Sensors and Transducers: Definition and classification of transducers. Static and Dynamic
characteristics of system, Definition and classification of sensors. Principle of working and applications
of light sensors, proximity sensors, Fluid Flow sensors, Temperature sensors, piezoelectric sensors.
Electrical Actuation Systems: Electrical systems, Mechanical switches, Solenoids, DC & AC motors,
Stepper motors and their merits and demerits, D.C. and A.C. Servomotors. 08 Hours

MODULE - 3
Basics of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC): Introduction,
Parts of PLC, Principles of operation, PLC size and applications, PLC Advantages and Disadvantages, PLC
Manufacturers, PLC hardware components, I/O section, Analog I/O modules, Digital I/O modules, CPU-
Processor memory module, Programming devices, Devices which can be connected to I/O modules,
Relay, Contactor, SPST, Push Buttons, NO/NC Concept.
PLC programming. 08 Hours
MODULE - 4
Overview and working principles of MEMS and Microsystems
MEMS & Microsystems, Typical MEMS and Microsystems products, Microsystems & Microelectronics,
Microsystems & miniaturization, Applications of MEMS in Industries,
Micro sensors: Acoustic wave, Biomedical and Biosensors, Pressure and Thermal sensor.
Micro actuation: Thermal forces and Shape memory alloys.
MEMS with Micro actuators: Micro motors and Micro valves.
Micro accelerometers, Micro fluidics 08 Hours
MODULE - 5
Materials for MEMS & Microsystems and their fabrication
Substrates and Wafers, Active substrate materials, Silicon as a substrate material, Silicon compounds,
Silicon Piezo resistors, Gallium Arsenide, Quartz, Piezoelectric Crystals and Polymers, Photolithography,
Diffusion and oxidation, Chemical and Physical vapor deposition, etching, Bulk micro manufacturing.
08 Hours

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Self-study component:
Unit 1: Electronic stability control, Cruise control acceleration and deceleration, Accelerometers
Unit 2: Impact sensors, Torque, Tactile and Pressure Sensors, Sensors in Robotics.
, Thyristers, Traics, Bipolar transistor, MOSFET. Study of AC and DC motors in heavy duty construction
and automotive industry.
Unit 3: Recent Advances in Microcontrollers (Study on ABB, Delta Electronics, Rockwell Automation and
Mitsubishi Microcontrollers used for various time applications), PIC programming languages. Case study
on application of PLC in Hydraulics.
Unit 4: Study on Ion implantation and The LIGA Process, Surface Micromachining,
Unit 5: MEMS for space application and bio-medical applications, Microelectronic Technology for
MEMS.
Note:
1. Questions for CIE and SEE not to be set from self-study component.
2. Assignment Questions should be from self-study component only.

TEXT BOOKS
1. MEMS and Microsystems: Design and Manufacture, Tia-Ran Hsu, Design &
Manufacturing, TMH 2002

2. Mechatronics, W.Bolton, Longman, 2Ed, Pearson Publications, 2007.

3. Microprocessor Architecture, Programming and Application With 8085/8085A, R.S.
Ganokar,Wiley Eastern.
4. Frank D. Petruzella “Programmable Logic Controllers”, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
5. John w. Webb and Ronald A. Reis, “Programmable Logic Controllers”, PHI

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. MEMS, Mahalik N. P., Tata McGraw Hill Publications-2007
2. Mechatronics - Principles, Concepts and applications – Nitaigourand Premchand Mahilik - Tata
McGraw Hill- 2003.

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3. Introduction Mechatronics & Measurement systems, David.G. Aliciatore & Michael. B.

Bihistaned, Tata McGraw Hill, 2000.

E-Learning:
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112103174/
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112103174/11
https://www.intechopen.com/books/advances-in-
mechatronics/ https://www.mems-exchange.org/
http://www.memsjournal.com/
https://compliantmechanisms.byu.edu/content/introduction-microelectromechanical-systemsmems
http://www.mouser.in/applications/mems-overview/ http://www.sandia.gov/mstc/mems/

https://books.google.co.in/books?id=xwC885VET9YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=MEMS+and+
Microsystems:+Design+and+Manufacture&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiM4KHXi7DoAhVp7nM
BHVbGAD0Q6AEINzAC#v=onepage&q=MEMS%20and%20Microsystems%3A%20Design%20an
d%20Manufacture&f=false

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MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction

1.2 Definition of Mechatronics

1.3 Multi-disciplinary scenario.

1.4 Origin of Mechatronic system.

1.5 Evaluation of Mechatronics.

1.6.1Advantages of Mechatronic Systems

1.6 .2 Disadvantages of Mechatronic Systems.
1.7 Generalized measurement system
1.8 Functions of each units used in measurement system
1.9 Microprocessor based controllers:
1.9.1 Block diagram of Mechatronic System
1.9.2 Block diagram of working automatic camera
1.9.3 Block diagram of working automatic washing machine

1.9.4 Block diagram of working engine management system.

1.10 PLC (Programmable Logic Controller).

OBJECTIVES
 To understand the concepts of mechatronics systems and its applications.
 To understand the how microprocessor based controllers works.

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1.1 Introduction:
An automation and control method adopting integrated approach to technology has become
relevant to industries, machinery and consumer engineering products. Most of the domestic equipment
like automatic washing machines, automatic cameras, digital cameras, DVD players, hard disc drives are
examples of Mechatronic system which we use without bothering to know the technology adopted in it.

1.2 Definition of Mechatronics:

Definition 1:
Mechatronics may be defined as” the complete integration of mechanical system with electronics,
electrical and computer system into a single system”. Definition 2:

Mechatronics is “the synergistic (Together) combination of mechanical engineering, electronic

engineering, control engineering and systems thinking in the design of products and manufacturing
processes”

Example: automatic washing machine, digital fuel injection system, engine management system. Etc.,

1.3 Multi-disciplinary scenario:

• Mechatronics is the synergistic (Together) combination of mechanical engineering, electronic
engineering, control engineering and systems thinking in the design of products and
manufacturing processes”.

• Multi-disciplinary products are not new; they have been successfully designed and used for
many years. Most common is the electromechanical system.

• It employs a sequential design-by-discipline approach. For example in the design of

electromechanical system three stages of design are adopted.

• They are design of mechanical system, design of microelectronic system and control system.

• Each design application follows the completion of the previous one.

• It’s having so many drawbacks, to overcome this Mechatronics has been developed and
it uses concurrent engineering.

1.4 Origin of Mechatronic system:

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The word Mechatronics was coined by Japanese in the late 1970‟s to describe the philosophy
adopted in the design of subsystem of electromechanical systems.

The field of Mechatronics received the international recognitions only in the last few years.

The field has been derived by rapid progress in the field of microelectronics.

At R&D level the following areas have been recognized under Mechatronics discipline. a) Motion
control actuators and sensors

b) Micro devices and optoelectronics

c) Robotics
d) Automotive systems
e) Modeling and design
f) System integration
g) Manufacturing
h) Vibration and noise control.
1.5 Evaluation of Mechatronics:
The technology has evolved through several stages that are termed as levels.

The evolution levels of Mechatronics are: a.

Primary level Mechatronics (first)

b. Secondary level Mechatronics (second)

c. Tertiary level Mechatronics (third)
d. Quaternary level Mechatronics (fourth)
a. Primary level Mechatronics (first):
In the early days Mechatronics products were at primary level containing I/O devices such as
sensors, and actuators that integrated electrical signals with mechanical action at the basic control level.

Examples: electrically controlled fluid valves and relays b.

Secondary level Mechatronics (second):

This level integrates microelectronics into electrically controlled devices.

Examples: cassette player.

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c. Tertiary level Mechatronics (third):

This incorporates advances feedback functions into control strategy, thereby enhancing the quality
in terms of sophistication.

Mechatronics system at this level is called ‘smart system’.

The control strategy includes microelectronics, microprocessor and other „application specific
integrated circuits‟ (ASIC).

Examples: DVD player, CD drives, automatic washing machine, CD drives, etc. d.

Quaternary level Mechatronics (fourth):

This level includes intelligent control in Mechatronics system.

The level attempts to improve smartness a step ahead by introducing intelligence and fault detection
and isolation (FDI) capability system.

Examples: artificial neural network and fuzzy logic technologies.

1.6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of Mechatronics:

Advantages:
1. The products produced are cost effective and very good quality.
2. High degree of flexibility
3. Greater extent of machine utilization
4. Greater productivity
5. High life expected by proper maintenance.
6. The integration of sensor and control system in a complex system reduces capital expenses.
1.6.2 Disadvantages:
1. Higher initial cost of the system.
2. Imperative to have Knowledge of different engineering fields for design and implementation.
3. It is expenses to incorporate Mechatronics approaches to existing/old systems.
4. Specific problem of various systems will have to be addressed separately and properly.
1.6.3 Characteristics of Mechatronic system:
1. High quality product.
2. Safe.

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3. Low cost.
4. Portable produced quickly
5. Serviceability, maintainability and upgradeability.
1.6.4 Applications of Mechatronic systems:
The areas are:

1. Automotive machines.
2. Fax and photocopier mechanics
3. Dishwashers.
4. Automatic washing machine
5. Air conditioners, elevator controls.
6. Documents scanners
7. IC manufacturing systems.
8. Robotics employed in welding, nuclear inspection, painting etc.,
9. VCRs and CD Players.
Measurement system: a group of device/element arranged in rational manner to achieve the act of
measurement.

Measurand: is a numerical quantity of physical phenomenon such as force, quantity, displacement,

time, velocity, etc,

Measurement: is a represent of physical phenomenon in numerical values.

1.7 Generalized measurement system:

Generally a measurement system consists of 3 basic elements.

1. Sensor/transducer.
2. Signal conditioner.
3. Display/read out devices.
In addition to the above, electrical power is also required.

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1.9 Functions of each elements of measurement system:

1.9.1. Sensor/transducer unit:
The heart of any measurement or control system is sensor/transducer.

Sensor/transducer is a device it converts the one form of energy to another form.

Sensor/transducer it senses the physical phenomenon to be measure and transform it from one
form to another form (generally electrical form).

The output of this unit is input to the signal conditioner which is next element.

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1.9.2. Signal conditioner unit:

• This unit senses the output signals of sensor and converts it into suitable, measurable level of
signals.

• An amplifier is acts as a signal conditioner in the figure.

The following functions of signal conditioners are:

a. Amplification of signals: the level of signals from the transducer may be of low level for the
next use and hence need to be amplified (increased).

b. Attenuation: similarly the level of signals from the transducer may be of higher level for the
next use and hence need be attenuated (decreased).

c. Filtering: signals from the transducer may contain some other undesirable signals which need
to be filtered or eliminated before it is used. Otherwise a corrupt output will be generated.

d. Analog to digital conversion (ADC): the signals from the transducer may be analog in nature
and if these signals were to be used as input to electronic system/computer system, they need to be
converting to digital form. Similarly sometimes we use DAC.

1.9.3. Display/read out unit:

It displays the output of signal conditioner unit and this display will be the quantitative form of
measurand.

Display unit may be either of analog (dial gauge) and digital (LED) type.

Example of Measurement system: Digital thermometer principle.

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1.9.4 Control system:

The word control means „to regulate‟, „manipulate‟, and „command‟. Examples:

1. A container is to be filled with water from a tap. Once the water fills the container, the valve is
closed (that is spilling of water is avoided) by observation from a human being who senses the
filling and based on the observation closes the valve.

2. The driver applies the brake of the vehicle, when he/she observes red traffic light.
Definition of Control system:
A group of devices/elements which maintains the required output based on the predefined value by
controlling the parameter responsible for output.

Classification of control system:

1. Open loop control system (NO FEEDBACK control system).
2. Closed loop control system (WITH FEEDBACK control system).
1. Open loop control system (NO FEEDBACK control system):
In which the output is dependent on the input, but input is independent of output is called open loop
control system.

Figure:

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Example:
1. ON/OFF of an electric lamp: electric lamps are used for lighting the lamp. ON/OFF control is
carried out with the help of a switch and the switch is generally operated by an operator depending
on the amount of light that exist in that area.

If the switch is ON, the lamp is glow. If the person operating the switch does not put OFF of the switch,
the lamp remain ON until he switched OFF. So it is called open loop control system.

2. Control the temperature of the room with room heater: the amount of heat generated by a
room heater depends on the amount of input power controlled by a regulator.

If the power is switch ON, the power supplied to the heater continues and temperature of the room
goes on increasing immaterial of whether heat is required in the room or not. Here person is go and
OFF the power supply switch and there by cooling the temperature of the room is decreasing.

Advantages of open loop control system:

1. Less costly.
2. Relatively simple.
3. Good reliability.
4. Easy maintenance.
5. Inherently stable.
Disadvantages of open loop control system:
1. Inaccurate since there is no correction of error.
2. Relatively slow in response to change in demand.
3. The control depends on the human judgment.
4. Often leads to waste.
5. Any change in system component not to be taken care automatically.

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2. Closed loop control system (WITH FEEDBACK control system):

In which input is depend on the output. i.e., variation in the output influences the input by some means
of controlling on the input is called a closed loop system.

Figure:

Elements of closed loop control system:

The basic elements of a closed loop control system are:

1. Comparison element.
2. Control unit.
3. Correction unit.
4. Process unit.
5. Feedback unit.
Functions of each elements of a closed loop system:
Comparison element: this unit compares the reference value with feedback value and produces an error
signal.

Error = reference value – feedback value

Control unit: Control unit analyses the error signal and decides what action is to be taken. Correction
unit: the modified signal from the control unit will be received by the correction unit which produces a
change in the process to correct or change the controlled condition.

Process unit: process unit is the unit which is being controlled.

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Examples:
1. Hand reaching an object.

This is an example of closed loop control system.

A person wants to reach for an object.

Position of the object is given as reference, feedback signals and the eyes compares the actual
position of the hands with reference to the position of the object.

Error signal is given to the brain.

Brain manipulates this error and gives signals to the hands.

This process continues till the hand reaches the object.

2. Speed control of an automobile:

The driver observes the speedometer, and based on the speed shown by the speedometer he
decides whether the fuel supply should be increased or decreased or gear change is to be made.

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Here speed shown a speedometer is a feedback. A feedback signal from the eye compares the
desired speed in the memory of the driver.

Error signals are given to brain. Brain manipulates the error signals and gives it ton hand and leg and
increase the fuel supply if the speed is less than the desired speed, otherwise decrease the fuel supply.

Changing of gear and increase or decrease of fuel supply, depends on whether it an upward or
downward gradient respectively.

3. Water level control of overhead tanks:

The overhead tank has a fixed float (sensor) fixed at the desired height inside the tanks. The
level of the water is sensed by the float. The float has an electrical contactor, which is positioned
between fixed connectors.

The inflow regulation valve is electrically operated. The electrical circuit of the system is closed
when the float touches the fixed connectors and open when it is not making contact with it.

When the level of water in the tank falls, the float moves down and makes contact with fixed
contactor and circuit is closed and pump is switched ON.

When the level of water rises the float moves up and breaks the circuit and pump is switches OFF.
Thereby the required level of water is maintained in overhead tank.

3. Room temperature controller (manual):

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In this case the required room temperature will be decided by person in the room and thus is
compared mentally.

Based on whether the room temperature is high or low, the person will operate the switch of the
room heater till the desired or comfortable temperature is achieved.

Block diagram is illustrating the above process.

Advantages of closed loop control system:

1. More accurate.
2. Any change in system component can be taken care automatically.
3. Use of feedback system response is relatively insensitive to external disturbances and internal
variations in system parameters.

Disadvantages of closed loop control system:

1. Expensive and complicated to construction.

Differences between open loop control system and closed loop control system

Sequential control system:

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Control of sequences of operations in a sequence is called as a sequence control system.

Working of washing machine is a sequential control system wherein control is exercised based
on event, or parameter etc., i.e., control action will be executed one after another event. The
events to be carried out in a domestic washing machine are soaking, washing, rinsing and drying.

Each of these operations involves a number of steps.

1.9 Microprocessor based controllers:

1.9.1 Introduction:
Recent development in the large scale integration (LSI), VLSI, SVLSI of semiconductor
devises and the resulting availability of inexpensive microprocessor, memory chips
and analog to digital converters (ADC) have made it possible to use computer as
integral part of control system without much increase in cost.

Some of the application areas of microprocessor and microcontroller based control system include;

Automatic washing machine, automatic cameras, ATM, Computers, Automatic engine management
systems, Disc drivers in system, Industrial automations, etc.,

1.9.2 Block diagram of a microprocessor based processor control system:

Using data acquisition system (DAS) which converts the analog signals, from various sensors to
digital signals that can be processed by a microprocessor.

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A keyboard in the system allow the user to enter set point values which are stored in the
memory and the feedback of the current values of the process variable are into the memory, Relays,
solenoids values, DAC and other actuators are used to control the process variables using the
program.

1.9.3 Block diagram of a microprocessor based processor control system of an Automatic camera:

Working:
Camera is used to photograph an object, the switch is pressed which activates the system. The
range sensor sense the distance of the object to be photographed and this data is input to
microprocessor.
The microprocessor in turn sends on output to motor to drive to position the lens for focusing.

The position of the lens is input to microprocessor.

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Next the light sensor sends the signal of light intensity on the object to microprocessor.
Based on this, signals are sent to control the duration of time the shutter have to be kept open.

All these action and reaction take place within a fraction of second.

Once the film has exposed, the information is input to the microprocessor which gives output for
driving the motor for advancing the film to drive and the camera is ready for the next exposure.

1.9.4 Block diagram of a microprocessor based processor control system of Automatic washing

machine:

Working:
This is a sequential control system wherein control is exercised based on event, or parameter etc.,

i.e., control action will be executed one after another event.

The events to be carried out in a domestic washing machine are soaking, washing, rinsing and
drying.

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Each of these operations involves a number of steps.

Soaking involves selection of correct quantity of detergent and water based on the type and
amount
of cloth.

This requires opening of the valve to fill the machine drum to required level and closing the valve
once the required level of water has reached and rotating the drum in either directions for a pre-set
amount of time during the soaking operation.

This is followed by washing which is a time parameter event.

Then the rinsing event which measures the pH value using a chemical sensor of water in the drum
and compares it with supply of water.

This event continues till the pH value of the water in the cloth and the supply water are equal.

Finally drying operation till the minimum percentage of moisture is retained in the cloth. All
these events were earlier controlled with the help of mechanical system involving a set of
camoperated switches.

In modern washing machine mechanical system is replaced by digital devices. i.e., a
microcontroller and the sequence of instruction; program embedded in the microcontrollers.
The amount of detergent, amount of water, pH value are all sensed by the sensor and these
sensed qualities are input to the microcontroller.

Based on the input and the software embedded, the corresponding output of the microcontroller to
carry out the different sequence of operations.

1.9.5 Block diagram of Engine management system using microprocessor:

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The figure illustrates the basic concept of engine management system using a microprocessor.
Engine management system is used for managing the ignition and air/fuel requirement of an IC
engine.

In the case of four stroke multi cylinder petrol engine, each cylinder has a piston performing all
the four stroke (suction, compression, working or expansion and exhaust strokes) and the piston rod
of each

Piston connected to common crankshaft, and their power strokes at different time‟s resulting
power for rotation of the crankshaft.

The power and speed of an engine are functions of ignition timing and air/fuel mixture.
Hence, by controlling the ignition timing and air/fuel mixture it is possible to control the speed
and power of the engine.

In modern cars the ignition timing, opening and closing of valves at appropriate time, quality of
air/fuel mixture are controlled by microprocessor with the help of sensors.

For ignition timing the crankshaft drives a distributor which makes electrical contacts for each spark
plug and turns a timing wheel.

The timing wheel generates pulses which are input the microprocessor.

The microprocessor as per the program adjusts the timing at which high voltage pulses are sent to
the distributor so that spark occurs at the right time resulting in complete combustion of fuel.

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The quantity of air/fuel mixture entering the cylinder during suction stroke is again controlled by
microprocessor by varying the time for which the solenoid is activated to open the intake and
throttle position.

The quantity of fuel injected into the air stream is sensed by sensor of the mass flow rate
computed from one method, and then input to the microprocessor which in turn gives an output to
control the fuel injection.

1.10 PLC (Programmable Logic Controller):

• PLC is also called as modern computers.
• In industry control applications are carried out by specialized devices for interfacing with analog and
digital devices with restricted instruction sets using programmable logic controllers offers more
flexibility in developing complex control algorithms and best suited for industrial monitoring and
control, in production environments.
• They are usually programmed with ladder logic, which is a graphical method of laying out the
connectivity and logic between system inputs and outputs.

COUSRE OUTCOMES
Students will

1. Understand how mechatronics system works and where it will be applied.

2. Understand how exactly Automatic Camera, Washing Machine works.
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Define Mechatronics and list out advantages and disadvantages of mechatronics.
2. Draw a neat block diagram of a generalized measurement system.
3. Define control system and different types of control systems.
4. Enumerate the difference between open loop and closed loop control system.
5. With a block diagram explain the working of a microprocessor controlled washing machine.

6. With a block diagram explain the working of a microprocessor controlled automatic camera.

7. With a block diagram explain the working of a microprocessor controlled engine management
system.

8. Explain programmable logic controller.

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9. Define Mechatronics. What are its objectives? Explain with a block diagram, the key
components in a typical Mechatronic system.
10. What is sequential controller? Explain with the block diagram, how a microprocessor control
system is used to control the focusing and exposure in an automatic camera, Automatic camera
and Air bag inflation.
11. Explain with the block diagram, the basic elements of a measurement system.

FURTHER READING
1. Mechatronics and Microprocessors, K.P.Ramchandran, G.K.Vijayraghavan,
M.S.Balasundran, Wiley, 1st Ed, 2009

2. Mechatronics - Principles, Concepts and applications – Nitaigour and Premchand Mahilik Tata
McGraw Hill- 2003.

MODULE 2: Review of Sensors, Transducers &

Electrical Actuation Systems
Sensors and Transducers: Definition and classification of transducers. Static and Dynamic
characteristics of system, Definition and classification of sensors. Principle of working and applications
of light sensors, proximity sensors, Fluid Flow sensors, Temperature sensors, piezoelectric sensors.
Electrical Actuation Systems: Electrical systems, Mechanical switches, Solenoids, DC & AC motors,
Stepper motors and their merits and demerits, D.C. and A.C. Servomotors.

OBJECTIVE
 Is to understand concepts of Transducer and Sensors.
 Is to understand working of different types of sensors.

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2.1 Definition and classification of transducers:

A Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Energy types
include electrical,mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical, acoustic or thermal
energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device
which converts energy can be considered a transducer. Transducers are widely used in
measuring instruments.

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A Sensor is used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another form of
energy, often an electrical signal. For example, a pressure sensor might detect (a mechanical
form of energy) and convert it to electricity for display at a remote gauge.
Transducer: The sensor or the sensing element is the first element in a measuring system and takes
information about the variable being measured and transforms it into a more suitable form to be
measured. The following figure illustrates the difference between sensor and transducer.

Figure Principle of Sensor/Transducer

Sensor is sometimes called a primary measuring element, it can be found simply as a mercury
thermometer to measure the temperature. It may be embedded in the transducer to perform its
function. That means the transducer consists of a primary element (sensor) plus a secondary element
(signal conditioning circuit) that transforms the passive change or small voltage signal into active signal
range that can be easily used in other chains of the control loop. Example: with a resistance
thermometer, the resistance depends on the temperature value (sensor). It can be inserted into a bridge
circuit (secondary element) in order to transform the change in the resistance value to a change in the
voltage output. Finally, the output voltage from the bridge circuit express about the temperature
change value. In general, we can say that: Transducer = Sensor + Signal conditioning circuit.

Classification of Sensors
The sensors are classified into the following criteria:
1. Primary Input quantity (Measured)
2. Transduction principles (Using physical and chemical effects)
3. Material and Technology
4. Property
5. Application

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Transduction principle is the fundamental criteria which are followed for an efficient approach. Usually,
material and technology criteria are chosen by the development engineering group.
Classification based on property is as given below:
· Temperature - Thermistors, thermocouples, RTD’s, IC and many more.
· Pressure - Fibre optic, vacuum, elastic liquid based manometers, LVDT, electronic.
· Flow - Electromagnetic, differential pressure, positional displacement, thermal mass, etc.
· Level Sensors - Differential pressure, ultrasonic radio frequency, radar, thermal
displacement, etc.
· Proximity and displacement - LVDT, photoelectric, capacitive, magnetic, ultrasonic.
· Biosensors - Resonant mirror, electrochemical, surface Plasmon resonance, Light
addressable potentio-metric.
· Image - Charge coupled devices, CMOS
· Gas and chemical - Semiconductor, Infrared, Conductance, Electrochemical.
· · Acceleration - Gyroscopes, Accelerometers.
· Others - Moisture, humidity sensor, Speed sensor, mass, Tilt sensor, force, viscosity.

Classification based on Application is as given below:

· Industrial process control, measurement and automation
· Non-industrial use – Aircraft, Medical products, Automobiles, Consumer electronics, other type of
sensors.
Sensors can be classified based on power or energy supply requirement of the sensors:
· Active Sensor - Sensors that require power supply are called as Active Sensors. Example: LiDAR
(Light detection and ranging), photoconductive cell.
· Passive Sensor - Sensors that do not require power supply are called as Passive Sensors. Example:
Radiometers, film photography.

In the current and future applications, sensors can be classified into groups as follows:
· Accelerometers - These are based on the Micro Electro Mechanical sensor technology. They are
used for patient monitoring which includes pace makers and vehicle dynamic systems.
· Biosensors - These are based on the electrochemical technology. They are used for food testing,
medical care device, water testing, and biological warfare agent detection.

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· Image Sensors - These are based on the CMOS technology. They are used in consumer
electronics, biometrics, traffic and security surveillance and PC imaging.
· Motion Detectors - These are based on the Infra-Red, Ultrasonic, and Microwave / radar
technology. They are used in videogames and simulations, light activation and security detection.

Definitions: In this course we will be studying Electrical Measurements, and we will necessarily interplay
between techniques and hardware used to sense the quantity we wish to measure, techniques and
hardware used to process the signal generated by the sensors and also algorithms to interpret the final
result. We will be, therefore be dealing with transducers, sensors and actuators.

Transducers: Devices used to transform one kind of energy to another. When a transducer converts a
measurable quantity (sound pressure level, optical intensity, magnetic field, etc) to an electrical voltage
or an electrical current we call it a sensor.

When the transducer converts an electrical signal into another form of energy, such as sound (which,
incidentally, is a pressure field), light, mechanical movement, it is called an actuator. They allow the use
of feedback at the source of the measurement. However we will pay little attention to them in this
course. The study of using actuators and feedback belongs to a course in Control theory. A sensor can be
considered in its bare form, or bundled with some electronics (amplifiers, decoders, filters, and even
computers). We will use the word instrument to refer to a sensor together with some of its associated
electronics. The distinction between a sensor and an instrument is extremely vague, as it is increasingly
common to manufacture integrated sensors. What follows is equally applicable to sensors and/or
instruments. The discussion is also applicable to circuits, such as amplifiers, filters, mixers and receivers.
Signal processing circuits are, in a sense, instruments. It is not very important that both input and output
signals are, for example, voltages.

Classification of Transducers

There are several ways in which you can classify transducers that include but not limited to the
role of the transducer, structure of the transducer or the phenomena of their working.

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It is easy to classify transducers as Input Transducers or Output Transducers, if they are treated
as simple signal converters. Input Transducers measure non-electrical quantities and convert
them into electrical quantities.

Output Transducers on the other hand, work in the opposite way i.e. their input signals are
electrical and their output signals are non-electrical or physical like force, displacement, torque,
pressure etc.

Depending on the principle of operation, transducers can also be classified into mechanical,
thermal, electrical, etc.

Let us see the classification of transducers based on the following three ways:

 Physical Effect
 Physical Quantity
 Source of Energy

Classification based on Physical Effect

The first classification of Transducers is based on the physical effect engaged to convert the
physical quantity to electrical quantity. An example, is the change in resistance (physical
quantity) of a copper element in proportion to the change in temperature.

The following physical effects are generally used:

 Variation in Resistance
 Variation in Inductance
 Variation in Capacitance
 Hall Effect
 Piezoelectric Effect

Classification based on Physical Quantity

The second classification of Transducers is based on the physical quantity converted i.e. the end
use of the transducer after the conversion. For example, a Pressure Transducer is a transducer
that converts pressure into electrical signal.

Following is small list of transducers classified based on the physical quantity and corresponding
examples

 Temperature Transducer – Thermocouple

 Pressure Transducer – Bourdon Gauge
 Displacement Transducer – LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
 Level Transducer – Torque Tube
 Flow Transducer – Flow Meter
 Force Transducer – Dynamometer

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 Acceleration Transducer – accelerometer

Classification based on Source of Energy

Transducers are also classified based on the source of energy. Under this category, there usually
two types of transducers:

 Active Transducers
 Passive Transducers

Active Transducers

In Active Transducers, the energy from the input is used as a control signal in the process of
transferring energy from power supply to proportional output.

For example, a Strain Gauge is an Active Transducer, in which the strain is converted into resistance. But
since the energy from the strained element is very small, the energy for the output is provided by an
external power supply.

Passive Transducers

In Passive Transducers, the energy from the input is directly converted into the output. For
example, a Thermocouple is a passive transducer, where the heat energy, which is absorbed from
input, is converted into electrical signals (voltage).

2.2 Static and Dynamic characteristics of system

PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY:

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Static Characteristics:

Range and Span:

The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can vary.

The difference between the limits (maximum value - minimum value) is known as span.

For example a load cell is used to measure force.

An input force can vary from 20 to 100 N. Then the range of load cell is 20 to 100 N. And the span of load
cell is 80 N (i.e., 10020)

Error:

The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the measured parameter is
termed as the error of the device.

Error = Indicated value — true value

For example, if the transducer gives a temperature reading of 30°C when the actual temperature is 29°
C, then the error is + 1°C. If the actual temperature is 3 1° C, then the error is — 1°C.

Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the ability of the instrument to respond to the true value of the
measure variable under the reference conditions.

For example, a thermocouple has an accuracy of ± 1° C. This means that reading given by the
thermocouple can be expected to lie within + 1°C (or) — 1°C of the true value.

Accuracy is also expressed as a percentage of the full range output (or) full scale deflection.

For example, a thermocouple can be specified as having an accuracy of ±4 % of full range output. Hence
if the range of the thermocouple is 0 to 200°C, then the reading given can be expected to be within + 8°C
(or) — 8°C of the true reading.

Sensitivity:

The sensitivity is the relationship showing how much output we can get per unit input.

Sensitivity = Output / Input

Precision: It is defined as the degree of exactness for which the instrument is intended to perform.

Hysteresis error:

When a device is used to measure any parameter plot the graph of output Vs value of measured
quantity. First for increasing values of the measured quantity and then for decreasing values of the
measured quantity.

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The two output readings obtained usually differ from each other.

Repeatability:

The repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are its ability to give the same output for repeated
applications of the same input value. Reliability:

The reliability of a system is defined as the possibility that it will perform its assigned functions for a
specific period of time under given conditions.

Stability:

The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to measure a constant input
over a period of time.

Drift: The term drift is the change in output that occurs over time.

Dead band:

There will be no output for certain range of input values. This is known as dead band. There will be no
output until the input has reached a particular value.

Dead time:

It is the time required by a transducer to begin to respond to a change in input value.

Resolution: Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can be detected.
The resolution is the smallest change in the input value which will produce an observable change in the
input.

Backlash: Backlash is defined as the maximum distance (or) angle through which any part of a
mechanical system can be moved in one direction without causing any motion of the attached part.
Backlash is an undesirable phenomenon and is important in the precision design of gear trains.

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Dynamic Characteristics:

It describes the ways in which an instrument or measurement system responds to sudden changes to
the input. In general, the dynamic response of the measurement system is expressed in the form
of a differential equation.

For any dynamic system, the order of the differential equation which describes the system is called the
Order of the System.

(i) Zero-order System: It has an ideal dynamic performance, because the output is
proportional to the input for all frequencies and there is no amplitude or phase
distortion. A linear potentiometer is an example of a zero-order element.
(ii) First-order System: A first-order instrument or system is characterized by a
linear differential equation. The temperature transducer is an example of first-
order measuring devices, since this is characterized by a single parameter, i.e.,
time constant, T.

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The dynamic characteristics of an instrument or the measurement system are as follows:

(i) Respond Time, (ii) Fidelity,(iii) Measuring lag, and (iv) Dynamic error.

(i) Respond Time: It is an important parameter to describe the dynamic responseof an

instrument. It characterizes the instrument to a step change in the measurand (input). It
includes rise time, delay time and time constant.
(ii) Fidelity: It is defined as the degree of the measurement system. It indicates changes
in the measurand without any dynamic error.
(iii)Measuring Lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of ameasurement system to
changes in the measurand.
(iv) Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantityunder
measurement changing with time and the measured value of thequantity. It also referred
to as Measurement error.

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2.3 light sensors

Introduction

Light sensors creates an output signal indication the intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy
that exists in a very narrow range of frequencies called light. It converts the light energy into an
electrical signal output. They are also known as photoelectric devices or photo sensors as photons are
converted to electrons.

Types of Light Sensor

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Light sensors can be divided into two categories based on output.one sensor which converts light energy
to electrical energy and those which change their electrical properties in some way such as photo-
resistors or conductors. According to the output the sensors can be subdivided into following devices.

Photo-emissive Cells

The sensors which release free electrons from a light sensitive material such as Caesium when
introduction but the photon of sufficient energy. Higher the frequency higher will be the energy
that photon possess.

Figure 1: A phototube works with the principle of photo emissive cells which gives of electrons when
struck by light.

Phototubes operate according to the photoelectric effect: Incoming photons strike a photocathode,
knocking electrons out of its surface, which are attracted to an anode. Thus current is dependent on the
frequency and intensity of incoming photons. Unlike photomultiplier tubes, no amplification takes place,
so the current through the device is typically of the order of a few microamperes.

The light wavelength range over which the device is sensitive depends on the material used for the
photoemissive cathode. A caesium-antimony cathode gives a device that is very sensitive in the violet to
ultra-violet region with sensitivity falling off to blindness to red light. Caesium on oxidised silver gives a
cathode that is most sensitive to infra-red to red light, falling off towards blue, where the sensitivity is
low but not zero.

Vacuum devices have a near constant anode current for a given level of illumination relative to anode
voltage. Gas-filled devices are more sensitive, but the frequency response to modulated illumination
falls off at lower frequencies compared to the vacuum devices. The frequency response of vacuum
devices is generally limited by the transit time of the electrons from cathode to anode.

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Photo-conductive Cells

These sensors change their electrical resistance when the light is introduced. Photoconductivity results
from light hitting as semiconductor material which controls the current flow through it. The most
common photoconductive materials Cadmium Sulphide used in LDR photocells. Photoconductive light
sensor doesn’t produce electricity but it changes its physical properties when introduced to the light.
Photo resistor is the common devices used which changes its electrical resistance in response to change
in light intensity.

In order to understand the working principle of a Photoresistor, let’s brush up a little about the
valence electrons and the free electrons.

As we know valence electrons are those found in the outermost shell of an atom. Hence, these
are loosely attached to the nucleus of the atom. This means that only some small amount of
energy is needed to pull it out from the outer orbit.

Free electrons on the other hand are those which are not attached to the nucleus and hence free to
move when an external energy like an electric field is applied. Thus when some energy makes
the valence electron pull out from the outer orbit, it acts as a free electron; ready to move
whenever an electric field is applied. The light energy is used to make valence electron a free
electron.

This very basic principle is used in the Photoresistor. The light that falls on a photoconductive
material is absorbed by it which in turn makes lots of free electrons from the valence electrons.

As the light energy falling on the photoconductive material increases, number of valence
electrons that gain energy and leave the bonding with the nucleus increases. This leads to a large
number of valence electrons jump to the conduction band, ready to move with an application of
any external force like an electric field.

Thus, as the light intensity increases, the number of free electrons increases. This means the
photoconductivity increases that imply a decrease in photo resistivity of the material.

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Photo-voltaic Cells

When the radiant light energy is received this device generates an emf and is similar in effect to photo
conductivity. Light energy fall on to two semiconductor material linked together creating a voltage of
0.5V. Selenium is commonly used photovoltaic material in solar cells.

Photovoltaic (PV) effect is the conversion of sunlight energy into electricity.

In a PV system, the PV cells exercise this effect. Semi-conducting materials in the PV cell are doped to
form P-N structure as an internal electric field. The p-type (positive) silicon has the tendency to give up
electrons and acquire holes while the n-type (negative) silicon accepts electrons. When sunlight hit the
cell, the photons in light excite some of the electrons in the semiconductors to become electron-hole
(negative-positive) pairs. Since there is an internal electric field, these pairs are induced to separate. As a
consequence, the electrons move to the negative electrode while the holes move to the positive
electrode. A conducting wire connects the negative electrode, the load, and the positive electrode in
series to form a circuit. As a result, an electric current is generated to supply the external load. This is
how PV effect works in a solar cell.

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Photo-junction Devices

These devices use light to control the flow of electrons and holes across their PN-junction. These
devices are mainly designed for detector application and light penetration with their spectral response
tuned to the wavelength of incident light.

A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into current or voltage based on the
mode of operation of the device. It comprises of optical filters, built-in lenses and also surface areas.
These diodes have a slow response time when the surface area of the photodiode increases.
Photodiodes are alike to regular semiconductor diodes, but that they may be either visible to let light
reach the delicate part of the device. Several diodes intended for use exactly as a photodiode will also
use a PIN junction somewhat than the usual PN junction.

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the diode, it makes a
couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as the inner photoelectric effect. If the
absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction by
the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region. Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode,
and electrons move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current
through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and the photocurrent. So the absent current must
be reduced to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

Phototransistor:

The photo transistor has a light sensitive collector to base junction. A lens is used in a transistor package
to expose base to an incident light. When no light is incident, a small leakage current flows from
collector to emitter called IeEO, due to small thermal generation. This is very small current, of the order
of nA. This is called a dark current. When the base is exposed to the light, the base current is produced
which is proportional to the light intensity. Such photo induced base current is denoted as I)...The
resulting collector current is given by, The structure of a phototransistor is shown in the Fig. (a) while
the symbol is shown in the Fig.

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2.4 Proximity sensors

A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact.

A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation

(infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. The object being sensed is
often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different proximity sensor targets demand different
sensors. For example, a capacitive proximity sensor or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a
plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor always requires a metal target.

Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of
mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between the sensor and the sensed object.

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Proximity sensors are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the variation in distance
between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in large steam turbines, compressors, and
motors that use sleeve-type bearings.

Types of Proximity Sensors:

The proximity sensors are categorized in different categories as per their detections. Some proximity
sensors are used to detect materials whereas some are used to detect different environmental
conditions upon these classifications proximity sensors types are as follow:

(i) Eddy current proximity sensor

(ii) Inductive proximity sensor
(iii)Pneumatic proximity sensor
(iv) Proximity switches

EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSOR:

PRINCIPLE:

When a coil is supplied with alternating current, an alternating magnetic field is produced which induces
an EMF on it. If there is a metal near to this alternating magnetic field, on EMF is induced in it. The EMF
cause current to flow. This current flow is eddy current.

CONSTRUCTION & WORKING: It has two identical coils. One reference coil & another sensing coil which
senses the magnetic current in the object. Eddy current start to flow due to AC(conducting object) close
to sensor. Eddy current produce a magnetic field to oppose the magnetic field generated by sensing coil.
Due to this opposition reduction flux is created. To detect 0.001mm

INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS:

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Inductive proximity sensors detect the presence of metallic objects. • Their operating principle is based
on a coil and high frequency oscillator that creates a field in the close surroundings of the sensing
surface. The presence of metal in the operating area causes a change in the oscillation amplitude. This
change is identified by a threshold circuit, which changes the output of the sensor. The operating
distance of the sensor depends on the coil’s size as well as the target’s shape, size and material.

• An inductive sensor is an electronic proximity sensor, which detects metallic objects without touching
them.

• Electric current generates a magnetic field, which collapses generating a current that falls
asymptotically toward zero from its initial level when the input electricity ceases

Construction

The proximity inductive sensor basically consists of a wound coil located in front of a permanent
magnet. The permanent magnet is encased in a rugged housing. The change in current in the coil is
output through the leads embedded in the resin. The leads connected to the display through a
connector gives signal for the presence of an object in the vicinity.

Applications

Common applications of inductive sensors include metal detectors, car washes, and a host of automated
industrial processes. Because the sensor does not require physical contact it is particularly useful for
applications where access presents challenges or where dirt is prevalent. The sensing range is rarely
greater than 6 cm, however, and it has no directionality.

PNEUMATIC PROXIMITY SWITCHES:

It is suitable for sensing non conducting materials. Air is allowed to escape from the front side of the
sensor. When there is no object air escapes freely. When there is an object, the escaping air is blocked
and return backed to system. It is used to measure the range 3mm to 12mm.

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PROXIMITY SWITCHES:

It is used in robotics for sensing elements

It is also used in NC machines, material handling systems and assembly lines.

(i) Micro switch

(ii) Reed switch
(iii)Photo sensitive switch
(iv) Mechanical switch

Micro Switch:

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2.5 Fluid Flow sensors

Turbine Flow Meter:

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2.6 Temperature Sensors

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2.7 Piezoelectric sensors

A sensor which works on the principle of piezoelectricity is known as a piezoelectric sensor. Where
piezoelectricity is a phenomenon where electricity is generated if mechanical stress is applied to a
material. Not all materials have piezoelectric characteristics.

A piezoelectric sensor internal circuit is given above. The resistance Ri is the internal resistance or
insulator resistance. The inductance is due to the inertia of the sensor. The capacitance Ce is inversely
proportional to the elasticity of the sensor material. For the proper response of the sensor, the load and
leakage resistance must be large enough so that low frequencies are preserved. A sensor can be called a
pressure transducer in an electrical signal. Sensors are also known as primary transducers.

Piezoelectric Sensor Specifications

Some of the basic characteristics of piezoelectric sensors are

The range of measurement: This range is subject to measurement limits.

Sensitivity S: Ratio of change in output signal ∆y to the signal that caused the change ∆x.
S = ∆y/∆x.
Reliability: This accounts to the sensors ability to keep characteristics in certain limits under set
operational conditions.

Piezoelectric Sensor Applications

i. Piezoelectric sensors are used for shock detection.

ii. Active piezoelectric sensors are used for thickness gauge, flow sensor.
iii. Passive piezoelectric sensors are used microphones, accelerometer,
musical pickups etc…
iv. Piezoelectric sensors are also used for ultrasound imaging.

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v. These sensors are used for optic measurements, micro moving

measurements, electro acoustics etc…

Electrical Actuation Systems introduction

2.8 Introduction
Electrically actuated systems are very widely used in control systems because they are easy to
interface with the control systems which are also electric and because electricity is easily available
unlike fluid power which require pumps and compressors.

The advantages of electric systems are

• Electricity is easily routed to the actuators; cables are simpler than pipe work.
• Electricity is easily controlled by electronic units
• Electricity is clean.
• Electrical faults are often easier to diagnose.

The disadvantages of electric actuators are

• Electrical equipment is more of a fire hazard than other systems unless made intrinsically
safe, in which case it becomes expensive.
• Electric actuators have a poor torque - speed characteristic at low speed.
• Electric actuators are all basically rotary motion and complicated mechanisms are needed to
convert rotation into other forms of motion.
• The power to weight ratio is inferior to hydraulic motors.

The main electrical systems that are used as actuators for control are,

 Switching Devices such as Mechanical devices (Eg. Relays) or Solid-State Switches (Eg.
Diodes, Thyristors and Transistors etc.) where the control signal switches on or off some
electrical devices.
 Solenoid type devices where a current through a solenoid is used to actuate a soft iron
core eg. Solenoid operated Hydraulic/Pneumatic valve.
 Drive Systems, such as AC and DC motors, where a current through a motor is used to
produce rotation.

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A Switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting

the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.

The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or
more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts can
be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow
between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is no conducting.
The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) can be either a
"toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (push-for "on" or push-for
"off") type.

A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a

computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch.
Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to
indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a
position to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as
pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to
automatically control a system.

For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process.

A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be
remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power
from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be padlocked if necessary to prevent
accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.

An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on voltage
or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes, and would
change state without "bouncing" between on and off positions.

Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current and
voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often used in circuit
analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved, however this can lead to a
less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal properties is required in
the design of large networks of switches, as for example used in telephone exchanges.

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Electronics Expansion British American

specification of mains electrical
Description Symbol
and abbreviation wiring wiring
abbreviation name name

A simple on-off switch:

The two terminals are
either connected
Single pole,
SPST One-way Two-way together or
single throw
disconnected from each
other. An example is
a light switch.

A simple changeover
Single pole, Three- switch: C (COM,
SPDT Two-way
double throw way Common) is connected
to L1 or to L2.

Single pole Similar to SPDT. Some

changeover suppliers
or use SPCO/SPTT for
SPCO
Single pole, switches with a stable
SPTT, c.o.
centre off or off position in the centre
Single Pole, and SPDT for those
Triple Throw without.

Equivalent to
Double pole, Double two SPST switches
DPST Double pole
single throw pole controlled by a single
mechanism

Equivalent to
Double pole, two SPDT switches
DPDT
double throw controlled by a single
mechanism.

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Equivalent to DPDT.
Some suppliers
Double pole
use DPCO for switches
changeover
DPCO with a stable off position
or Double pole,
in the centre
centre off
and DPDT for those
without.

DPDT switch internally

wired for polarity-
reversal applications:
Intermediate Four-way
only four rather than six
switch switch
wires are brought
outside the switch
housing.

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with an asymmetric transfer

characteristic, with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today,
is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical
terminals. A vacuum tube diode is vacuum with two electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated
cathode.

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction
(the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve.
This unidirectional behaviour is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio
receivers—these diodes are forms of rectifiers.

However, diodes can have more complicated behaviour than this simple on–off action.
Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in
voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward-

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biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and
is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as temperature or voltage reference.

Semiconductor diodes' nonlinear current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by varying

the semiconductor materials and doping, introducing impurities into the materials. These are
exploited in special-purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes
are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges
(avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to
generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to
produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes
them useful in some types of circuits.

Thyristor

A thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N and P-

type material. They act as bistable switches, conducting when their gate receives a current
trigger, and continue to conduct while they are forward biased (that is, while the voltage across
the device is not reversed).

Some sources define silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors as synonymous.[1] Other sources
define thyristors as a larger set of devices with at least four layers of alternating N and P-type
material.

The first thyristor devices were released commercially in 1956. Because thyristors can control a
relatively large amount of power and voltage with a small device, they find wide application in
control of electric power, ranging from light dimmers and electric motor speed control to high-
voltage direct currentpower transmission. Originally thyristors relied only on current reversal to
turn them off, making them difficult to apply for direct current; newer device types can be turned
on and off through the control gate signal. A thyristor is not a proportional control like a
transistor but is only ever fully on or fully off, making them unsuitable for analog amplifiers.

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In a conventional thyristor, once it has been switched on by the gate terminal, the device remains
latched in the on-state (i.e. does not need a continuous supply of gate current to conduct),
providing the anode current has exceeded the latching current (IL). As long as the anode remains
positively biased, it cannot be switched off until the anode current falls below the holding current
(IH). A thyristor can be switched off if the external circuit causes the anode to become negatively
biased (a method known as natural, or line, commutation). In some applications this is done by
switching a second thyristor to discharge a capacitor into the cathode of the first thyristor. This
method is called forced commutation. After the current in a thyristor has extinguished, a finite
time delay must elapse before the anode can again be positively biased and retain the thyristor in
the off-state. This minimum delay is called the circuit commutated turn off time (tQ). Attempting
to positively bias the anode within this time causes the thyristor to be self-triggered by the
remaining charge carriers (holes and electrons) that have not yet recombined. For applications
with frequencies higher than the domestic AC mains supply (e.g. 50 Hz or 60 Hz), thyristors
with lower values of tQ are required. Such fast thyristors can be made by diffusing heavy
metal ions such as gold or platinum which act as charge combination centres into the silicon.
Today, fast thyristors are more usually made by electron or proton irradiation of the silicon, or
by ion implantation. Irradiation is more versatile than heavy metal doping because it permits the
dosage to be adjusted in fine steps, even at quite a late stage in the processing of the silicon.

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Figure: Voltage- Current Characteristics of a thyristor

MOSFET :

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is

a transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. Although the MOSFET is a four-
terminal device with source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B) terminals,[1] the body (or
substrate) of the MOSFET often is connected to the source terminal, making it a three-terminal
device like other field. Because these two terminals are normally connected to each other (short-
circuited) internally, only three terminals appear in electrical diagrams. The MOSFET is by far
the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits, though the bipolar junction
transistor was at one time much more common.

In enhancement mode MOSFETs, a voltage drop across the oxide induces a conducting
channel between the source and drain contacts via the field effect. The term "enhancement
mode" refers to the increase of conductivity with increase in oxide field that adds carriers to the
channel, also referred to as the inversion layer. The channel can contain electrons (called an
nMOSFET or nMOS), or holes (called a pMOSFET or pMOS), opposite in type to the substrate,
so nMOS is made with a p-type substrate, and pMOS with an n-type substrate (see article
on semiconductor devices). In the less common depletion mode MOSFET, detailed later on, the
channel consists of carriers in a surface impurity layer of opposite type to the substrate, and
conductivity is decreased by application of a field that depletes carriers from this surface layer.

The 'metal' in the name MOSFET is now often a misnomer because the previously metal gate
material is now often a layer of polysilicon(polycrystalline silicon). Aluminium had been the

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gate material until the mid-1970s, when polysilicon became dominant, due to its capability to
form self-aligned gates. Metallic gates are regaining popularity, since it is difficult to increase the
speed of operation of transistors without metal gates.

2.9 Mechanical Switches

Mechanical switches are elements that are used to switch on electric motors or heating
elements or switch on the current to actuate solenoid valves controlling Hydraulic/Pneumatic systems.

The Electrical Relay is an example of a mechanical switch used in control systems as an actuator.

Relays

Relays are electrically operated switches in which changing current in one electrical circuit switches
current on or off in another circuit.

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COIL

The figure above shows a relay in which, when the current passes through the coil, a magnetic
field is produced which attracts the iron Armature and then NC contact becomes NO and NO contact
becomes NC.

As an illustration of the ways relays can be used in control systems, figure below shows how two
relays might be used to control the operation of pneumatic valves which in turn control the movement
of pistons in three cylinders A, B and C.

The sequence of operation is,

 When the start switch is closed, current is applied to the A and B solenoids and results in
both A and B extending. i.e, A+ and B +.

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 The limit switches a+ and b+ are then closed; the a+ closure activates relay coil 1. The
relay closes its contacts and so supplies current to the C solenoid and results in it
extending, i.e, C+.
 C+ causes limit switch c+ to close and so current to switch the A and B control valves to
retract cylinders A and B, i.e, A- and B -.
 Closing limit switch a- energizes relay coil 2; its contacts close and allows a current to
valve C and cylinder C will retract, i.e, C-.

Time – Delay relays are control relays that have a delayed switching action. The time delay is
adjustable and can be initiated when a current flows through the relay coil or when it ceases to flow
through the coil.

Solid – State switches

There are a number of solid state devices which can be used to electronically switch circuits. These
include:

 Diodes
 Thyristors and triacs
 Bipolar Transistors
 Power Mosfets.

Diodes

The Diode has the characteristic of allowing a significant current in one direction only. A diode
can be regarded as a ‘Directional Element’, only passing current when forward biased, i.e, with the
anode being positive and cathode being negative. If the diode is reverse biased, i.e, a very high voltage,
it will break down.

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If an AC current is applied across a diode, it switches ON only when the diode is forward biased and
being OFF in the reverse biased direction. The result is that the current through the diode is half –
rectified to become just the current due to the positive halves of the input voltage.

Thyristors and Triacs

The Thyristor, is a solid- state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N and P-type
material. It is also a diode which has a gate controlling the conditions under which the diode can be
switched on. The figure below shows the characteristics of a thyristor.

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Solenoids

Solenoids are electrically operated actuators. Solenoid valves are the examples of such devices, which
are used to control fluid flow in hydraulic or pneumatic systems. When a current passes through a coil, a
magnetic field is generated around it which pulls a soft iron core or spool, in doing so, can open or close
ports to allow the flow of fluid.

2.10 Electrical Drives

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2.10.1 A.C. Motors

AC motors convert AC current into the rotation of a mechanical element (mechanical energy). As
in the case of DC motor, a current is passed through the coil, generating a torque on the coil. Typical
components include a stator and a rotor. The armature of rotor is a magnet unlike DC motors and the
stator is formed by electromagnets similar to DC motors. The main limitation of AC motors over DC
motors is that speed is more difficult to control in AC motors. To overcome this limitation, AC motors
are equipped with variable frequency drives but the improved speed control comes together with a
reduced power quality.

The working principle of AC motor is shown in fig. above. Consider the rotor to be a permanent magnet.
Current flowing through conductors energizes the magnets and develops N and S poles. The strength of
electromagnets depends on current. First half cycle current flows in one direction and in the second half
cycle it flows in opposite direction. As AC voltage changes the poles alternate.

AC motors can be classified into synchronous motors and induction motors.

Synchronous Motors

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A synchronous motor is an AC motor which runs at constant speed fixed by frequency of the
system. It requires direct current (DC) for excitation and has low starting torque, and hence is suited for
applications that start with a low load. It has two basic electrical parts namely stator and rotor as shown
in fig. above. The stator consists of a group of individual wounded electro-magnets arranged in such a
way that they form a hollow cylinder. The stator produces a rotating magnetic field that is proportional
to the frequency supplied. The rotor is the rotating electrical component. It also consists of a group of
permanent magnets arranged around a cylinder, with the poles facing toward the stator poles. The rotor
is mounted on the motor shaft. The main difference between the synchronous motor and the induction
motor is that the rotor of the synchronous motor travels at the same speed as the rotating magnet.

The stator is given a three phase supply and as the polarity of the stator progressively change
the magnetic field rotates, the rotor will follow and rotate with the magnetic field of the stator. If a
synchronous motor loses lock with the line frequency it will stall. It cannot start by itself, hence has to
be started by an auxiliary motor.

Synchronous speed of an AC motor is determined by the following formula:

120 ∗ 𝑓
𝑁𝑠 =
𝑃
Ns = Revolutions per minute

P = Number of pole pairs

f = Applied frequency

Induction Motor

Induction motors are quite commonly used in industrial automation. In the synchronous motor
the stator poles are wound with coils and rotor is permanent magnet and is supplied with current to
create fixed polarity poles. In case of induction motor, the stator is similar to synchronous motor with
windings but the rotors’ construction is different.

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Rotor of an induction motor can be of two types:

 A squirrel-cage rotor consists of thick conducting bars embedded in parallel slots. The
bars can be of copper or aluminum. These bars are fitted at both ends by means end rings
as shown in figure above.
 A wound rotor has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed winding. The rotor is wound
for as many numbers of poles as the stator. The three phases are wired internally and the
other ends are connected to slip-rings mounted on a shaft with brushes resting on them.

Induction motors can be classified into two types:

 Single-phase induction motor: It has one stator winding and a squirrel cage rotor. It
operates with a single-phase power supply and requires a device to start the motor.
 Three-phase induction motor: The rotating magnetic field is produced by the balanced
three-phase power supply. These motors can have squirrel cage or wound rotors and are
self-starting.

In an induction motor there is no external power supply to rotor. It works on the principle of
induction. When a conductor is moved through an existing magnetic field the relative motion of the two
causes an electric current to flow in the conductor. In an induction motor the current flow in the rotor is
not caused by any direct connection of the conductors to a voltage source, but rather by the influence of
the rotor conductors cutting across the lines of flux produced by the stator magnetic fields. The induced
current which is produced in the rotor results in a magnetic field around the rotor. The magnetic field
around each rotor conductor will cause the rotor conductor to act like the permanent magnet. As the
magnetic field of the stator rotates, due to the effect of the three-phase AC power supply, the induced
magnetic field of the rotor will be attracted and will follow the rotation. However, to produce torque, an

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induction motor must suffer from slip. Slip is the result of the induced field in the rotor windings lagging
behind the rotating magnetic field in the stator windings.

The Slip ‘S’ is given by,

𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 − 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝑆=
𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ∗ 100%
Advantages of AC Induction Motors

 It has a simple design, low initial cost, rugged construction almost unbreakable
 The operation is simple with less maintenance (as there are no brushes)
 The efficiency of these motors is very high, as there are no frictional losses, with
reasonably good power factor
 The control gear for the starting purpose of these motors is minimum and thus simple and
reliable operation

Disadvantages of AC induction motors

 The speed control of these motors is at the expense of their efficiency

 As the load on the motor increases, the speed decreases
 The starting torque is inferior when compared to DC motors

2.10.2 D.C. Motors

A DC motor is a device that converts direct current (electrical energy) into rotation of an element
(mechanical energy). These motors can further be classified into brushed DC motor and brushless DC
motors.

Brush type DC Motor

A typical brushed motor consists of an armature coil, slip rings divided into two parts, a pair of
brushes and horse shoes electromagnet as shown in Fig. 4.1.4. A simple DC motor has two field poles
namely a north pole and a south pole. The magnetic lines of force extend across the opening between
the poles from north to south. The coil is wound around a soft iron core and is placed in between the
magnet poles. These electromagnets receive electricity from an outside power source. The coil ends are
connected to split rings. The carbon brushes are in contact with the split rings. The brushes are
connected to a DC source. Here the split rings rotate with the coil while the brushes remain stationary.

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The working is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's left-hand rule. The
magnitude of the force is given by,

F = BILsin𝜃

Where, B is magnetic field density in weber/m2

I is the current in amperes and

L is the length of the conductor in meter

θ is the angle between the direction of the current in the conductor and the electric field

If the current and filed are perpendicular then θ=90°. The equation above becomes

F = BIL
A direct current in a set of windings creates a magnetic field. This field produces a force which
turns the armature. This force is called torque. This torque will cause the armature to turn until its
magnetic field is aligned with the external field. Once aligned the direction of the current in the windings
on the armature reverses, thereby reversing the polarity of the rotor's electromagnetic field. A torque is
once again exerted on the rotor, and it continues spinning. The change in direction of current is
facilitated by the split ring commutator. The main purpose of the commutator is to overturn the
direction of the electric current in the armature. The commutator also aids in the transmission of

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current between the armature and the power source. The brushes remain stationary, but they are in
contact with the armature at the commutator, which rotates with the armature such that at every 180°
of rotation, the current in the armature is reversed.

Advantages of brushed DC motor:

 The design of the brushed DC motor is quite simple
 Controlling the speed of a Brush DC Motor is easy
 Very cost effective

Disadvantages of brushed DC motor:

 High maintenance
 Performance decreases with dust particles
 Less reliable in control at lower speeds
 The brushes wear off with usage

Brushless D.C. Motor

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A brushless DC motor has a rotor with permanent magnets and a stator with windings. The rotor
can be of ceramic permanent magnet type. The brushes and commutator are eliminated and the
windings are connected to the control electronics. The control electronics replace the commutator and
brushes and energize the stator sequentially. Here the conductor is fixed and the magnet moves as in
the figure above.

The current supplied to the stator is based on the position of rotor. It is switched in sequence
using transistors. The position of the rotor is sensed by Hall effect sensors. Thus a continuous rotation is
obtained.

Advantages of brushless DC motor:

 More precise due to computer control
 More efficient
 No sparking due to absence of brushes
 Less electrical noise
 No brushes to wear out
 Electromagnets are situated on the stator hence easy to cool
 Motor can operate at speeds above 10,000 rpm under loaded and unloaded conditions
 Responsiveness and quick acceleration due to low rotor inertia

Disadvantages of brushless DC motor:

 Higher initial cost
 Complex due to presence of computer controller
 Brushless DC motor also requires additional system wiring in order to power the
electronic commutation circuitry

2.10.3 Stepper Motors

A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in steps.
Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in low cost, open loop position control systems.

Types of stepper motors:

 Permanent Magnet
o Employ permanent magnet
o Low speed, relatively high torque
 Variable Reluctance
o Does not have permanent magnet

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o Low torque

Variable Reluctance Motor

Figure below shows the construction of Variable Reluctance motor. The cylindrical rotor is made
of soft steel and has four poles as shown in Fig.4.2.1. It has four rotor teeth, 90⁰ apart and six stator
poles, 60⁰ apart. Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator coils in sequence. It attracts
the metal rotor. When the windings are energized in a reoccurring sequence of 2, 3, 1, and so on, the
motor will rotate in a 30⁰ step angle. In the non-energized condition, there is no magnetic flux in the air
gap, as the stator is an electromagnet and the rotor is a piece of soft iron; hence, there is no detent
torque. This type of stepper motor is called a variable reluctance stepper.

Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor

In this type of motor, the rotor is a permanent magnet. Unlike the other stepping motors, the
PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be magnetized at a right angle to its axis. Figure 4.2.2
shows a simple, 90⁰ PM motor with four phases (A-D). Applying current to each phase in sequence will
cause the rotor to rotate by adjusting to the changing magnetic fields. Although it operates at fairly low
speed, the PM motor has a relatively high torque characteristic. These are low cost motors with typical
step angle ranging between 7.5⁰ to 15⁰.

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Hybrid stepper motor

Hybrid stepping motors combine a permanent magnet and a rotor with metal teeth to provide features
of the variable reluctance and permanent magnet motors together. The number of rotor pole pairs is
equal to the number of teeth on one of the rotor’s parts. The hybrid motor stator has teeth creating
more poles than the main poles windings (figure below).

Rotation of a hybrid stepping motor is produced in the similar fashion as a permanent magnet
stepping motor, by energizing individual windings in a positive or negative direction. When a winding is
energized, north and south poles are created, depending on the polarity of the current flowing. These
generated poles attract the permanent poles of the rotor and also the finer metal teeth present on
rotor. The rotor moves one step to align the offset magnetized rotor teeth to the corresponding
energized windings. Hybrid motors are more expensive than motors with permanent magnets, but they
use smaller steps, have greater torque and maximum speed.

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Step angle of a Stepper Motor is given by,

360 ͦ
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
Advantages of Stepper Motors

 Low cost
 Ruggedness
 Simplicity of construction
 Low maintenance
 Less likely to stall or slip
 Will work in any environment
 Excellent start-stop and reversing responses

Disadvantages of stepper motors

 Low torque capacity compared to DC motors

 Limited speed
 During overloading, the synchronization will be broken. Vibration and noise occur when
running at high speed.

2.10.4 Servo Motor

A servo motor is a rotary actuator or a motor that allows for a precise control in terms of the angular
position, acceleration, and velocity. Basically it has certain capabilities that a regular motor does not
have. Consequently it makes use of a regular motor and pairs it with a sensor for position feedback.

Types of servo motors:

Servo motors can be of different types on the basis of their applications. The most important amongst
them are: AC servo motor, DC servo motor, brushless DC servo motor, positional rotation servo motor,
continuous rotation servo motor, and linear servo motor.

A typical servo motor comprises of three wires namely- power, control, and ground. The shape and size
of these motors depends on their applications.

1. DC servo motor:

The basic operating principle of DC motor is the same as other electromagnetic motors. The design,
construction, and the modes of operation are different. The rotors of this kind of motor are designed
with long rotor length and smaller diameters. Their size is larger than that of conventional motors of
same power ratings.

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There are various types of dc servo motors which are :

1. Series motors :

The series motors have a high starting torque and draws large current. The speed regulation of this kind
of motor is poor.

2. Split series motor :

They are the motors with split-field rate with some fractional kilowatts. Split series motor has a typical
torque-speed curve. This curve denotes high stall torque and a rapid reduction in torque with high
speed.

3. Shunt control motor :

It has two separate windings:

1.field winding – on the stator.

2.armature winding – on the rotor of the machine.

Both windings are connected to a dc supply source.

4. Permanent magnet shunt motor :

It is a fix excitation motor where the field is actually supply by a permanent magnet. Furthermore, the
performance is similar to armature controlled fixed field motor.

2. AC servo motor :

AC servomotors are AC motors in which incorporate encoders are use with controllers for
providing feedback and close-loop control. Hence, these motors can be positioned to high
accuracy. Thus they can be controlled exactly as per requirement for the application.

The classification of AC servomotors is done into two types. These are 2 phase and 3 phase AC
servo motor. Now most of the AC servomotors are of the two-phase squirrel cage induction
motor type. They are used for low power applications. Furthermore the three phase squirrel cage
induction motor is now utilized for applications where high power system are in use.

4. Positional rotation servo motor :

Positional rotation servo motor is the most important servo motor. Hence it is also the most
common type of servo motor. The shaft output rotates in about 180 degree. Additionally it
includes physical stops located in gear mechanism to stop turning outside these limits to guard

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the rotation sensor. These common servos involve in radio controlled water, ratio controlled cars,
aircraft, robots, toys and many other applications.

5. Continuous rotation servo motor :

Continuous rotation servo motor relates to the common positional rotation servo motor, but it can
go in any direction indefinitely. The control signal, rather than setting the static position of the
servo, is understood as speed and direction of rotation. The range of potential commands sources
the servo to rotate clockwise or anticlockwise as preferred, at changing on the command signal.
Thus this type of motor is used in a radar dish if you are riding, one on a robot or you can use
one as a drive motor on a mobile robot.

6. Linear servo motor :

Linear servo motor is also similar to the positional rotation servo motor discussed above, but
with extra gears to alter the output from circular to back and forth. Although these servo motors
are not likely to be found, but sometimes you can find them at hobby stores where they are used
as actuators in higher model airplanes.

Principle of working :

Servo motor works on the PWM ( Pulse Width Modulation ) principle, which means its angle of
rotation is controlled by the duration of pulse applied to its control PIN. Basically servo motor is
made up of DC motor which is controlled by a variable resistor (potentiometer) and some gears.

Mechanism of servomotor :

Basically a servo motor is a closed-loop servomechanism that uses position feedback to control
its motion and final position. Moreover the input to its control is a signal ( either analogue or
digital ) representing the position commanded for the output shaft .

The motor is incorporates some type of encoder to provide position and speed feedback. In the
simplest case, we measure only the position. Then the measured position of the output is
compared with the command position, the external input to controller. Now If the output position
differs from that of the expected output, an error signal generates. Which then causes the motor
to rotate in either direction, as per need to bring the output shaft to the appropriate position. As
the position approaches, the error signal reduces to zero. Finally the motor stops.

The very simple servomotors can position only sensing via a potentiometer and bang-bang
control of their motor. Further the motor always rotates at full speed. Though this type of
servomotor doesn’t have many uses in industrial motion control, however it forms the basis of
simple and cheap servo used for radio control models.

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Servomotors also find uses in optical rotary encoders to measure the speed of output shaft and a
variable-speed drive to control the motor speed. Now this, when combined with a PID control
algorithm further allows the servomotor to be in its command position more quickly and more
precisely with less overshooting.

Working of servomotors:

Servo motors control position and speed very precisely. Now a potentiometer can sense the
mechanical position of the shaft. Hence it couples with the motor shaft through gears. The
current position of the shaft is converted into electrical signal by potentiometer, and is compared
with the command input signal. In modern servo motors, electronic encoders or sensors sense the
position of the shaft.

We give command input according to the position of shaft. If the feedback signal differs from the
given input, an error signal alerts the user. We amplify this error signal and apply as the input to
the motor, hence the motor rotates. And when the shaft reaches to the require position, error
signal become zero, and hence the motor stays standstill holding the position.

The command input is in form of electrical pulses. As the actual input to the motor is the
difference between feedback signal (current position) and required signal, hence speed of the
motor is proportional to the difference between the current position and required position. The
amount of power require by the motor is proportional to the distance it needs to travel.

Controlling of servomotors :

Usually a servomotor turns 90 degree in either direction hence maximum movement can be 180
degree. However a normal servo motor cannot rotate any further to a build in mechanical stop.

We take three wires are out of a servo: positive , ground and control wire. A servo motor is
control by sending a pulse width modulated(PWM) signal through the control wire . A pulse is
sent every 20 milliseconds. Width of the pulses determine the position of the shaft .For example ,

A pulse of 1ms will move the shaft anticlockwise at -90 degree , a pulse of 1.5ms will move the
shaft at the neutral position that is 0 degree and a pulse of 2ms will move shaft clockwise at +90
degree.

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Fig: variable pulse width control servo motor

When we command a servo motor to move by applying pulse of appropriate width, the shaft
moves to and holds the require position of the shaft. However the motor resists to change . Pulses
need repetition for the motor to hold the position .

Applications :

1. Robotics : At every joint of the robot, we connect a servomotor. Thus giving the robot arm its
precise angle.
2. Conveyor belts : servo motors move , stop , and start conveyor belts carrying product along to
various stages , for example , in product packaging/ bottling, and labelling .
3. Camera auto focus : A highly precise servo motor build into the camera corrects a camera
lens to sharpen out of focus images.
4. Solar tracking system : Servo motors adjust the angle of solar panels throughout the day and
hence each panel continues to face the sun which results in harnessing maximum energy from
sunup to sundown .

COURSE OUTCOMES
Students will

1. Learn how transducers and sensors work.

2. Understand the working of types of motors and their merits and demerits.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Define transducer and its classification.
2) Define sensor and its classification.
3) With an example, explain primary and secondary transducer.

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4) What is an encoder and how they are classified.

5) Explain with a simple sketch the constructional features of an absolute encoder.
6) Explain with a simple sketch the constructional features of an incremental encoder.
7) Explain the principle and working of proximity sensor.
8) Explain the principle and working of Hall Effect sensor.
9) Explain the principle and working of pneumatic sensor.
10) Explain performance of a transducer.
11) Define a) range, b) span, c) sensitivity, d) accuracy.
12) Define a) hysteresis, b) resolution, c) threshold, d) system error.
13) What is meant by electrical actuation system?
14) With a neat diagram explain principle and working of a relay.
15) What is the principle of a solenoid? What are the two basic types of solenoid?
16) Explain the principle of an electric motor. How are they classified?
17) What is a dc motor? Explain the principle of working of a dc motor.
18) What is an AC motor? List the difference between ac and dc motors.
19) What is meant by stepper motor? List out its classification.
20) With a neat sketch explain principle of variable reluctance stepper motor.
21) Explain the concept of bouncing and debouncing.
22) Write a note on with neat sketch:
a. Photo-emissive Cells
b. Photo-conductive Cells
c. Photo-voltaic Cells
d. Photo-junction Devices
e. Phototransistor
23) Write a note on with neat sketch:
a. Eddy current proximity sensor
b. Inductive proximity sensor
c. Pneumatic proximity sensor
d. Proximity switches
24) Write a note on with neat sketch:
a. Optical Encoder
b. Incremental Encoder
c. Absolute Encoder
d. Hall effect sensor
25) Write a note on with neat sketch:

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a. Turbine flow meter

b. Orifice plate
c. Liquid level measurement
d. Bimetallic strip
e. Resistance temperature detector
f. Thermistors
g. Thermocouple
h. Piezoelectric sensor
i. Servo motor

FURTHER READING
1. Mechatronics - Principles, Concepts and applications – Nitaigour and Premchand Mahilik, Tata
McGraw Hill- 2003.

2. Mechatronics Principles & applications, Godfrey C. Onwubolu, Elsevier.

MODULE 3: Basics of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Basics of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC): Introduction, Parts of PLC, Principles of operation, PLC
size and applications, PLC Advantages and Disadvantages, PLC Manufacturers, PLC hardware
components, I/O section, Analog I/O modules, Digital I/O modules, CPU- Processor memory module,
Programming devices, Devices which can be connected to I/O modules, Relay, Contactor, SPST, Push
Buttons, NO/NC Concept

Objectives:

1. Students will be able to understand the basics of PLC and its programming.

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3.1 INTRODUCTION
PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controllers.

A PLC is basically a microprocessor based device that is used for controlling any machine (electrical,
mechanical, and electronic). It is also used in assembly lines controlling in the industries. It is similar to
a computer. It is typically based on RISC architecture. It is programmed in specific languages based on
the real time purpose. It is connected to sensors, actuators, relays, contactors, etc. it is characterized by
the number and type of I/O ports they provide and by their I/O scan rate

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) defines a PLC as a "digitally operating
electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of instructions by
implementing specific functions, such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control
through digital or analog I/O modules various types of machines or processes.

A PLC is able to receive (input) and transmit (output) various types of electrical and electronic
signals and can control and monitor practically any kind of mechanical and/or electrical system.
Therefore, it has enormous flexibility in interfacing with computers, machines, and many other

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peripheral systems or devices. Control is the process in a system in which one or several input
variables influence other variables.

Need for PLC

Hardwired panels were very time consuming to time, debug and change

The following requirements for computer controllers to replace hardwired panels:

• Solid state not mechanical

• Easy to modify input and output devices
• Easily programmed and maintained by plant electricians
• Be able to function in an industrial environment

Comparison

Hardwired control systems PLC systems

The functons are determined by a program

The functions are determined by physical wiring stored in the memory

Changing the function means changing the The control fucntions can be changed by simply
wiring changing the program

Can be contact making type(relays, Consists of a control device, to which all the
contactors) or electronic type (logic sensors and actuators are connected
circuits)

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3.2 Parts of PLC: PLC architecture

The basic architecture of the PLC can be described as below:

The basic components of a PLC are:

1. A Central Processing Unit(CPU)

2. Input module

3. Output module

4. Programming device

5. Power supply

Central Processing Unit:

It is the heart of the PLC system. The CPU is a microprocessor based control system that replaces
central relays, counters, timers and sequencers. One bit processors are adequate for dealing with logic
operations. The operations of a CPU are as follows:

• The CPU accepts data from various sensing devices, executes the user program from memory
and sends appropriate output commands to control devices.

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• A DC power source is required to produce a low-level voltage used by processor and I/O
modules. This power supply can be housed in the CPU or may be a separately mounted unit,
depending on the PLC system manufacturer.

Input and Output Modules:

First let’s see what are the inputs and outputs.

Inputs:

Inputs are basically the physical entities that control the on and off of the machine. These devices are
controlled by the either the machine operator manually or automatically sent after starting the
machine. Some off the devices can be listed down as:

• Push buttons

• Limiter switches

• Pressure switches

• Flow switches

• Proxy sensor
• Emergency switch

Outputs:

Outputs are the devices which receive the signals given by the PLC and perform the actions accordingly.
The output devices can be listed down as:

• Relays

• Contactors Solenoid valves

• Lamp indicators.

Input-output module:

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The I/O modules connect the input devices with the controller. They convert the electrical signals used
in the devices into electronic signals that can be used by the control system and translate the real
world values to IO table values.

Block diagram of input module:

Block diagram of output module:

Circuit diagram of isolator circuit

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The number of I/O devices used within a control system is called its “point count”.

Programming device (keyboard and monitor):

Keyboard and monitor is used for programming the PLC. The data is entered in the processor with the
help of the keyboard in the form of ladder diagram. This ladder diagram can be seen on the monitor
screen. The programmer can communicate with the processor with the help of the programming
devices. The programming unit communicates with the processor of the PLC via a serial or parallel data
communication link.

PLC power supply:

The PLC is power by the AC mains supply. However some of the PLC components utilize power of
about only 5V dc. PLC power supply converts the AC power supply into DC and supports thesse
components.

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3.3 Working Principle of PLC

The input sources convert the real time analog electric signals to suitable digital electric signals and
these signals are applied to the PLC through the connector rails.

These input signals are stored in the PLC external image memory in locations known as bits. This is
done by the CPU

The control logic or the program instructions are written onto the programming device through
symbols or through mnemonics and stored in the user memory.

The CPU fetches these instructions from the user memory and executes the input signals by
manipulating, computing, processing them to control the output devices.

The execution results are then stored in the external image memory which controls the output
drives.

The CPU also keeps a check on the output signals and keeps updating the contents of the input
image memory according to the changes in the output memory.

The CPU also performs internal programming functioning like setting and resetting of the timer,
checking the user memory.

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3.4 Applications of PLC

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is an electronic device used in many industries to monitor and
control construction systems and production processes. Unlike PCs and smartphones, which are
designed to perform any number of roles, a PLC is designed to perform a single set of tasks, except in
the case of limitations in real time and with superior reliability and performance.

To meet the demands of rigorous industrial environments, PLCs are designed to be extremely robust,
often capable of withstanding extreme temperatures, humidity, vibration and electrical noise. The
logical controllers are commonly responsible for monitoring and controlling a large number of sensors
and actuators, and therefore are different from other computer systems in their extensive input /
output (I / O) arrangements.

PLC 's are used in several industries like petrochemical ,biomedical,cement manufacturing,oil and gas
sector etc.
Advantages of PLC in Automation:

• To reduce human efforts

• To get maximum efficiency from machine and control them with human logic
• To reduce complex circuitry of entire system
• To eliminate the high costs associated with inflexible, relay controlled systems.

Areas of application of PLC in automation:

• Manufacturing/machining
• Food/beverage
• Textile industry
• Travel industry
• Aerospace
• Printing industry
Disadvantages:
 Fixed circuit operation.
 PLCs manufacturers offer only closed loop architecture.
 PLCs are propitiatory, which means software and parts one manufacturer can’t be easily
used in combination with part of another manufacturer.
 Number of optional modules must be added to maximize flexibility and performance.

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3.5 PLC hardware (BASIC STRUCTURE OR (INTERNAL

ARCHITECTURE) OF A PLC SYSTEM)

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3.6 PLC programming

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3.7 Concepts
a. Relays:
Definition: The relay is the device that open or closes the contacts to cause the operation of the other
electric control. It detects the intolerable or undesirable condition with an assigned area and gives the
commands to the circuit breaker to disconnect the affected area. Thus protects the system from
damage.

Working Principle of Relay

It works on the principle of an electromagnetic attraction. When the circuit of the relay senses
the fault current, it energises the electromagnetic field which produces the temporary magnetic
field.

This magnetic field moves the relay armature for opening or closing the connections. The small
power relay has only one contacts, and the high power relay has two contacts for opening the
switch.

The inner section of the relay is shown in the figure below. It has an iron core which is wound by
a control coil. The power supply is given to the coil through the contacts of the load and the
control switch. The current flows through the coil produces the magnetic field around it.

Due to this magnetic field, the upper arm of the magnet attracts the lower arm. Hence close the
circuit, which makes the current flow through the load. If the contact is already closed, then it
moves oppositely and hence open the contacts.

Pole and Throw

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The pole and throws are the configurations of the relay, where the pole is the switch, and the
throw is the number of connections. The single pole, the single throw is the simplest type of
relay which has only one switch and only one possible connection. Similarly, the single pole
double throw relay has a one switch and two possible connections.

Construction of Relay

The relay operates both electrically and mechanically. It consists electromagnetic and sets of
contacts which perform the operation of the switching. The construction of relay is mainly
classified into four groups. They are the contacts, bearings, electromechanical design,
terminations and housing.

Contacts – The contacts are the most important part of the relay that affects the reliability. The
good contact gives limited contact resistance and reduced contact wear. The selection of the
contact material depends upon the several factors like nature of the current to be interrupted, the
magnitude of the current to be interrupted, frequency and voltage of operation.

Bearing – The bearing may be a single ball, multi-ball, pivot-ball and jewel bearing. The single
ball bearing is used for high sensitivity and low friction. The multi-ball bearing provides low
friction and greater resistance to shock.

Electromechanical design – The electromechanical design includes the design of the magnetic
circuit and the mechanical attachment of core, yoke and armature. The reluctance of the
magnetic path is kept minimum for making the circuit more efficient. The electromagnet is made
up of soft iron, and the coil current is usually restricted to 5A and the coil voltage to 220V.

Terminations and Housing – The assembly of an armature with the magnet and the base is
made with the help of spring. The spring is insulated from the armature by moulded blocks
which provide dimensional stability. The fixed contacts are usually spot welded on the terminal
link.

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Differences between Relays and PLC

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b. Contactor
An electrical contactor is a switching device, widely used for the switching of motors, capacitors (for
power factor correction) and lights. As the name indicates contactor is used to make or break contacts
as like an ordinary on-off switch. The only difference is that the contactors have an electromagnet that
holds the contacts when energized whereas switches do not have it.

The basic operation of a contactor is similar to that of a relay but contactor contacts can carry much
more current than relays. Relays cannot be directly used in circuits where the current exceeds 20
amperes. In such conditions, contactors can be used. Contactors are available in a wide range of ratings
and forms. Contactors are available up to the ampere rating of 12500A. Contactors cannot provide short
circuit protection but can only make or break contacts when excited.

The operating principle of a contactor is very simple. Whenever the electromagnetic coil is energized, an
electromagnetic field is produced. This electromagnetic field attracts the metallic rod (armature)
towards the gap in the hollow cylindrical magnet. In contactors with split electromagnets, the movable
half of the electromagnet is attracted towards the fixed electromagnet. This action closes the contacts.
The contacts remain closed as long as the electromagnet remains excited. When the coil is de-energized,
moving contact is pushed back to its normal position by the spring. Contactors are designed to open and
close contacts rapidly. Moving contacts may bounce as it rapidly makes contacts with the fixed contacts.
Bifurcated contacts are used in some contactors to avoid bouncing.

The input to the contactor coil may be AC or DC (available in various voltage ranges starting from
12Vac/ 12Vdc to 690Vac) or even universal. The universal coils are the ones that can operate on AC as
well as DC voltages. A small amount of power is drained by the contactor coil during its operation.
Economiser circuits are used to reduce the power consumed by the contactor during its operation.

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Contactors with AC coils have shading coils. Otherwise, the contactor may chatter every time the
alternating current crosses zero. Shading coils delay demagnetization of the magnetic core and avoids
chattering. Shading is not required in DC coils as the flux produced is constant.

c. SPST Switch
The Single Pole Single through (SPST) is a basic on/off switch that just connects or breaks the connection
between two terminals. The power supply to a circuit is switched by the SPST switch. A simple SPST
switch is shown in figure below.

These types of switches are also called toggle switches. This switch has two contacts one is input and
other output. From the typical light switch diagram, it controls one wire (pole) and it makes one
connection (throw). This is an on/off switch, when the switch is closed or on then current flows through
the terminals and the bulb in circuit will glow. When the switch is open or off then there is no current
flow in the circuit.

d. Push Button Switch

Push buttons, are the most common type of control devices found in industrial facilities. Almost all
industrial machines contain push buttons even if the facilities operation is to set to run automatically.
Typical push buttons are momentary meaning they are designed with a spring to keep the button
contacts open or closed at all times. Some push buttons are designed with a toggle action, once they are
set into a position it will require someone to pull or push on it to change its contact state.

Push buttons are simple single pole switches. They contain a set of contact plates that make or break
when activated by someone. All push buttons are made the same way, what gives them their special
characteristics or function is the legend plate and sometimes the operator or button head. The legend
plate surrounding the push button lets the user know the purpose of the control device, whether it is to
turn something on or off or move something up or down, it all depends on what the label is telling the
user of the push button to do. In some instances, the shape of the push button indicates its function.
For example, a push button in the shape of a mushroom and red in color informs the user that the
intention of the push button is to serve as an emergency stop, unlike a push button that is simply red to
indicate stop and/or green to indicate start.

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e. NO/NC concept
Normally Open Switch

State 0

When the switch has no information or a reading of ‘false’ or ‘0’ state,then no information can be
passed on to logic beyond it.You can see the gap keeps data from passing beyond.When this switch has
a state of ‘true’ or ‘1’ then it close and looks like this.

State 1

Looking at this switch we can see that data is now “connected” across the center an logic beyond it can
be computed.

Normally Closed Switch

This is the opposite of the normally open switch. When this switch has no information or a reading of
‘false’ or ‘0’ state,then the information can be passed on to logic beyond it. when this switch has a state
of true or ‘1’ then it opens looks like this.

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Outcome
1. Students will be able to apply the basics of PLC and its programming.

Self-Assessment Questions
1 Define PLC. With a neat block diagram elaborate the basic components of PLC.
2 With a neat Sketch demonstrate the Principles of operation of PLC in industries.
3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of PLC in industrial Automation?
4 Comment on how Relay and Contactor plays an important role in Industrial Automation.
5 Through some light on i) Analog I/O modules and ii) Digital I/O module.
6 Explain briefly PLC hardware components.
7 With an example explain the concept of NO/NC.
8 Define PLC and list out the applications of PLC in Automation?
9 Explain the steps involved in I/O processing.
10 With a proper block diagram explain the internal architecture of a PLC system.
11 Differentiate between Relay and PLC.
12 Write a note on
a. Relay
b. Contactor
c. SPST switch
d. Push button Switch
e. NO/NC concept

Self-study component:

Module 3: Recent Advances in Microcontrollers (Study on ABB, Delta Electronics, Rockwell Automation
and Mitsubishi Microcontrollers used for various time applications), PIC programming languages. Case
study on application of PLC in Hydraulics.

Further studies:

6. Frank D. Petruzella “Programmable Logic Controllers”, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

7. John w. Webb and Ronald A. Reis, “Programmable Logic Controllers”, PHI

MODULE 4: Overview and working principles of MEMS and

Microsystems

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MEMS & Microsystems, Typical MEMS and Microsystems products, Microsystems & Microelectronics,
Microsystems & miniaturization, Applications of MEMS in Industries,

Micro sensors: Acoustic wave, Biomedical and Biosensors, Pressure and Thermal sensor.

Micro actuation: Thermal forces and Shape memory alloys.

MEMS with Micro actuators: Micro motors and Micro valves.

Micro accelerometers, Micro fluidics

Objectives:

2. Students will be able to understand the working principles of MEMs and Microsystems.

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Outcome
2. Students will be able to apply the application of MEMs in solving real time problems.

Self-Assessment Questions
1 Define the following i) MEMS ii) Microsystems iii) Microelectronics iv) Miniaturization iv)
Micro actuator.
2 What are the applications of MEMS in industries?
3 Explain the differences between MEMS and Microsystems.
4 Through some light on typical MEMS and MICROSYSTEM products.
5 Differentiate between Microelectronics and Microsystems.
6 Write a note on Miniaturization.
7 Explain the following
a. Acoustic wave,
b. Biomedical and Biosensors,
c. Pressure and Thermal sensor
8 Explain the following a. Microgripper, b. Biotesting and analytical systems
9 Explain the following
a. Micro motors
b. Micro Valves
c. Micro Accelerometer
d. Micro Fluidics
10 Explain the following
a. Actuation using Thermal forces
b. Actuation using Shape-Memory alloys
Self-study component:

Module 4: MEMS for space application and bio-medical applications, Microelectronic Technology for
MEMS.

Further studies:

8. MEMS for space application and bio-medical applications, Microelectronic Technology for MEMS.
9. MEMS, Mahalik N. P., Tata McGraw Hill Publications-2007
MODULE 5: Materials for MEMS & Microsystems and their fabrication

Substrates and Wafers, Active substrate materials, Silicon as a substrate material, Silicon compounds,
Silicon Piezo resistors, Gallium Arsenide, Quartz, Piezoelectric Crystals and Polymers, Photolithography,
Diffusion and oxidation, Chemical and Physical vapor deposition, etching, Bulk micro manufacturing.

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Objectives:

3. Students will be able to understand the Materials used in MEMs and fabrication methods.

1. Introduction
The current microsystem fabrication techniques are closely related to those used in microelectronics.
Design of microsystems and their packaging, however, is significantly different from that for
microelectronics. Many microsystems use microelectronics materials such as silicon, and gallium
arsenide (GaAs) for the sensing or actuating elements. These materials are chosen mainly because they
are dimensionally stable and their micro fabrication and packaging techniques are well established in
microelectronics. However, there are other materials used for MEMS and microsystems products—such

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as quartz and Pyrex, polymers and plastics, and ceramics— that are not commonly used in
microelectronics.

1.1 SUBSTRATES AND WAFERS

The frequently used term substrate in microelectronics means a flat macroscopic object on which
microfabrication processes take place [Ruska 1987]. In microsystems, a substrate serves an additional
purpose: it acts as signal transducer besides supporting other transducers that convert mechanical
actions to electrical outputs or vice versa.

For example, pressure sensors that convert the applied pressure to the deflection of a thin diaphragm
that is an integral part of a silicon die cut from a silicon substrate. The same applies to micro actuators,
in which the actuating components, such as the micro beams made of silicon in micro accelerators, are
also called substrates. In semiconductors, the substrate is a single crystal cut in slices from a larger piece
called a wafer.

Wafers can be of silicon or other single crystalline material such as quartz or gallium arsenide.
Substrates in microsystems, however, are somewhat different.

There are two types of substrate materials used in microsystems:

(1) Active substrate materials and

(2) Passive substrate materials, as will be described in detail in the subsequent sections. Table 1.1
presents a group of materials that are classified as electric insulators (or dielectrics), semiconductors,
and conductors [Sze 1985]. The same reference

(Si), germanium (Ge), and gallium arsenide (GaAs) all fall in the category of semiconductors. One major
reason for using these materials as principal substrate materials in both microelectronics and
microsystems is that these materials are at the borderline between conductors and insulators, so they
can be made either a conductor or an insulator as needs arise. Indeed, the doping techniques that were
described in Chapter 3 can be used to convert the most commonly used semiconducting material,
silicon, to an electrically conducting material by doping it with a foreign material to form either p- or n-

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type silicon for conducting electricity. All semiconductors are amenable to such doping. Another reason
for using semiconductors is that the fabrication processes, such as etching, and the equipment required
for these processes have already been developed for these materials. Achecklist of factors that help the
designer in selecting substrate materials for microsystems is available in Madou [1997].

Table 1.1: Typical electrical resistivity of insulators, semiconductors, and conductors

1.2 ACTIVE SUBSTRATE MATERIALS

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1.3 SILICON AS A SUBSTRATE MATERIAL

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1.4 MEMS Fabrication processes

In past few years, advancements in fabrication technologies and state of the art measurement
instrumentation led to establishment of micro electromechanical system (MEMS). The one main
criterion of MEMS is that there are at least some elements having some sort of mechanical functionality
whether or not these elements can move. Micro-scale structures, devices, and systems frequently have
the specific applications such as high frequency filters, resonators, electromagnetic field and stress
sensors, etc. Micro-scale devices and systems will allow one to access the atomic scale phenomenon,
where quantum effects are prominent. The dimensions of MEMS and their components ranges from 100
nm to the centimetre range.

MEMS are touching every aspect of our lives as compared to semiconductor technology, information
technology, or cellular and molecular biology. These systems have played key roles in many important
areas e.g. transportation, communication, automated manufacturing, environmental monitoring, health
care, defence systems, and a wide range of consumer products. MEMS are inherently small which gave
them attractive characteristics such as reduced size, weight, and power dissipation and improved speed
and precision compared to their macroscopic counterparts. Recent fabrication technologies enable the

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definition of small geometries with dimension control, flexibility in designing, better interfacing with
microelectronics, repeatability, reliability, high yield, and low cost are the key parameters to develop
MEMS. Besides few special etching, bonding, and assembly techniques, integrated circuit (IC) fabrication
technology meets all the criteria required for MEMS fabrication. Conventional machining techniques are
not sufficient for MEMS fabrication, but microfabrication provides a powerful tool for batch processing
and miniaturization of electromechanical devices and systems. Depending upon the fabrication
technique used for fabrication, MEMS devices exhibit a length or width ranging from micrometers to
several hundreds of micrometers with a thickness from sub micrometer up to tens of micrometers. This
field has expanded to a great extent in recent years with rapid technology advances.

Introduction to fabrication technologies

The roots of most of the microfabrication techniques are embedded in standard fabrication methods
developed for the semiconductor industry. A clear understanding of these techniques is essential before
taking up the fabrication of MEMS. Thin film deposition, etching and VLSI micro fabrication disciplines
are among them.

Lithography

Lithography is the technique used to transfer a designed pattern onto a substrate. This pattern is
subsequently used to etch an underlying thin film for various purposes. Lithography using an ultra violet
(UV) light source is most widely used lithography technique in microelectronic fabrication. Electron-
beam (e-beam) and X-ray lithography are two other alternatives that have attracted considerable
attention in the MEMS and nanofabrication areas.

i. Photolithography: In micro fabrication techniques photolithography is the most

successful technology. Since its invention in 1959, it has been used in semiconductor
industry. All the essential components of ICs are made by this technology. The
photolithographic techniques used for fabricating microstructures are based on a
projection of UV rays through the mask designed using MEMS designing software onto
a thin film of photoresist that is spin-coated on a wafer through a high numerical aperture
lens system. Multi-layered structures can be achieved with the combination of accurate
alignment of a successive set of photo masks and exposure of these successive patterns.
Photolithography has matured rapidly by continuous improvements in the ability to

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resolve ever-smaller features. Figure shows the photolithography and pattern transfer
involving a set of process steps. Photolithographic process has its own specific
requirements, but there is a basic common flow of process that are common to most
procedures.

Fig: Process flow of basic photolithography followed by pattern transfer

ii. X-ray lithography: It is one of the forms of shadow printing process in which patterns
designed over the mask are transferred into a third dimension in a resist (PMMA)
material. This is a chemical process to dissolve volume of material damaged by the X-
rays. Parameters like beam exposure, precision of designed structure on mask, purity, and
processing of the resist material controls the quality remaining structure. The final
quality of the MEMS structure depends upon the precision of electroforming and micro-
molding processes. X-ray lithography process is classified as hybrid technology.
It’s bridging the semiconductor and classical manufacturing technology. The ability of
X-ray lithography for creating a wide variety of shapes from different materials makes
this method similar to classical machining, with the added benefit of high aspect ratios
and absolute tolerances that are possible using lithography and other high-precision mold
fabrication techniques.

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Fig: X-ray lithography schematic

iii. E-Beam Lithography (EBL): It is a specialized technique for creating the extremely
fine patterns with dimensions to the range in nanometer, required by the modern
electronics industry for ICs. It consists of scanning a beam of electrons across a surface
covered with a resist film sensitive to those electrons, thus depositing energy in the
desired pattern in the resist film. In this technique beam of electron formed and scanned
across the surface. The main attributes of this technology are capability of high resolution
to atomic level, flexibility to work with a variety of materials, it is slow as compared to
optical lithography, and it is very expensive technique.

The working principle of EBL is similar to conventional photolithography.

The patterns over the spin coated resist are created by the exposure of high energy
electron. The substrate usually requires conducting to prevent later electron charging. Then a
focused beam of electron is scanned across the sample for exposure. Photolithography is a
parallel process of exposure of light but EBL is serial process of exposure where a small beam
width is allowed at one time. Developing of the corresponding exposed region will make the
resist soluble (positive resist). The resulting patterned resist layer can serve as a mask for later
depositing or etching. Lift off process removes the resist mask and excess material on top of it to
obtain the final desired applicable devices.

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Fig: Schematic of EBL system

1.5 THIN FILM DEPOSITION

Thin film deposition techniques are used extensively in micro/nanofabrication technologies. The
deposited thin films have different properties than those of their corresponding “bulk” forms. The
techniques utilized to deposit these materials have a great impact on their final properties e.g. the inter
stress (compressive or tensile) in a film is strongly process dependent. Excessive stress may crack or
detach the film from the substrate and therefore must be minimized, although it may also be useful for
certain applications. In some deposition method an intermediate layer may be needed to improve
adhesion.

i. Evaporation technique: This is an oldest techniques used for depositing thin films but
still widely used in the laboratory and industries for depositing metal and metal alloys.
Steps taking place in thermal or vacuum evaporation:
a. vapor is generated by boiling or subliming a source material,
b. the vapor is transported from the source to the substrate, and
c. The vapor is condensed to a solid film.
Evaporants cover an extraordinary range of varying chemical reactivity and vapor
pressures.
ii. Glow-Discharge Technologies: This technique represents a high source of processes
used to deposit and etch thin films. Various methods developed from this technique for
thin film deposition are shown in Fig. 4.4. Sputtering and other ion assisted techniques
are essential for the fabrication of semiconductor devices and hardware resistant

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coatings. This method is defined as a partially ionized low pressure gas in a quasi neutral
state sustained by the presence of energetic electrons. This plasma is created due the
mass difference between the electron and the ions, which leads to the more rapid energy
transfer to the electron than ions. These high energy electrons have high probability of
causing ionization and excitation event when colliding with heavier particles. The
generation phenomenon of the particles and their interactions with surface and deposition
of thin films are the most important reasons why glow discharge plasmas have become of
such importance in material science.

Fig: Fabrication domains of thin film technology

iii. Gas-Phase Chemical Processes: Thermal oxidation and chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) are the two methods used for film formation by purely chemical processes in gas
or vapor phases. In CVD process of film deposition vapor of material reacts chemically
near or on a substrate surface to form a solid product. The main advantage of CVD is the
synthesis of simple and complex compounds with relative ease at low temperature.
Chemical as well as physical properties of the thin film can be tailored by controlling the
reaction chemistry and deposition conditions. Also parameters such as temperature,
pressure, input concentrations, gas flow rates, reactor geometry, and operating principle
determine the deposition rate and the properties of the film deposit.
iv. Liquid-Phase Chemical Formation: Electrochemical processes are used to grow
inorganic thin films from liquid phase by chemical reactions. These processes include
reduction plating, electroless plating, conversion coating, and displacement deposition.
Mechanical technique is another process categorized under liquid phase method. Also

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liquid phase epitaxy is still being used for growing a number of single-crystal. The
choice of deposition technique for thin films is application dependent. Various
parameters of thin films are considered before employing a specific technique of
deposition. Multiple layers of thin film of different material can be deposited for a large
variety of applications using various deposition systems. But contaminations issue are
accounted before passing sample from one to another.

1.5.1 DIFFUSION
The diffusion process is often used in microelectronics for the introduction of a controlled amount of
foreign materials (dopants) into the selected regions of another material (the substrate). Unlike ion
implantation, diffusion is a slow doping process.

Diffusion takes place at elevated temperatures.

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1.5.2 OXIDATION
Oxidation is a very important process will be used in both microelectronic and microsystem fabrication.
Materials for dielectric films involve ceramics those grown over the substrate's surface such as silicon
dioxide and silicon nitride.

Thermal oxidation

In micro fabrication, thermal oxidation is a way to produce a thin layer of oxide (usually silicon dioxide) on
the surface of a wafer. The technique forces an oxidizing agent to diffuse into the wafer at high temperature
and react with it. The rate of oxide growth is often predicted by the Deal–Grove model. Thermal oxidation may
be applied to different materials, but most commonly involves the oxidation of silicon substrates to produce
silicon dioxide.

In Thermal Oxidation process Furnace tube is preheated to 900~1200℃, O2 or H2O (steam): is blown into the
furnace and Timing, temperature, and gas flow rate: are strictly controlled.

Fig: Facility for thermal oxidation of silicon dioxide

Thickness of oxide:

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Thermal Oxidation Rate

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Chemical Vapor Deposition

Depositing thin films over the surface of substrates and other MEMS and microsystem
components is a common and necessary practice in micromachining.
Unlike the diffusion and thermal oxidation processes, deposition adds thin films to, instead of
consuming, the substrates.
In general, Low Pressure Chemical Vapor Depositions (LPCVD) provides a means for
depositing thick (>2 ).lm) Si02 films at temperatures much lower than thermal oxidation. An
advantage ofthe LPCVD process is that dopant gases can be included in the flow ofsource gases
in order to dope the as-deposited Si02 films.

Working Principle:

Involve the flow of a gas (called carrier gas) with diffused reactants, while the gas flows over the
hot solid surface, the energy supplied by the surface temperature provokes chemical reactions of
the reactants that form films. The by-products of the chemical reactions are then vented. In the
reactor, resistance heaters either surround the chamber (Fig. a) or lie directly under the susceptor
that holds the substrates (Fig. b).

Chemical Reaction in CVD

3 common thin films by CVD

(1) Silicon dioxide; (2) Silicon nitride; (3) Polycrystalline silicon.

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Physical Vapor Deposition – Sputtering

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Metallic films: required to supply electricity, or transmit the signals

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1.6 ETCHING PROCESS

Etching is another fundamental fabrication step which is very important in VLSI technology. In VLSI and
micro/nano fabrication various conducting and dielectric thin films deposited using mask must be
removed at some point or another. In addition to thin film etching in micro/nano fabrication sometimes
substrate also need to be removed in order to create various MEMS structures. Selectivity and
directionality are the important parameters in etching process. In case of isotropic etching, the etchant
attacks the material in all directions at the same rate. On the other hand in case of anisotropic etching,
the dissolution rate depends on specific directions. Semi-circular profile under the mask is obtained in
isotropic etching where as in case of anisotropic straight side walls and non-circular profile are obtained
shown in Fig.

Fig.: Profile for isotropic (a) anisotropic (b) Etch through a photoresist mask

Etching can be divided into two categories wet and dry etching.

i. Wet Etching: This is a superior technique as compared to dry method. Wet etching is
insensitively used in micro/nano fabrication, in spite of less frequent application in VLSI
fabrication processes. Various combinations of acids and base solutions are used to etch
metals. Also there are commercially available etchant formulations for aluminum,
chromium, and gold. In microfabrication anisotropic and isotropic wet etching of
crystalline (silicon and gallium arsenide) and non-crystalline (glass) substrates are very
important topics. The beginning of micromachining and MEMS discipline started with
the possibility of anisotropic wet etching of silicon. Since 1950s isotropic etching of
silicon using HF/HNO3/CH3COOH are being carried out to thin down the silicon wafer.
In bulk micromachining silicon anisotropic wet etching is an important technique.
Potassium hydroxide (KOH), ethylene diamine pyrochatechol (EDP), and tetramethyl

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ammonium hydroxide (TMAH) are three important silicon etchants in this category.
These etchant dissolve the silicon along preferred crystallographic direction.
ii. Dry Etching: Primarily these are plasma based techniques having several advantages as
compared to other methods. This method allows smaller lines to be patterned and high
aspect ratio in vertical structures. But the selectivity of dry etching techniques is lower
than the wet etching. Different mechanisms are applied to obtain directionality in three
basic dry etching techniques namely high pressure plasma etching, reactive ion etching
(RIE), and ion milling.

1.7 MICROMACHINING TECHNIQUES

MEMS fabrication techniques are commonly used to build various microdevices (microsensors and
microactuator). Micromachining technologies are recently developed for the fabrication of MEMS
devices. A greater interest is focused on the achievement of 3D sculptured surfaces and high aspect
ratios with complex fine shapes. The dimensional spectrum of the microstructures that can be
fabricated using these techniques ranges down to few micron. A wide variety of techniques which are
capable of creating micro/nano structures with various degrees of quality and speed are developed. In
this section various forms of micromaching techniques are discussed.

i. Bulk Micromachining: It is one the oldest and mature MEMS fabrication technology.
Also commercially most successful technique used to manufacture sensors and actuator.
The basic idea behind bulk micromachining is the selective removal of substrate, which
allows creating various micromechanical components such as beams, plates, and
membrane that can be used to fabricate a variety of sensors and actuators. Etching (wet
and dry) and substrate bonding are the important techniques used in bulk
micromachining. Figure shows the structure obtained using bulk micromachining with
back etching of substrate.

Fig: Wet chemical etching

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ii. Surface Micromachining: It is an important MEMS microfabrication technique used to

create movable microstructures on top of substrate. These structures are created by
deposition of thin film over sacrificial layer which is subsequently etched to obtain
movable micromechanical structures. Fabrication of small size structures are the main
advantage of this technique. It is relatively easy to integrate the surface micromachined
structures with on-chip electronics for increased functionality.

Fig: Surface micromachining process

Thin film deposition technique had improved in 1980s which revive the interest in surface
micromachining technology. In same decade polysilicon surface micromachining was introduced, which
opened the door to the fabrication of a variety of microsensors. The schematic of surface
micromachining process is shown in Fig. . Sacrificial layer is grown and patterned over the substrate. The
structural material is anchored to the opening created in the sacrificial layer. Finally the sacrificial layer
is removed, resulting in patterned microstructure.

iii. Laser Micromachining: This technique uses light radiation with high energy density as
a patterning tool and appears as efficient system for micromachining a wide range of
materials without any mechanical or chemical interaction shown in Fig. Short
wavelength lasers such as excimer and Nd:YAG diode are adopted for micromachining.
Excimer lasers have coherent characteristics and short wavelength, which allows the
beam to be exposed on the substrate surface with mask project method.

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Mechatronics & MEMS

Fig: Laser micromachining process

Large area machining for complex planar shapes can be obtained by moving mask as
well as the work piece. Polymer micromachining is possible with technique to realise
microholes, trenches, grooves, and patterns on the substrate with micro precision.
Nd:YAG diode lasers are short pulse, high repetition rate, diffraction limited beam
quality lasers, so harmonic generation are used to obtain double or triple wavelength
laser near IR, visible or UV region. These lasers are used in micromachining of different
materials.
iv. Micro Electro Discharge Machining: In this technique material is removed using
electrical discharge between conductive tool and material in micro electro discharge
machining. Electro thermal erosion creates small carters which are copied in the material
with a non-contact system. This technique can cut materials metals, semiconductor, and
conductive ceramics. Micro electro discharge machining is used to make micro drill with
micro milling approach with simple shaped tools.
v. Micro Ultrasonic Machining: In this technology ultrasonic vibration ranging from 30 to
40 kHz frequency are used by micro tools to create accurate holes in hard and brittle
materials like silicon, borosilicate glass, quartz, and ceramics. Micro ultrasonic
machining is a combination of wire electro-discharge grinding (WEDG) and on machine
masking method.

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Mechatronics & MEMS

Outcome
3. Students will be able to use different fabrication technics.

Self-Assessment Questions Marks

1 Justify how Silicon can be used as a substrate material for MEMS. 05
2 Write a note on Substrates and wafers. 08
3 Comment on Structure of a Silicon crystal. 05
4 Explain different types of Silicon compounds available. 08
5 Write a note on a. Silicon Piezo resistors, b. Gallium Arsenide, c. Quartz, d. 12
Piezoelectric Crystals
6 Through some light on applications of Polymers materials for MEMs and 08
MICROSYSTEM.
7 Explain the process of Photolithography with a neat sketch. 08
8 Explain the process of diffusion method of fabrication. 08
9 Explain different methods of Oxidation method of fabrication. 08
10 Explain the working principal of Chemical vapor deposition. 05
11 Explain the working principal of Physical vapor deposition. 05
12 Explain the concept of Bulk micromanufacturing. 08
13 Write a note on Piezoelectric Crystals and Polymers 08
Self-study component:

Module 5: Study on Ion implantation and The LIGA Process, Surface Micromachining.

Further studies:

10. MEMS for space application and bio-medical applications, Microelectronic Technology for
MEMS.
11. MEMS, Mahalik N. P., Tata McGraw Hill Publications-2007

Department of Mechanical Engg, DSCE, BENGALURU Page 225