REPRODUCTION

This is the production of a new generation of individuals of the same species. It’s one of the fundamental
characteristic of all living organisms. It involves the transfer of genetic material from one generation to
the next. There are two basic types of reproduction which are Asexual and Sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and there is usually no production of Gametes (sperm and
egg) while sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two gametes that divide into a Zygote and form an
organism.

HEREDITARY MATERIAL
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is the hereditary material in most organisms but in some it is Ribonucleic
Acid (RNA). DNA is made up of three main parts which are: a Phosphate (PO4), Five Carbon or
pentose Sugar and a Nitrogenous base to form a ladder like structure as shown below

The bases always pair as follows: Guanine (G) with Cytocine (C) and Thymine (T) with Adenine (A). If
thymine is replaced with Uracil (U), RNA is formed. A part of DNA that codes for proteins is known as a
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Gene. DNA is coiled up with the aid of proteins known as Histones to form Chromatin which in a
condensed form are called Chromosomes. Below are diagrams shows chromosomes and some of their
parts

Depending on the position of the centromere, chromosomes can be named as follows

The longer arm is called the p arm and shorter arm is called the q arm

PLOIDY
This is the set of chromosomes in an organism. In humans and most animals there are two sets of
chromosomes per cell, this is known as being Diploid and is given the symbol (2n). A few organisms
have one set of chromosomes and they are referred to as being Haploid (Symbol n). The gametes (sex
cells) in humans are haploid (n) Furthermore some organisms including plants have three and more sets
and are referred to as being Polyploidy. With this information let’s now look at the two main processes
by which Cells divide which are Mitosis and Meiosis. The diagram below shows the set of chromosomes
in humans. In humans which is 46 chromosomes. Chromosomes are divided into Sex chromosomes and
non sex chromosomes called Autosomes. The diagram below shows the chromosomes is known as a
Karyotype

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One chromosome is from the male parent and the other from the female parent. These two different
chromosomes that have similar information are called Homologous Chromosomes. The table below
shows some species and their diploid and haploid numbers

Species Diploid Number (2n) Haploid number (n)

Human being 46 23
Rat 40 20
Fruit fly 8 4
Onion 16 8
Tomato 24 12
Yeast 16 8
Sugarcane 80 40
Chicken 78 39
Dog 78 39

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MITOSIS
This is a type of cell division that results in the daughter cell having the same number of chromosomes as
the parent cell. In animals it occurs in the non-sexual cells known as Somatic Cells. It is important for
cell growth, cell repair and cell replacement. Mitosis has a preparatory phase known as Interphase in
which

 the cell grows/ increases in size

 DNA is loosely coiled as Chromatin

 DNA is copied such that the cell. The cell is now 4n. each chromosome from mum and dad each
have a sister chromatid

The following are the stages of mitosis

1. PROPHASE

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It is the longest phase during the division process. The chromatin becomes short and thickened now called
Chromosomes. Each chromosome has two sister chromatids that are held together by the Centromere.
The duplicated centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell, the microtubules or Spindle fibres radiate
from the centrioles. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate and disappear.

2. METAPHASE
The chromosomes line up alone the equator of the spindle or middle plate of the cell attached by the
centromere to the spindle fibres.

3. ANAPHASE
This stage is quick, the sister chromatids of a chromosome are pulled apart at the centromere to opposite
ends.

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 4. TELOPHASE
The chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin. The spindle fibres disintegrate and centrioles replicate. A
nucleus and nucleolus are form around each set of chromosomes.

CYTOKINESIS (Cell Division)

The cytoplasm is divided resulting into two daughter cells having the same number of chromosomes.
Differences between mitosis in plants and animals

Plant Animal
No centriole present Centrioles present
No asters form Asters form
Cell division involves formation of a cell plate Cell division involves furrowing and cleavage of
cytoplasm
Occurs mainly at meristems Occurs in tissues throughout the body

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SIGNIFICANCE/ IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS
I. Genetic stability: the parent cell has the same number of chromosomes as the daughter cell
II. Growth: the number of cells in a multicellular organism increase by mitosis
III. Cell replacement: replacement of cells and tissue is by mitosis. E.g. skin cells
IV. Regeneration: some animals are able to grow back some of their body parts. E.g. lizard tail
V. Asexual Reproduction: it is the basis of reproduction in some organisms such as bacteria.

MEIOSIS (meio, to reduce)

This is a form of nuclear division in which the chromosome number is halved from the diploid number
(2n) to the haploid number (n). like mitosis, DNA replication occurs in the interphase in the parent cell
which followed by two nuclear and cell divisions known as Meiosis I and Meiosis II. This results in four
haploid daughter cells. The process is summarized as follows

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The following are the phases involved in meiosis

MEIOSIS I
1. PROPHASE I
The chromatin becomes short and thickened now called Chromosomes. The homologous (duplicated
chromosomes from male and female) chromosomes pair up, this is known as Synapsis. The chromosomes
from the two parents have similar size and structure. Each pair is known as a Bivalent. Chromatids of
bivalents develop points of contact called Chiasmata. Each Chiasmata is a site of exchange between
chromatids. Genes may swap from one chromosome to the other leading to new gene combinations in the
resulting chromatids. This is known as Cross Over.

2. METAPHASE I
Bivalents arrange themselves along the equator attached to spindle fibres

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 3. ANAPHASE I
The homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of the cell. This separates the chromosomes
into two haploid sets.

4. TELOPHASE I
Chromosomes reach the poles and the nuclear membrane and nucleolus reforms. The chromosomes are
halved but each chromosome contains two sister chromatids. The chromatids are not genetically identical
because of cross over. In animals and some plants the chromatids uncoil and they enter interphase. In
many plants there is no telophase but they proceed directly to prophase II.

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MEIOSIS II: Similar to mitosis

INTERPHASE II
This stage is only present in animals
1. PROPHASE II
This stage is absent if interphase II is absent. The nuclear membrane disappears, centrioles move to
opposite ends and spindle fibres are formed.

2. METAPHASE II
Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle

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 3. ANAPHASE II
Sister chromatids are pulled apart at the centrioles to opposite ends by spindle fibres.

4. TELOPHASE
Chromatids reach the poles and the nuclear membrane and nucleolus reform. Four daughter cells are
produced

SIGNIFICANE/ IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS

1. Sexual Reproduction
It occurs in all organisms that carry out sexual reproduction. It prevents the doubling of chromosomes
when the gametes meet. It halves them then the number returns to the normal amount when the gametes
meet.
2. Genetic Variation
It provides opportunities for new combinations of genes to occur in the gametes. This is done by
A. Independent assortment of chromosomes in meiosis I: the chromosomes (Homologous) don’t
have fixed ways of aligning resulting in variation.
B. Crossing Over during prophase I: this results in new gene combinations
Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Two daughter cells are produced Four daughter cells are produced
Daughter cells are Diploid (2n) Daughter cells are Haploid (n)
Takes place in Somatic (body) cells for growth Takes place in reproductive organs leading to
gamete formation
No pairing of Homologous Chromosomes (no Homologous chromosomes pair up to form a
synapsis) bivalent at prophase I (synapsis occurs)
No Chiasmata therefore no cross over Chiasmata formed resulting in crossover
Process shorter and completed in one stage Process takes long and is completed in two stages

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 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
This is a type of reproduction that only involves one parent without the production of gametes. The
following are some categories of asexual reproduction:
A. Budding
B. Fission
C. Sporulation
D. Vegetative Propagation
E. Regeneration

BUDDING
This is the development of a bud which increases in size until it’s as large as the parent. An outgrowth
called a Bud may appear from the mature organism. The bud may become detached from the parent and
exist as a separate organism. It occurs in
Unicellular organisms: Yeast

Multicellular organisms: plants having stolons, rhizomes

Multicellular animals: pig tapeworm, flat worm

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FISSION
This is the division of the cell into two or more daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell. It is
common in unicellular (single celled) organisms liked Bacteria, and Protozoa (e.g. Amoeba and
Plasmodium). If two daughter cells are produced, it is called Binary Fission.

If more than two daughter cells are produced, it is called Multiple Fission.
SPORULATION
This is the development of spores by organism. The spores divide by mitosis to produce another
organism. The spores are spread by wind and water and they germinate when the conditions are favorable.
Sporulation occurs in fung such as Rhizopus and Mucor

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REGENERATION
This is the development of new tissue to replace missing parts. It occurs in worms, sugarcane and cassava.
The diagram below illustrates this in the flatworm Planaria.

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VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION OR VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
This is a form of asexual reproduction in which a bud grows and develops into a new plant. At some stage
the new plant becomes detached from the parent plant and leads and independent existence. The buds that
are usually found on a stem, this makes the specialized organs contain part of a stem. The specialized
organs are also known as Perennating Organs, examples are: Bulbs, Corms, Rhizomes and Tubers. It can
either be natural or artificial

A. NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

This type of propagation occurs naturally without man’s intervention. The following are the organs
involved
I. Bulb
It’s made up of fleshy leaves and a short stem. It has brown leaves that are from previous years after
nutrients have been removed. They have adventurous roots that grow from the tem than from the tap root.
E.g Onion, Garlic

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 II. Corm
It is a short, swollen and vertical underground stem. E.g. Crocus and Gladiolus. It’s a stem surrounded by
scale leaves, there are no fleshy leaves like bulbs. The scales are the remains of leaves from the previous
year. The roots are also adventurous. Each year contractile roots pull a new corm

III. Rhizomes
This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger, Iris. A rhizome has adventitious roots and buds
that can develop into new shoots at the nodes.

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IV. Stolon
It’s a creeping, horizontally growing stem that grows on the surface of the ground. E.g. Blackberry,
blackcurrant, gooseberry, redcurrant. The roots are adventurous growing from nodes

V. Runner
This is a type of stolon that grows rapidly. E.g. Strawberry, creeping buttercup. It has scale leaves and
auxillary buds and the auxillary buds give rise to new roots and plants.

VI. Tuber
It is a swollen underground storage organ from a stem or root, swollen with food and capable of
perennating. They survive for one year and shrivel as their contents are used during the growing year.
They are produced at the end of each growing season.

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STEM TUBERS
They are stem structures that are produced at the tip of thin rhizomes e.g. potatoes, sugarcane. Their stem
structure is revealed by the presence of auxillary buds. Each bud may grow into a new plant the next

growing season.

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ROOT TUBERS
These are swollen adventurous roots. E.g. cassava roots, sweet potato roots, beet roots. New plants
develop from auxillary buds at the ase of the stem.

Others are swollen tap roots. The tap root may become swollen with food storing tissue. E.g. carrot,
turnip, radish

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VII. Suckers
These are underground lateral branches of stems having terminal buds and adventitious roots e.g. bananas
and plantains.

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 B. ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
These involve the intervention of man and are used in Horticulture and Agriculture. Some examples are:
Cutting, Grafting and Layering.
I. Cutting
This is a procedure in which part of a plant is removed by cutting and placed in a suitable medium for
growth. It produces roots and grows into a new plants. For cuttings, stems are cut just below the node and
planted to produce new plants. This method is enhanced by applying rooting powder to stimulate
development of adventitious roots. Leaves are also removed from the stem to reduce the rate of
transpiration. If there is a cut end exposed to the air, it is coated with paint or another substance to reduce
water loss. Sugar cane and cassava can be propagated this way.

II. Grafting
It involves the transfer of one part of the plant, the Scion onto the lower part of another plant, the Stock.
The stock is the part whose aerial (upper) parts have been cut off and it provides an already established
root system that is responsible for absorbing water and mineral salts. The scion is the aerial part that bears
buds which later form the shoot. This is the part that has the desired stem, leaves, flowers or fruits. The
stock and scion are cut with complementary shapes that fit into each other before being tied together. The
method works well if the stock and scion have identical diameters. Roses can be propagated using this
method.

III. Budding
This a type of vegetative propagation where a bud is used as scion and the bark of an entire plant used
as a stock. The bud is cut in such a way that it has some cambium. A T-shaped cut is made in the scion

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reaching up to the cambium. Then the bud (scion) is inserted into the T-shaped part of the stock in such a
way that the cambium from the two parts is in contact. The two parts are tied together and sealed with
wax, leaving the bud exposed. The wax prevents excessive transpiration. Citrus fruits can be propagated
using this method.

IV. Layering
It is used for plants that produce runners such as strawberries. The runners are pegged up (layered) the
parent plant until they root and are then cut to detach them from the parent plant. The involved in layering
are:
o Removing a ring of bark from a low-lying branch of plant to expose the cambium
o Covering the wounded part of the branch with moist soil to stimulate the development of
adventitious roots.
o Separating the branch from the parent plant once it has developed new roots and shoots.

PARTHENOGENESIS
This is a special kind of reproduction that is not asexual or sexual. It is the development of offspring from
unfertilized eggs. The parthenogenic eggs are diploid (XX) unlike other eggs which are haploid (X).
Parthenogenesis occurs in aphids, bees and other social insects. In bees, the Drones (males) and Queen
develop from fertilized eggs while numerous unreproductive workers develop from unfertilized eggs.

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Importance of fungi and bacteria
1. Decomposition of organic matter and nutrient recycling.
2. They have Disease causing effects e.g. Ringworm and Bacillary dysentery.
3. They are used in the Production of alcohol

Advantages of asexual reproduction

1. The offspring are genetically similar to the parent therefore the desires qualities in the
parents are retained
2. The offspring take a short time to mature
3. It’s a sure method of reproduction since it is independent of processes like pollination,
fertilization and dispersal
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction
1. Undesirable qualities are retained in the offspring
2. Faster development of offspring may result in overcrowding and competition
3. There is no exchange of genetic material hence no occurrence of variation. This results in
reduced hybrid vigor over a period of time.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is the production of offspring by fusion of two gametes to form a diploid
zygote which develops into a mature organism. The act of fusion is called Fertilizations. Gametes
are usually of two types, male and female but in some primitive or simple organisms they only
contain one type.
Advantages of Sexual Reproduction
1. The mixing of genetic material during fertilization causes variation
2. Variations results in increased hybrid vigor or adaptability of an individual to its
environment
Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction
1. Depends on certain processes like pollination and fertilization that may fail due to lack of
suitable agents
2. Individuals with disadvantageous variations may be produced

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
The reproductive organs of Flowering Plants (Angiosperms) are the flowers. They are produced
at the terminal of the main meristimatic shoot or any lateral shoot. Plants that contain both the
male and female parts they are also known as being Bisexual or Hermaphrodites. The gametes
(pollen and Ovum) are produced by meiosis in a process known as Gametogenesis. The transfer
of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma is known as Pollination. They fuse to form a
zygote which divides by mitosis to grow into a separate plant. The male parts of a flower are
collectively called the Androecium which comprise of stamens and the female part called the
Gynoecium which comprises of Carpels. Below is a diagram showing a flower and some of its
parts

Parts of a flower and their functions

1. Calyx
It’s found on the outside and consists of green modified leaves that protect the buds
2. Corolla
Brightly colored petals (4 concentric rings are called Whorls) that attract pollinators. Corolla is
the name for a collection of petals, they are usually large and brightly colored to attract insects.in
wind pollinated flowers they may be small, green or even absent.
3. Carpel or Pistil
It is made up of an elongated structure called the Style, at the bottom of the style is a swollen
portion called the Ovary. When the pollen grain germinates, the pollen tube grows down the
style to the ovary. The ovary contains the female gametes (ovules) and after fertilization the
ovary develops into a fruit. At the top of the style is a knob like structure called the Stigma. The
stigma is a sticky surface on which pollen grains are received during fertilization. The ovary
style and stigma are collectively called the Pistil.

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 4. Stamen
It’s the male part of the flower that is made up of an Anther and a Filament. The anther
contains pollen sacs were the male gamete (pollen) is produced. The filament hold the anther
and it contains vascular bundles that carry food and water to the anther.
5. Calyx
This is a collection of sepals. They are usually green and leaf like structures that protect flower
buds.
6. Receptacle
It’s found at the base of the flower and it supports all the flower parts
7. Nectary
It is found at the base of the ovary or on top of the receptacle and produces a sugary solution
called Nectar. Insects visit the flowers to drink or collect this nectar.

TYPES OF FLOWERS
A. Hypogynous
It has the stamen and corolla emerge from below the ovary
B. Epigynous
It has the stamen and corolla emerge from above the ovary
C. Perigynous
It has the stamen and corolla emerge from around the receptacle
Some important terms
1. Hermaphrodite (bisexual) Plants: the male and female organs present in the same
flower the same plant
2. Monoecious Plants: separate male and female flowers are separate on the same plant.
E.g. maize
3. Dioecious (Unisexual) Plant: the male and female organs are on separate plants. E.g.
pawpaw

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POLLINATION
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma. There are two types of
pollination which are Self-Pollination and Cross pollination. Self-pollination involves the
transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma on the same plant while cross pollination
involves the transfer of pollen grain from plant to the anther on a different flower. Self-
pollination results in no genetic variation whereas cross pollination results in genetic variation.
Below are some characteristics that promote cross pollination
I. Protandry. This is a condition in which the Stamen maturing earlier than the carpel
preventing self-pollination
II. Protogyny: This is a condition in which the Carpel maturing earlier than the stamen
preventing self-pollination
In self-pollinated flowers the stamens are short compared to the pistils. In self-pollinated flowers
the anthers and stigma mature at the same time, a phenomenon called Dichogamy. The stamen
of self-pollinated flowers face upwards while those of cross pollinated flowers face downwards.
Disadvantages of Self-Pollination
 Undesirable characteristics may be transmitted to the offspring
 They may produce seeds that are not viable (may not germinate)
 Sterile seeds may be produced
 It’s a form of inbreeding which may result in loss of resistance to pathogenic and
deficiency diseases
Disadvantages of Cross Pollination
 It’s difficult to maintain a pure breed
 In places where there are long distances between species , pollination may not occur
Some of the pollinating agents are water, wind and Animals (insects, birds, bats, etc.).

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INSECT POLLINATED FLOWERS OR ENTOMOPHILOUS FLOWERS

The following are the features or adaptations of insect pollinated flowers

 Petals are brightly colored to attract insects
 Flower is usually scented to attract insects
 Produce nectar. Insects brush pasted anthers as they get to the nectaries which sticks to
their bodies. The pollen will be picked as they visit other flowers
 Flowers are large in order to be seen by insects
 Few pollen grains are produced which are large, heavy and have hooks making them
sticky, this enables them to stick to insect bodies
 The stigma is sticky to allow pollen to stick to them
 The corolla is tube shaped to enable insects to land
 The stigma is enclosed in the flower
 The stamen is enclosed in the flower
 They have small anthers that are firmly attached to the filament

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WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS OR ANAEOMOPHILOUS FLOWERS

The following are the features or adaptations of Wind pollinated flowers

 Petals are not brightly colored, they may be green, brown or generally dull in color
 Flower is not scented
 They don’t produce nectar
 The flowers are usually small in size
 Pollen grains are produced in large quantities which are small, light and smooth. This
enables them to be easily carried by the wind
 Stigma are long and feathery to trap pollen that is floating in air
 Stigma project out of the flower to trap floating pollen
 Stamen hang outside the flower
 Large anthers are attached to flexible filaments

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 DEVELOPMENT OF POLLEN GRAINS AND OVULES
Pollen Grains
Each anther contains four Pollen sacs that produce pollen. Each sac has pollen mother cells that
divide by meiosis to form four pollen grains. The filament contains vascular bundles that supply
nutrients and water

The pollen grains have an outer wall called an Exine which is mainly made up of tough
substances like Suberin and cutin making the pollen gain water proof. This enables the pollen
grain to survive harsh conditions for a long period of time. The fully formed grain is called a
microspore. The pollen grain nucleus divides by mitosis to form a Generative nucleus and a
Pollen tube Nucleus

Ovules
Ovules are female gametes that develop in the ovary. In the ovary they are attached to the ovary
wall by short stalks or Funicles called the Placenta. Food and water reach the ovules throw the
funicles. The main body of the ovule is called the Nucellus and it is enclosed or protected by two
sheaths or integuments. An opening (hole) in the sheaths is present called a Micropyle which
serves as an entry point for the pollen tube nucleus. The nucellus has a diploid mother cell called
Embryo Sac Mother cell which divides by meiosis to produce four haploid cells (Megaspores)
of which only one develops the other disintegrate. This forms an embryo sac which grows and
the remaining nucleus undergoes mitosis until eight nuclei are produced (four at each end). One
of these nuclei is the female gamete and the other nuclei are called polar Nuclei.

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Two nuclei migrate to the center of the embryo sac to form a single diploid nucleus. Of the
remaining six, only the female gamete seems to serve a function and the other five eventually
disintegrate.
FERTILISATION
This is the fusion of the male gamete which is the pollen grain with the female gamete which is
the Ovule. When the pollen grain lands on the stigma, a sucrose solution is released by the
stigma cells which stimulates germination of the pollen and supplies it with food. A tube grows
down the style which is controlled by the tube nucleus of the pollen grain. Chemicals lead the
tube towards the ovule. During growth of the tube, the generative nucleus divides by mitosis to
produce two male nuclei. The tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and the tube nuclei
disintegrates. One male nucleus fuses with the female gamete forming a diploid zygote and the
other fuses with the diploid female nucleus forming a Triploid nucleus known as the Primary
Endosperm Nucleus. This double fertilization is unique (only) to plants which leads to two
structures been found in the seed which are the Embryo and Endosperm (for food storage).
Several pollen grains enter the ovary and each fertilizes one ovule.
Development of the seed and fruit
Immediately after fertilization the ovule becomes known as the Seed and the ovary as the Fruit.
A seed contains an embryo (plumule and radicle) and nutrients are stored in the endosperm for
monocots and Cotyledon for dicot plants. The seed is enclosed is a tough protective coat called
the Testa. The micropyle remains as a small hole in the testa through which water and oxygen
enter during germination. The final stage of seed development involves the reduction of the
water content which reduces the chances of metabolic activities. The mature ovary is called a
fruit.
A fruit usually consists of three parts which are the: Exocarp, Mesocarp and Endocarp which
are collectively form the Pericarp (Ovary wall).

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Classification of fruits
Fruits can be classified as True or false fruits and Simple or Compound Fruits.
TRUE AND FALSE FRUITS
True fruits develop only from the ovary but false fruits also have other flower parts being
involved in the formation of the fruit. E.g. in a false fruit the receptacle becomes part of the fruit.
Example; apple fruits and strawberries.

Simple Fruits
These are fruits formed from fertilized Ovaries of a single flower. They have a pericarp, seeds
and two scars. They form the largest group of fruits and are divided into Dry and Fleshy fruits
depending on the nature of the pericarp. Fleshy Simple Fruits are those with soft, juicy and
cellular tissues. Most of them bear seeds and they are divided into Pomes, Drupes and Berries.

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Pomes

They are simple fruits whose outer portions are formed by the floral parts surrounding the
ovaries. E.g. pears, Quince and Apples. The seeds are embedded at the core with a fleshy
pericarp and they possess more than one seed.
Drupes

These are fruits whose seeds are contained in hard pits or stones surrounded by a softened pulpy
flesh. The Exocarp is thin skinned, the Mesocarp contains fleshy and fibrous tissues whereas a
hard endocarp covers the seed. E.g. mango, Peach and Coconut.

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Berries
They have simple fruits having peels surrounding the seeds in the fleshy pulp. The pericarp of
berries is completely fleshy. Some berries have a thick Exocarp called the Rind.

Berries are divided into two groups which are the Hesperidium and Pepos. In some groups there
are fruits with a leathery Exocarp. E.g sweet orange, lemon
Hesperidium are mainly oranges. The seeds are arranged in a circular manner within the the
Mesocarp. Pepos are formed from inferior ovaries e.g water melon and musk melon. They have
thin pericarps and their seeds are scattered all over a thick Mesocarp.
DRY FRUITS
These are fruits whose endocarp and Exocarp usually fuse together when the fruits are mature.
They are divided into Dehiscent and Indehisent fruits. Dehiscent fruits are those fruits which

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open to release seeds. E.g. peas and beans. Dry fruits that do not open are referred to as
Indehiscent. E.g. Chestnut, Beech, Oak, Mukwa and Mupundu.
The Caryopsis
This is a small and dry fruit within a membranous pericarp which is closely fused to the seed
coat. E.g. maize and most grass seeds.

COMPOUND FRUITS
These develop from a collection (Cluster) of ovaries. Compound fruits are grouped in to
Aggregate Fruits and Multiple Fruits. Aggregate fruits are formed from several flowers which
form a cluster of ovaries. E.g. raspberry and blackberry. Multiple fruits from a cluster of flowers
on the same branch or stem .e. g. pine apple and Ficus (fig).

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FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL
The importance of dispersal is that
 it reduces overcrowding causing competition for nutrients and light.
 Dispersal also enables the offspring to grow in different areas colonizing new areas
 Seed survival is higher away from the parent than near the parent. Pathogens may target
the seeds that are close by
The main methods of dispersal are: Animal, Wind, Water and Self/ Chance Dispersal.
Animal Dispersal
Examples of plants dispersed by animals are: mango, avocado, Black jack, guava. They have
hard endocarps which are thrown away after eating the other fruit parts. The endocarps are too
hard to be broken down by enzymes. The fruits are eaten by humans, monkeys, bats and birds.
The following are the features/ characteristics of fruits dispersed by animals
 Hard endocarps making them indigestible by enzymes
 Presence of hooks which make them stick to the fur or hair of animals

 Attractively colourful pericarp or seed coat (fruits) to attract animals

 Scented fruits to attract animals
 Presence of fleshy part of the fruit that is digestible
Wind Dispersal
Seeds and fruits that are dispersed by the wind are are usually small or light in weight so that
they easily float in air. Examples are: Dandelions, milkweed seeds, African tulip, sycamore, old
man’s beard, acer, mukwa, etc. other characteristics or features of wind dispersed seeds or fruits
are
 Some have wing-like structures or hairs to increase the surface area to allow floating

CHINKOLISED 35
  Some fruits split open when swayed by the wind releasing its seeds. This is called the
Censor mechanism. it can be found in poppy and prim rose capsules

Self-Dispersal/ Explosion Dispersal/ Self Mechanism

The fruit ejects the seeds with external assistance. It is common in legumes, in which the pods
dry up making the two halves to curl back and release the seeds with force. The seeds are flicked
some distance away from the parent plant reducing crowding which could cause competition for
nutrients or resources.

Water Dispersal
Fruits or seeds are carried away from the parent plant by water. E.g. Coconut, lotus, water lily,
etc. The following are some of the features of the fruits
 They have a lot of air spaces to help them easily float
 They are light with a waterproof seed coat
 The Mesocarp is fibrous for buoyancy
Seed Dormancy
This is the inactivity of a seed until conditions are favorable for it to germinate.

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 REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
All vertebrates (animals with back bones) reproduce sexually. This involves the production of
Gametes/ Sex cells by Gonads/ sex organs. The gametes fuse during fertilization to form a
zygote that develops into a living organism. Internal fertilization occurs in the female while
external fertilization occurs out of the female. When fertilization and development of the zygote
occurs in the female, it is known as Vivipary and such mammals are Viviparous. In animals
were development of the zygote occurs outside the mother’s body is known as being Oviparous.
Reproduction in a Frog

Frogs spend their early stages of life in water and most of their adult land on land. Their
reproduction is influenced by external factors such as the presence of water and adequate food.
This is because the eggs don’t have a protective shell. Their eggs are in a jelly like substance and
are called Frogspawn, unless the eggs are covered in water they may die.
Frogs exhibit external fertilization and some species can lay up to 20,000 eggs at a time. The
eggs hatch into tadpoles in a few weeks under water. The tadpoles live exclusively in water and
breathe through gills instead of lungs like an adult frog. They use their tails for swimming and a
small mouth for eating algae.
The tadpole is transformed through metamorphosis into an adult. The tail and gills disappear
while legs and lungs appear. Depending on the species, it takes a few weeks to a year or more for
tadpoles to grow into an adult. Most baby frogs grow without help from their parents. Some
frogs protect their offspring inside their bodies.
BIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT IN HUMANS
Sexual reproduction can only take place once an individual reaches Puberty. Puberty is the stage
of physical changes during which a child’s body matures into an adult, capable of sexual
reproduction. The Hypothalamus releases the Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH),
CHINKOLISED 37
which then directs the Anterior Pituitary to secrete the Gonadotropins, Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Interstitial Stimulating Hormone (ICSH).
They are called gonadotropins because they act on the male and female gonads, and they
support gametogenesis, in part by stimulating sex hormone production. The primary
characteristic is the development of the gonads to maturity by the hormones released by the
pituitary glands causing the gonads then begin to release sex hormones. The main sex hormones
are steroid hormones. They consist of Androgens, principally testosterone; Oestrogens,
principally estradiol and Progesterone. Males and females differ in their blood concentrations
of particular hormones. Testosterone levels are roughly ten times higher in males than in
females. In contrast, estradiol levels are about ten times higher in females than in males; females
also produce more progesterone.
In girls FSH stimulates ovaries to produce Oestrogen and progesterone. Oestrogen that is
released from the ovaries is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
The ovary begin to produce ova (eggs), which leads to the first menstruation also known as
Menarche. At first its irregular and unpredictable but as the hormones stabilize within the year
it becomes more regular. In some pains may be experienced due to the hormone progesterone
which causes the uterine muscles to contract.
In boys the FSH stimulates production of sperm from the germinal epithelium while the LH
brings about secretion of testosterone hormone by interstitial cells in the testes. FSH Stimulates
Sperm production by stimulating Sertoli cells to complete development of spermatozoa from
spermatids. LH Stimulates the release of testosterone by Leydig cells (interstitial cells) of the
testis, it is now known as Interstitial Stimulating Hormone (ICSH). Testosterone is a hormone
that is made from cholesterol it stimulates the germinal epithelial cells for sperm formation to
start the sperm formation process. The first sign of puberty is ejaculation which is the release of
semen from the penis. Testosterone is responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics in
boys
The table below shows some of the secondary sexual characteristics in boys and girls
Females Males
Hair grows in the armpits and pubic region (at Hair grows in the armpits and pubic region (at
about 10 -12 years) about 12 -14 years)
Skeleton and muscles grow causing an Skeleton and muscles grow causing an
increase in height increase in height. Usually more than females
Skin becomes oiler and pimples may develop Skin becomes oiler and pimples may develop
Breasts start to grow and develop (about 10- Beards start to grow (about 15-16 years) and
12 years) and are fully developed by 17 years the voice gets deeper as the voice box
enlarges
The pelvic girdle widens changing the shape Shoulders broaden
of the pelvis
Body fat is redistributed and increases in hips, Muscles grow and become more pronounced
thighs and breasts
The vagina grows in size Scrotum, Penis and Testis enlarge

CHINKOLISED 38
 The ovaries start to produce ova resulting in Testis begin to make sperm cells
the menstrual cycle

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The function of the male reproductive unit is to produce the gametes (sperm cells) and to deliver
the gametes into the female. The diagram below shows the parts of the male reproductive system

The following are the functions of the various parts of the male reproductive system
The Testis
They are responsible for the production of the male gametes (sperm cells or Spermatozoa) and
release of testosterone. Each testis is found outside the body in in a sac of skin called the
Scrotum. The testis are found outside to ensure efficient sperm production, this is because a
slightly lower body temperature is needed for sperm production. The high temperature reduces
the lifespan of the sperm cells. The testis contain tightly coiled tubes known as seminiferous
tubules. The outer walls of the seminiferous tubules have germinal epithelial cells that divide
beginning the sperm development process known as Spermatogenesis. This process occurs
inside the seminiferous tubules. All nutrients and waste’s exchanged inside the seminiferous
tubules and blood vessels pass through the Sertoli cells that are also found in the seminiferous
tubules. The testis are supplied with blood by the Spermatic Cord which comprises of a vein,
artery and vas derens. Other specialized cells found between the seminiferous tubules are the
Interstitial Cells that produce Testosterone.

CHINKOLISED 39
The Germinal or Primordial Cells divide by mitosis to give rise to cells that are known as
Spermatogonia. The spermatogonia increase in size and become Primary Spermatocytes. The
Primary Spermatocytes divide by the first meiotic division (meiosis I) resulting in two cells that
are called the Secondary Spermatocytes. The secondary spermatocytes complete the meiotic
division (now Meiosis II) with each secondary spermatocyte division resulting into two cells
haploid called Spermatids. The process is summarized below

The sperm cells are extremely small cells. They contain an acrosome that contain hydrolytic
enzymes which are involved in penetration of the egg wall before fertilization. The middle part is
enlarged by the presence of mitochondria for energy to be used when swimming with the tail.
The last part is the tale which is used for swimming. The tail though are only activated when the
sperm cells are in the vagina. The sperm cells are the moved to the epididymis by peristalsis.
CHINKOLISED 40
Below is a diagram of a sperm cell

The are some of the adaptation of the sperm cell

It has long whip-like tail to use for swimming, the sperm cells are produced in large number to
ensure fertilization occurs, the middle part has mitochondria that provide energy when
swimming, they have a large nucleus which enables it to carry a lot of genetic information and
lastly the acrosome at the head has enzymes that breakdown the wall of the egg or ovum.
The Epididymis
It is a site for temporal storage of the sperm cells. The epididymis is a very coiled tube about 6
meters that is pressed against the testis. The sperm are concentrated here to about 5000 million
per cm³. The sperm cells in spite having the ability to swim are inhibited until after ejaculation.
The Vas deferens or Sperm duct
This is a muscular tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra. Before reaching the
urethra some special glands called the Accessory Glands (Prostate, Cowper’s and Semininal
vesicle) add certain materials to the moving sperm cells
The Seminal Vesicle
They secrete mucus and an alkaline fluid that contains nutrients, including the sugar fructose
which is a source of energy for the sperm cells. It empties its content into the ejaculatory duct
during ejaculation of sperm. Other chemicals in the fluid also cause peristaltic movement of the
lining of the uterus and fallopian tube which move the sperm towards the ovaries.
The Prostate Gland
It also secretes mucus and an alkaline fluid during ejaculation that help neutralize the acidity of
the vagina

CHINKOLISED 41
Cowper’s Glands
These also secrete mucus and an alkaline fluid into the urethra. The alkaline fluid neutralizes the
acid of any remaining urine.
The Penis
It is part of the reproductive system and urinary system. It has a urethra in which urine and
semen flow. It has erectile tissue which when a male is sexually excited it fills up which blood
making the penis erect and easily inserted in the vagina. The tip- of the penis is called the glans,
it has a lot of nerve ending and is easily stimulated by friction which leads to ejaculation. The
foreskin or Prepuce covers the glans and is removed during circumcision.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The functions of the female reproductive system are: the production of female gametes in the
ovaries, deliver the Ova to the oviducts where fertilization may occur, prepare the uterus wall for
implantation and produce the female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone. The diagram
below shows the parts of the female reproductive system

The following are the functions of the various parts of the female reproductive system
The ovaries
There are two ovaries in the mammalian female located on the left and right side of the uterus.
They are suspended in the abdominal cavity or area by ligaments. They are sites where the
CHINKOLISED 42
female gametes known as Eggs or Ova are produced. The ovaries are also responsible for the
secretion of oestrogen and progesterone. The female is born with a lot of eggs (as many as
1000) but they are paused at the metaphase of cell division. The germinal epithelium are
stimulated to release the eggs by gonadotropins (FSH) from the pituitary gland.
The process of development resulting in the formation of an ovum or egg is known as
Oogenesis. The outermost layer of the ovary is composed of germinal cells from which the
female gamete cells are produced. The germinal cells divide by mitosis to produce Oogonia
cells. The Oogonia are surrounded by nurse cells and it is now called a Follicle, the cell is now
called the Primary Follicle/ Oocyte. About two million of these follicles exit the female just
before birth, meiosis I occurs resulting into Secondary Oocyte and a smaller cell called the first
Polar Body or Polocyte. The secondary oocyte and first polar body complete meiosis II
resulting in two secondary polar body’s from the first polar body and a second polar body and
the ovum from the secondary oocyte. This results in a total of three small second polar body’s
and one large Ovum. The resulting polar bodies disintegrate leaving only the ovum. During a
woman’s fertile years (from puberty to 45years) one primordial follicle matures every 28 days
(approximately every one month) release an Ovum. The release of an egg is called Ovulation.
Oogenesis results in one functional ovum while spermatogenesis results in four functional
sperm cells. The oogenesis process is summarized by the diagram below

CHINKOLISED 43
The menstrual Cycle
This is the cycle involving the release of a female gamete or egg and secretion of hormones. The
aim of the menstrual cycle is to prepare a favorable environment for the development of the
foetus. Each cycle repeats about every 28 days. In females, the hormones are not released
constantly but also in cycles.
If fertilization does not occur, the uterus lining called the endometrium breaks down and is
shed as a discharge through the vagina. This is called Menstruation or Period and it may last
for about 4 to 5 days. The menstrual cycle starts on the first day of menstruation. The menstrual
cycle is broken into three main phases which are
1. The Follicular Phase
The FSH hormone from the pituitary gland stimulate the development of follicles in the ovaries
with only one follicle completing the development. The follicle releases oestrogen which rapidly
increase in the first half of the cycle. The oestrogen stimulates the repair and development of the
uterus lining and stimulates the pituitary gland to decrease the secretion of FSH.
2. The Ovulatory Stage
At the mid-point of the cycle, oestrogen have built up to a high level which triggers the release of
the luteinizing hormone (LH). LH stimulates the release of the ovum which is known as
Ovulation. The ovum is released and passes into the Fallopian tube or Oviduct. The ovum has its
nucleus paused at Metaphase I stage of Meiosis. Ovulation marks the midpoint of the cycle at
about 14 days.
3. Luteal Stage
The remaining part of the follicle is stimulated by LH to develop into the Corpus luteum
(yellow body). The corpus luteum continues to secrete oestrogen at a decreased amount but with
an increased amount of the hormone Progesterone. Progesterone stimulates the uterus to
maintain the thick uterus lining and to stimulate the pituitary gland to decrease the release of LH.
The release of progesterone is usually associated with the rise in body temperature of the female
just after ovulation. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum starts to breakdown, this
leads to the decline in the levels of oestrogen and progesterone and the inhibition of FSH is
removed. The decline in oestrogen and progesterone levels results in the uterus endometrium
lining breaking down and being shed with the unfertilized egg. This starts the menstrual cycle
again. The diagram below shows the various stages of the follicle development and the
menstrual cycle

CHINKOLISED 44
Stages of follicle development

The menstrual cycle

Menopause is when the menstrual cycle no longer occurs at approximately 45 years in women.

CHINKOLISED 45
The Fallopian Tube or Oviduct
These are two muscular tubes about 12 cm long and carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.
The cilia beat while the muscles contract and relax causing a peristaltic movement. This is the
place where fertilization occurs to form the zygote. If the egg isn’t fertilized, it still moves to the
uterus.
The Uterus or Womb
It’s a hollow muscular organ with the shape and size of an inverted pear. It’s about 7.5 cm long
and 5.0 cm wide. The outer layer of the uterus called the Myometrium contains smooth muscles
that contract strongly during child birth. The inner layer called the Endometrium contains
glands and many blood vessels. The fertilized egg implants itself in the thickened endometrium.
The uterus grows as the foetus grows and it quickly shrinks immediately after giving birth.
The Cervix
This is the narrow entrance to the uterus from the vagina. It is normally closed by a plug of
mucus and a ring of muscles. The mucus is thinner on in the first part of the menstrual cycle,
allowing the entry of sperm into the uterus. Progesterone causes the mucus to become thicker in
the second half of the cycle. During pregnancy it is closed but opens up during delivery. Sperm
survive in the female for 1-3 days but are only highly fertile for 12-24hrs.
The Vagina or Birth Canal
This is a muscular tube about 8-10 cm long whose walls contain elastic tissue. It stretches during
child birth to allow passage of the baby and during intercourse the penis is inserted in it. It opens
to the outside through the Vulva. During menstruation, the menstrual flow exits through the
vagina as well. The clitoris is a small structure which is equivalent and like a penis when erect.
Fertilization
This is the fusion of the male and female gametes to form a zygote. It occurs in the female’s
body in the oviduct, it is therefore Internal Fertilization. The introduction of theof sperms in the
female’s reproductive tract is called copulation or sexual intercourse.
Erection of the penis occurs because of increased blood flow in the erectile tissue. This causes
friction against the vaginal walls this stimulates the sensory cells at the penis. This causes the
sphincter muscles of the bladder to close. Eventually peristaltic movement in the testis causes the
man to Ejaculate in to the vagina which marks the climax of copulation. The about 50 -200
sperm cells in a single ejaculation. In both males and females it is associated with climax.
Lubrication is important during copulation, mucus is released for the purpose of lubrication. In
females the ova dies if not fertilized between 8-24hrs after ovulation. However sperms live up to
72hrs after being deposited in the female. When the sperm and egg fuse, the egg completes its
final stage of meiosis, fuses with the sperm nucleus and the zygote is produced. The zygote the
quickly divides by mitosis.

CHINKOLISED 46
Implantation
This is the process in white the zygote is embedded in the endometrium of the uterus. When it
reaches the uterus it forms a hollow mass of cells called a Blastocyst. It develops villi that attach
into the uterus lining and exchange nutrients. The corpus luteum is maintained for 16 weeks
without shedding of the endometrium. It continues to release progesterone that prevents the
shedding of the endometrium (menstruation). The first sign of pregnancy is the absence of
menstruation. For the first eight weeks it is called the Embryo. Premature break down of the
uterus lining is called a Miscarriage. The embryo continues to develop and grow in size. It
develops several membranes such as the yolk sac, allantois, amnion and chorion. Later the
embryo develops a placenta. The placenta is formed from parts of the embryo and uterus lining.
The placenta develop villi that fit into the uterus wall.

The following are some of the parts and their functions

Placenta
It is develop from parts of both the developing embryo and mother’s uterus. It is responsible for
the exchange of materials between the mother and the foetus and as an endocrine organ releases
progesterone which maintains the uterus lining. The blood of the mother and foetus don’t mix
but exchange of nutrients and waste materials occurs. Antibodies from the mother may cross
over to the foetus (Passive natural immunity). Some harmful substances are also able to cross
over to the foetus such as cigarette smoke chemicals, alcohol and drugs which may affect the
baby.

CHINKOLISED 47
Umbilical cord
It joins the mother to the foetus and it’s a passage for materials that are exchanged between the
mother and the foetus.
The amnion
It’s a thin, tough membranous sac that encloses the embryo/ foetus. Its outer membrane is called
the chorion. The chorion and mother’s tissue form the placenta. The amnion hold the amniotic
fluid.
Amniotic fluid
It’s a watery fluid in the amnion that surround=ds the foetus. It has the following roles
 It allows the foetus to move freely whilst it develops
 It ensures that the foetus has symmetric growth
 It prevents injury by acting as a shock absorber
 It stabilizes the temperature around the foetus
 It protects the foetus from dehydration
Health risks associated with foetal development
1. Poor diet
This may slow down the growth of the baby if the nutrients are not sufficient resulting in an
underweight baby. Underweight babies are prone to have diabetes, high blood pressure and
neurological problems.
2. Alcoholism
Too much alcohol may result in an underweight baby, miscarriage and neurological problems to
the baby
3. Smoking
Dangerous chemicals in the smoke may cause various complications
4. Drugs
They may cause miscarriage, the baby to be underweight, premature birth, foetal and maternal
death. .

CHINKOLISED 48
Birth
This is the process of having the foetus/ baby come out of the womb/ uterus. The baby turns
upside down with the head at the cervix. Progesterone levels srop stimulating the release
Oxytocin which stimulates the uterus wall to contract pushing the baby out.

Birth Control/ Contraception

Birth control involves one or more practices, devices or medications followed to intentionally
prevent or reduce the likelihood of pregnancy or child birth. It may prevent or end a pregnancy.
Contraception is the use of a device or procedure to prevent contraception by natural or artificial
means. It is also known as Birth Control or Family Planning. It gives the mother time to regain
strength and energy to care for the newborn. Contraception may include natural and artificial
means and it can further be divided into: Natural Methods, Barrier Methods, Hormonal
methods, Implantation prevention methods, Sterilization and Termination.

Natural Methods
1. Abstinence
It’s a complete withdraw from sex until marriage and results in no pregnancies
2. Rhythm Method/ Calendar Method
It involves the abstinence from sex around the period of fertile days. It requires good knowledge
of the body and good record keeping.
3. Temperature Method
It involves taking note of the female’s rise in body temperature and refraining from sex.
4. Withdraw Method/ Coitus interruptus
It involves withdraw of the penis from the vagina just before ejaculation

Barrier Methods
1. Condom
A thin rubber sheath that prevents sperms from entering the vagina. It also gives protection
against sexually transmitted diseases.

CHINKOLISED 49
 2. Femidom
A thin rubber polyurethane tube with a closed end that fits into the vagina. It has two flexible
rings at each end to help keep it in place. It also gives protection against sexually transmitted
diseases.
3. Diaphragm/ Cap
A flexible rubber dome which fits over the cervix and prevents entry of sperms into the uterus.
It’s mostly used with a spermicidal cream or jell. It must be fitted by doctors or trained
personnel.
4. Spermicide
It’s a chemical that kills sperm. It has a high failure rate if used alone.

Hormonal methods
1. Pill
It contains the female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone which prevent the
development of eggs and ovulation by inhibiting FSH.
Prevention of Implantation
1. IUD (Intra- Uterine Device)
It’s a small device made up of copper, plastic or stainless steel. It’s inserted into the uterus and
prevents implantation. It can be left in place for a long period (e.g. 5 years).

CHINKOLISED 50
Sterilization Methods
1. Vasectomy in males
This is the surgical cutting and tying of the sperm duct or vas deferens. This process is
irreversible.

2. Tubal Ligation in females

This is the surgical cutting and tying of the oviduct or fallopian tube. This process is
irreversible.

CHINKOLISED 51
Termination
1. Abortion
This is the premature termination of pregnancy by surgical intervention.

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 GENETICS/ INHERITANCE
This is the study of the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next and
investigation of resulting variations.
Important terms
1. Chromosome: these are thread-like structures that are found in the nucleus of all cells.
They carry genes.
2. Ploidy: this refers to the number or set of chromosomes found in cells of an organism.
The following are some examples
a. Diploid: this refers having two sets of chromosomes in the nucleus of cells. It is
therefore represented as 2n. Humans have one set from the mother and the other
from the father. The cells having the diploid set in humans are the Somatic cells
or non- sex cells. The diploid number in humans is 46.
b. Haploid: this refers to having one set of chromosomes in the nucleus of cells. It is
therefore represented as n. cells having the haploid set in humans are the sex cells
or gametes. The haploid number in humans is 23.
3. Gene: this is a part of the DNA molecule which specifies the type of protein to be
produced. Genes are represented by letters e.g. the gene for tallness is represented by the
letters T and t.
4. Alleles: genes that control the same characteristics and occupy corresponding positions
on homologous chromosomes. The pair of genes are also referred to as an allelemorphic
pair.
5. Locus: this is the position of the gene on the chromosome
6. Dominant Gene/ Allele: this is an allele or gene that expresses itself in spite of there
being a similar contrasting allele. It conceals or hides the expression of the other gene.
E.g. the gene or allele for tallness is represented by T or t. capital T represents the
dominant gene which will conceal the visible expression (phenotype) of the allele t. A
plant having the T and t alleles or gene will be tall because T is dominant.
7. Recessive Gene/ allele: this is an allele or gene that does not expresses itself if there is a
similar contrasting allele. This gene or allele doesn’t express itself if a dominant gene is
present. E.g. the gene or allele for tallness is represented by T or t. small letter t
represents the recessive gene. It will only express itself if it is paired with another
recessive gene. A plant having the t and t alleles or genes will be short because the
recessive gene t can only be visibly seen (phenotype) if it’s paired with another recessive
gene.

CHINKOLISED 53
 8. Codominance: this is a state where the alleles or genes responsible for a certain trait are
both dominant. E.g. a plant having the dominant allele W for white colored flower is
paired with another dominant allele R for red colored flower, this results in WR
(genotype) with the visible colour (phenotype) being Pink. Another example is the
blood group A and B resulting in the blood type AB.
9. Homologous: having the same pair of genes. E.g. TT, tt or AA.
10. Heterozygous: having different pairs of genes. E.g. Tt, Bb or Aa.
11. Phenotype: this is the appearance of an organism. It includes things like the eye colour,
skin color, height, group type, etc.
12. Genotype: this refers to the genetic makeup of an organism. E.g. the genotype of a tall
plant may be TT or Tt.
13. Law of segregation: states that characteristics of a organism are determined by internal
factors that occur in pairs. Only one pair of these factors can be represented in a single
gamete.
14. Progeny: refers to offspring
15. First parental Generation (P1): these are the organisms which form the starting point of an
experiment.
16. First filial generation (F1): these are the generation from a cross between the P1 generation
17. Second filial generation (F2): these are the generation from a crossing between the F1
generation

VARIATION
It refers to the differences in the observable and non-observable characteristics in a given
species. There are two main types of variation which are:
a. Discontinuous Variations
These are characteristics or traits that do not have intermediate forms or it has definite
categories of traits. This type of variation is not affected by genetic factors. Examples are as
follows
 Blood group. There are four definite blood group alleles without any intermediates which
are: A, B and O. the resulting blood types also without intermediates are: A, B, O and
AB. The graph below shows it not having any intermediates

CHINKOLISED 54
  Tongue rolling
 Sex in human beings
 finger print in humans
 ability to taste (Phenylthiourea) PTU
 Rhesus Factor
 Free earlobes or attached earlobes
 White or red eyes in drosophila

b. Continuous Variations
These are characteristics or traits that have intermediate forms or there are no definite
categories of traits but a range of measurements from one extreme to the other. Continuous
variation is combine effect of many genes (also known as polygenic inheritance) and it is also
affected by environmental factors. Examples are
 Height. Although the height is genetically determined, diet can also play a role. The
graph below shows the variation in height

 Weight
 Stem diameter in plants
CHINKOLISED 55
  Length of leaves
 Skin color in humans
 Size of seeds and fruits
 Length of finger in humans
 Milk yield in cows
 Shoe size in humans

Factors that cause variations

A. Intrinsic factors such as
I. Independent assortment of genes or chromosomes during meiosis.
II. Cross over from meiosis I
III. Mutations. This is the change in the arrangement of genes on the chromosomes.
Mutations can be caused by exposure to mutation inducing agents like radiation rays such
as X-rays or chemicals such as mustard gas and colchicine’s.

B. Extrinsic factors such as

I. Climatic factors like the amount of rainfall, temperature in plants
II. Nutrition
III. Soil types, these affect plant growth because of factors such as the pH, water retention
ability and amount of organic matter present
MONOHYBRID CROSSES
This is a study of a particular trait that involves two contrasting or different alleles or genes. The
alleles for a given trait are always represented by a letter in genetic diagrams. The alleles are
represented by capital or small letters. Capital letters for dominant alleles or genes and small
letters for recessive alleles or genes. E.g. BB for black hair means the offspring inherited B
from the father and B from the mother. An individual having the same type of gene is known as
being Homozygous. E.g. TT for homozygous tall and tt for homozygous short. An individual
having a combination of different genes, is referred to as being Heterozygous. E.g. Tt for a
heterozygous tall individual. The resulting genotype or phenotype of the resulting offspring can
be determine using a Line Diagram or a Punnett Square.
The following is an example
Coat colour in mice is determined by two alleles. The allele for black colour is dominant while
the allele for brown colour is recessive. If a homozygous black mouse is crossed with a brown
mouse, the offspring will all be black. If these offspring are allowed to mate, the offspring in the
F2 generation will be a mixture of black and brown
Solution

CHINKOLISED 56
A. Using the line Diagram

CHINKOLISED 57
B. Using the Punnett Square

CHINKOLISED 58
 Test cross or Back Cross
This is cross done to determine if the offspring is homozygous or heterozygous
It is done by crossing an unknown organism with a homozygous recessive organism. If the
unknown organism is heterozygous, then the offspring will be a mixture of different traits. If the
unknown organism is homozygous, then all the offspring will have the same trait. For example,
to know the genotype of black mice in the F1 generation. A black mice is crossed with a brown
mice. If the parent is heterozygous, then half of the offspring will be black and half will be
brown giving a ratio of 1:1. If the black parent is homozygous then all the offspring will be
black.

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Codominance
This is a result of crossing dominant genes or alleles. This results in the offspring phenotype
being an intermediate. E.g. in shorthorn cattle, when a red bull RR is crossed with a white cow
WW, the resulting progenies are heterozygous RW. But these progeny are neither red or white
but roan, a combination of red and white.

Multiple Alleles
These are traits that are affected by more than one gene or allele. An example is the blood group
which is determined by the gene A, gene B and gene O. O is recessive to both A and B. blood
group O has the genotype OO (homozygous recessive), blood group A has AA (homozygous A
dominant) or AO (heterozygous A), blood group B has BB (homozygous B dominant) or BO
(heterozygous B) and blood group AB has the genotype AB (codominant).

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Examples

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Sex Linked Characteristics
These are genes that are found on the X and Y chromosomes. In females the effect on one chromosome is
masked by the allele on the other chromosome (females have two X chromosomes). In males there is no
chromosome to mask the effect. This is because male have the XY combination with the Y shorter than
the X. examples of sex linked traits are: Hemophilia and red and green colour blindness. For the female to
show the recessive phenotype, she must be homozygous for the recessive allele.

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Pedigrees or Family Trees
This is a construction of a set of symbols that allow us to record a particular phenotypic trait in many
generations of a family. Once family data has been gathered, it can be summarized into a chart using the
symbols below

For example the pedigree below shows how the widow’s peak, which is a dominant trait is inherited over
three generations. The widow’s peak is a phenomenon where a person’s hairline displays a V-shape.

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Mutations
These are permanent changes to DNA that sometimes affect how genes do their jobs. There are two types
of mutations, which are gene mutations and chromosomal mutations.
Gene mutations these occur when the arrangement in the arrangement of DNA bases is changed. A base
can be lost during DNA replication or coping resulting in a mutation called Deletion. If a base is replaced
by another base it’s called Transition. If new pairs are added to those already existing on the
chromosome, it is called an Insertion. Mutations result in the production of a different protein which has
an altered function. Examples of gene mutation diseases are
1. Hemophilia
Inability to form blood clot, this results in slow wound healing and excessive bleeding.
2. Sickle cell anaemia.
Results from mutation on genes coding for heamoglobin on chromosome 11. This results in deformed
red blood cells that can’t carry a sufficient amount of oxygen.
Chromosomal mutations occur as a result of alterations in the number of chromosomes or fragmentation
of the chromosomes. During meiosis some chromosomes may break and fragments may undergo the
following changes.
Translocation: attachment to another chromosome in the same cell
Deletion: complete lose
Inversion: fragment joined to the same chromosome but the other way round.
Duplication: insertion of fragment into another chromosome.
Sometimes chromosomes may fail to separate during meiosis, this results in gametes having lesser or
more chromosomes. Offspring produced from these gametes are called Polysomics. E.g. Down
syndrome in which there is an extra chromosome on chromosome 21

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Causes of mutation
1. Radiation from electromagnetic rays such as X-rays, gamma, UV light, etc.
2. Tobacco smoke
3. Mutagens: these are chemicals that cause DNA to mutate e.g. mustard gas.

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