Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

Recent progress in hydrogen fuelled internal combustion

engine (H2ICE) – A comprehensive outlook
Balu Jalindar Shinde a,b, Karunamurthy K. a,⇑
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology Chennai, India
b
Dy. Divisional Manager-(Engine-R&D) M/s Force Motors Ltd, Akurdi, Pune 411035, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Worldwide auto giants and research institutes have started pilot projects with hydrogen as fuel in inter-
Available online 19 November 2021 nal combustion engines of vehicles ranging from two, three-wheelers to trucks and buses. The research
on hydrogen engine has been continuing for many years, however in the recent years it has gained the
Keywords: momentum and compels the research community to find a solution for zero emission vehicles. This work
Hydrogen Fuel presents the view of the physical, chemical and combustion properties of hydrogen as well as engine
Alternate Energy design requirements, recent trends in hydrogen engine and vehicle development strategies such as port
Engine Performance
fuel injection and direct injection technologies are evaluated in the context of engine performance and
Zero Emission
Clean Fuel
emissions.
Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Second International
Conference on Sustainable Energy Solutions for a Better Tomorrow.

1. Introduction be developed either as a sole power source or in addition to other

fuels such as hybrid or range extenders. Today’s world is meeting
In the second half of the twentieth century, the overall global its energy needs by using primary fossil fuels which will be
population had begun to increase [1]. This has led to the phenom- depleted shortly. The cost of fuel is increasing due to increase in
enal rise in demand for conventional fuels. By 2030 the global pop- demand and improvement in the economic condition of every indi-
ulation will be 8 billion [2] and their energy demand will be around vidual. The increase in the use of fossil fuels is increasing the CO2
700 EJ/year[3]. Hydrogen as a fuel has great potential as for new emissions which are the main reason for global warming and air
generation internal combustion (IC)engines with reduced emis- pollution. The energy security and global warming are the drivers
sions and improved thermal efficiency[4]. The major challenges of research, development and demonstration of different alterna-
to the automotive industry are to develop power trains which deli- tive fuel vehicles. Most of the government’s i.e.US, Europe, Japan
ver lower CO2 emissions and take care of the environment. The and India have formulated long term and short term energy secu-
internal combustion engines powered by hydrogen fuel needs to rity plan and allocated the fund for research on hydrogen fuel in
internal combustion engines. These governments release fund for
hydrogen demonstration projects such as Hydrogen vehicles with
Abbreviations: MON, Motor Octane Number; RON, Research Octane Number; internal combustion engines (H2ICE), Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
PZEV, Partially Zero-Emission Vehicles; DLC, Diamond like Coating; PCV, Positive (H2FCV).Table 1.Table 2.Table 3.Table 4.
Crankcase Valve; LH2, Liquid Hydrogen Tank; CNG, Compressed Natural Gas; PRD,
Pressure Relief Device; HMS, Hydrogen Management Safety System; H2ICE,
Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine; LPDI, High Pressure Direct Injection; HPDI,
High Pressure Direct Injection*; TMI, Timed Manifold Injection; CMI, Continuous 1.1. Hydrogen as an energy carrier
Manifold Injection; bTDC, Before Top Dead Centre; aTDC, After Top Dead Canter;
MBT, Minimum Ignition Advance for Best Torque; WOT, Wide Open Throttle; NOx, Today the world’s energy demand depends on primary fossil
Oxides of Nitrogen; SULEV, Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicles; NSR, NOx Storage
fuels which are decreasing day by day [15]. Due to the exhaustible
Catalyst; EGR, Exhaust Gas Recirculation; CO, Carbon Monoxide; CO2, Carbon
Dioxide. nature of fossil fuels and their prices are always fluctuating hence
⇑ Corresponding author. second thought is given for utilisation of alternative fuels in inter-
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. K.). nal combustion engines. Global warming and local hot spots are

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.10.378
2214-7853/Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Second International Conference on Sustainable Energy Solutions for a Better Tomorrow.
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

Table 1
Hydrogen Properties and effect on engine performance.

S. Property(s) Effect on engine performance Ref

No.
1 Octane number High octane number, the compression ratio can be increased to improve power output [5],
[6],
[7]
2 Flame speed High flame speed closely approaches the ideal thermodynamic cycle. High power out even at the leaner [8]
condition.
3 Density Lower density occupies 30 % combustion space hence low engine power ouput [8]
4 Heat of combustion High heat of combustion at stoichiometric. [9]
5 Adiabatic flame temp High adiabatic temperature improves combustion efficiency [10]
6 Quenching distance Low quenching distance increase chances of backfire and care should be taken while injecting fuel into the [11]
combustion chamber. High quenching distance will lead to decreased life of lub oil and more heat loss to the
coolant.
7 Diffusivity Facilitate formation of air and hydrogen mixture also unsafe conditions are avoided or minimized. [12]
8 Calorific value High calorific value reduces fuel consumption [12]
9 Methane number Having a methane number of zero. It indicates that hydrogen is prone to knock. [13]
10 Flammability limits The high range of flammability helps in running the engine at the lean condition for better efficiency [14]
11 Minimum ignition energy Very small electrical leakage can cause a fire. [14]
12 Flame temperature High flame temperature improves efficiency [14]
13 Auto-ignition temperature High ignition temperature hence it is good and the high compression ratio can be maintained to improve [14]
thermal efficiency
14 Stoichiometric air–fuel ratio and Energy content on a volume basis is lower [11]
mixture energy content

Table 2
Hydrogen Engine Design Requirements.

S. Engine Design Qualification/Requirement(s) Reasons / Purpose Reference

No Components/
system
1 Compression Ratio 11.3 to 9.5 is recommended for naturally aspirated engines. Still higher To increase the thermal efficiency of the engine [15]
compression ratio is possible for supercharged engine.
2 Spark Plug Cold rated spark plug(s) with a smaller gap than gasoline with a smaller plug gap to avoid high voltage [19]
generation
3 Gas Rail High gas rail volume Lower density than gasoline [5]
4 Lubricants-Oil grade A low-ash oil grade 20 W30 is recommended To avoid oil carbon formation and there is less [5], [20]
formation of acids.
5 Ignition System The plug top coil with low ignition energy Low ignition energy requirement [6]
6 Hot Spot Cooled exhaust valve or multi-valve is proposed. To avoid hotspot in a combustion chamber [7]
7 Piston assembly and Same aluminium material used for gasoline can be used with a chrome- To improve the burn-residue [21]
Crevices volume ceramic coating (‘‘CCC”)
8 Valve Stem Seals A Diamond-like Coating (DLC) To prevent any scuffing [22]
9 Cylinder head, Valve Cross-flow design of cylinder head. NIMONIC material for the exhaust Dissipate more heat high-temperature resistance – [23]
and Valve seats valve seat inserts of cast tool steel and a hard surface coating minimize valve seat recession
10 Crankcase Coalescing oil separator Prevents recirculation of oil into the combustion [23].[24].
ventilation chamber
11 Injection system- Electronic injectors are robust in design with greater control over Low lubricity of hydrogen and M/s Quantum Injector [2526
Gas Injectors injection timing and injection duration developed injectors and life found to be 800 hours 2728]
12 Electronic throttle At WOT condition, performance is higher. For improving engine efficiency. [6]
body
13 High-Pressure Gas is stored at 200 bar and tank with in-tank isolation solenoid valves for storage and safety purpose. [23]
Hydrogen System- with internal check valve, thermal pressure relief device vent port
Hydrogen tanks (PRD) and a pressure transducer
14 High-Pressure To reduce gas pressure to the engine Gas with 200 bar stored pressure is not [29].[30]
Regulators recommended directly to the engine.
15 High-Pressure The steel tubes are rated of 350 bar with a burst pressure of over For safety reasons [31].
Tubing 1400 bar,
16 Hydrogen Sensors The use of Hydrogen Management Safety system (HMS). To detect the accumulation of hydrogen gas in [32 33].
vehicle and engine area
17 ECM-Engine The input of all sensors is given to ECU, where it is processed and fed to Better control of air, fuel and ignition [34].
Sensors and system actuators to run the engine
18 Flame Trap flame trap with water A flame trap is a device incorporated in fuelling line [35].
to arrest flame in case of backfire when it comes in
19 Oil control A special boring and honing procedure is used to give a final peak- For quick ring seating and oil volume retention. [36].
honed surface finish of 0.2 – 0.3 lm Ra
20 Oxygen sensors Pre- catalyst instead of narrowband oxygen Bosch LSU 4.9 wideband For engine control and catalyst efficiency [37 38]
(Lambda Sensor) lambda sensor and post catalyst narrow band monitoring [39]
21 Engine cooling More coolant flow is required The coefficient of heat dissipation of hydrogen is [40]
system requirement more than CNG /gasoline fuel, hence more heat is
carried away by coolant
22 Intake Air system- Sufficient volume of the intake system The intake system is selected to take care of H2 [40]
volume and injector a leak cannot lead to escaping from the
geometry front end of the vehicle.

1569
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

Table 3
PFI Engine Performance.

Sr. No Year Engine Volume (L) Output power (kW) BTE hydrogen % Ref.
Gasoline H2
1 2014 1.998 55 33.9 – [55]
2 2019 0.270 5.94 4.99 22.71 [64]
3 2012 3.984 – – 38 [65]
4 2019 2.3 – 21 30.1 [66]
5 2015 2.5 – 66.7 – [37]
6 2017 0.661 3.2 2.59 25.99 [30]
7 2017 0.395 – 4.8 26 [48]

Table 4
Direct Injection engine performance.

Sr.No Year Engine (L) Author(s) BTE-/ITH hydrogen Ref.

1 2012 0.660 Kenji Nakagawa 34 [67]
2 2018 7.75 Kevin Klepatz, et al 45.1 [68]
3 2013 0.857 Arash Nemati et al 40.05 [69]
4 2014 0.651 Stefania Zanforlin et al 36 [70]
5 2017 1.054 Yasuo Takagi / 45 [70]
6 2012 0.66 Nicholas S. Matthias 45.5 [71]
7 2011 0.66 Thomas Wallner 45 [72]

also the major concern of fossil fuels. Research on hydrogen engine  The carburetor with gas-air mixer
and the vehicle has been started since 1820 by Cecil[16]. Hydrogen  Continuous manifold injection (CMI)
can be used in an internal combustion engine as [17]dedicated fuel,  Timed manifold injection (TMI)
bi-fuel or dual-fuel operation [12]. Many research institutions and  Low-pressure direct cylinder injection (LPDI)
government agencies started research base projects; some of them  High-pressure direct cylinder injection (HPDI)[41]
have demonstrated the use of hydrogen in an internal combustion
engine as an effective and safe way. Hydrogen has no carbon bond All these induction methods have its own advantages and dis-
hence no production of CO and CO2 emissions. When burning of advantages considering the engine power, emissions and safety
hydrogen in internal combustion engine, NOx is formed still it is during vehicle operation. The carburetion and continuous manifold
the cleanest fuel. The recent literature review on hydrogen usage injection are very old induction methods with limitations from
on IC engine by Dinçer et al [18] revealed that the amount of performance and safety point of view hence these methods are
hydrogen added to the fuel system increased the engine power outdated. There is continuous development in fuel and air induc-
and torque almost like petrol engines, while they are decreased tion methods in internal combustion engine. Here, only modern
on LPG and diesel engines. fuel and air induction techniques are discussed.
Hydrogen has a wide range of flammability ignition limit which
1.2. Features of hydrogen allows hydrogen to be operated at extremely lean mixture condi-
tion. The hydrogen is in gaseous state and lighter than air. It occu-
Hydrogen has a high octane rating, high calorific value and pies at 30 % of combustion volume as compared to 1–2 % gasoline
because of this, it is very attractive fuel for internal combustion fuel [42]. The standard high-pressure tank stores hydrogen at
engine. Table-1 defines the properties of hydrogen gas and its 35 MPa (350 bar) pressure, recently tanks are developed to store
effect on engine and vehicle performance. hydrogen at 70 MPa pressure [43]. Sierens and Verhelst [44] found
Y-junction has delivered the highest power and highest indicated
1.3. Hydrogen engine design thermal efficiency in 45° junction. The injection quantity [45]
increased with increasing injector pulse width. The highest power
Hydrogen engines are being developed for operating near below output and indicated efficiency are obtained for an ignition timing
knock limit which demands late ignition. This late ignition pro- of 3°CA aTDC[46]. The spark advance increases combustion dura-
duces high-temperature exhaust gases. Hydrogen stoichiometric tion which imparts more heat to surroundings at 4 percentages
combustion has high thermal loads on piston top land and ring [47]. When the gasoline engine is converted to hydrogen, ignition
grooves, the first ring is coated with a hard-anodized coating as timing is retarded from 25° to 10° BTDC[29] and the mixer was
well as ring pack which reduces the blow-by gas and reduce oil set to lean side from 1.6 to 2.5 lambda, the ignition timing was
consumption. In the context of the present discussion, a hydrogen advanced[38].The gasoline converted hydrogen port fuel engine
specific engine refers to a dedicated hydrogen operation. Following [29] delivered by hydrogen engine power 80 % of gasoline but effi-
are some of the engine design requirements listed in Table2 for ciency was found increased by 2 %. Port Fuel Injection when oper-
safe, fuel-efficient and low emission engine development. ated at the stoichiometric [12] condition and it was likely to
misfire due to highest temperature at this operating condition.
2. Advanced hydrogen engines EGR has advantages of high heat capacity due to high water vapour
content, thus more fuel can be injected with the addition of EGR
There have been continues improvements on hydrogen engine develops more power than naturally or lean-burn engines. The
for performance and emission. Following are hydrogen induction gasoline converted Polo tested with a lambda of 1.6, 2 and 2.5
methods used in internal combustion engines[41]. [38] and power dropped by 50 %.

1570
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

Wallner et al [49]optimized a 2.3L supercharged engine from was high, combustion target was k = 1 and with TWC which
M/s Ford Motor company with different air–fuel ratios of 2, 2.25, reduced NOx to a very low level and found meeting Super Ultra
2.5 and 3. WOT efficiency was found to be between 35 and 37%. Low Emissions Vehicles (SULEV) level off to 3.9 %. Nande et al
Fig. 1 shows the improvement in thermal efficiency when increas- [53]tested a single-cylinder, CFR VCR engine, manufactured by
ing the air to fuel ratio from 2 to 2.5 and results in an increase in the Waukesha Motor Company with the addition of EGR from 0
brake thermal efficiency in 1–2% and torque reduced by 50 % when to 35 %.
lambda set to 3. Kumar et al [50] and Faizal et al[51] tested engines Wallner et al [12]checked the performance of supercharged Port
on hydrogen fuel and found brake thermal Efficiency more than fuel injection engine by changing air/fuel ration from rich to lean
gasoline. Hydrogen has a high compression ratio and high combus- condition and found NOx emission reduced from 220 ppm to
tion pressure has resulted in high torque output.Fig. 2. 3 ppm from air/fuel ratio from 2 to 3 with improvement in thermal
1st law and second law efficiency for hydrogen engine is high efficiency from 21.6 to 23.4 %. Sopena et al [38]tested Polo gasoline
than gasoline engine by 65.64, 69.4 % and 56.4, 60.5 % respec- engine. Hydrogen combustion is faster due to high flame speed and
tively[51]. Hari et al[29]tested port fuel injection engine and found combustion is taking place close to constant volume hence hydro-
bsfc of 0.32 kg/kWh for gasoline as against around 0.11 kg/kWh for gen has better thermal efficiency at medium and low speed than of
hydrogen. This is due to high thermal efficiency and high calorific gasoline. The NOx emissions were less than that of gasoline from
value of hydrogen. For NOx reduction, EGR (Exhaust gas recircula- 1000 to 2500 ppm. When hydrogen engine set to k = 1.3, NOx
tion) is one of the methods used by [44] Verhelst et al. and Tien Ho emission was of the order of 10000 ppm, that is why hydrogen
[31]. Wallner et al [52]converted BMW mono-fuel vehicle, The engine running at leaner condition is recommended in spite of
vehicle was installed with onboard cryogenic hydrogen storage lower power. Krishnan Unni et al [48] tested the single-cylinder.
and a gaseous port fuel injection system. The NOx storage catalyst The NOx formation at rich lambda is low due to deficiency of
(NSR) device was used. At high load where the demand for power oxygen and reduced combustion efficiency. Lohse-Busch et al
[54] tested V8 6L PFI engine for pickup truck application with dif-
ferent phi on chassis dynamometer cycles and NOx emissions were
measured. The NO emissions were high at 50 % WOT than 100 %
WOT. The NO emissions are dependent on produced torque, at
low engine rpm the engine produced high torque and at high
engine speed lower torque, The maximum NO produced at
1500 rpm with spark plug gap of 0.6 mm. Yao et al [55] experi-
mented on 2L hydrogen PFI engine. The power Vs NOx with and
without EGR configuration. At low speed of 1000 rpm, the power
found decreased by 27% at the cost of reduction of 73 % and high
speed of 6000 rpm power dropped by 39 % with 84 % reduction
of NOx emission.
Indicated thermal efficiency [10]depends on ignition timing.
The advanced ignition timing improves the in-cylinder tempera-
ture and pressure hence increases the indicated thermal efficiency.
Salvi et al [57] tested constant speed engine for various EGR ratio.
A significant reduction of NOx observed with increase in EGR. With
25 % EGR the NOx specific emission found reduced to 57 % and BTE
and BMEP reduced below 5 %. The NOx emission increases[30] with
an increase in engine speed. Yamin[47] tested Ricardo E6/T Vari-
able Compression Ratio engine with various equivalence ratio
Fig. 1. Trend for an engine speed of 1500 RPM. (0.7 to 1.2) with respect to spark plug locations. The heat loss

Fig. 2. Performance of the hydrogen engine, equivalence ratio = 0.74, EGR rate = 0.3, 5500 rpm[56]

1571
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

indicated power and indicated SFC was improved by 3 %.The

hydrogen combustion was improved by increasing optimized
intake swirl. Salvi et al [57] tested a constant speed engine with
different compression ratio. It has been observed that at low com-
pression ratio, more residuals were available at combustion cham-
ber which increased initial charge temperature and chances of
backfire were more than high compression ratio. The high com-
pression ratio improves the cooling effect on hot surface hence
as compression increase the BFL-Start of Injection decreases. Cheng
et al[61]an experimented study of high-pressure jet injection in a
constant volume chamber with high-speed photography. When
tested with 317° CA, the concentration charge (air and fuel) was
ready before the intake valve so that as soon as the valve opens,
the complete charge has entered in the cylinder and avoiding
backfire.

3. Liquid port fuel injection (Cryogenic PFI)

Fig. 3. Engine RPM Vs.BTE.
To increase the hydrogen storage capacity in given tank volume,
the hydrogen is stored in at 20 K in the liquid state. The low intro-
found decreased when spark plug moved from an edge (0.08) to duction temperature of hydrogen gas reduces intake charge tem-
centre (0.5), the percentage of heat losses decreased due to less perature when it mixes with air and hence charge density
time available for combustion due to a reduction of duration. This increases. The researcher has experimented and found that when
effect is more dominant at leaner due to increased combustion cryogenic hydrogen is used the power density is comparable to a
duration. Ono [58] ignited hydrogen-mixture in a 1L stainless gasoline engine. Peschka[62] developed liquid hydrogen system
chamber and found that increase in humidity up to 90 % does for external mixing. With cryogenic hydrogen volumetric heating
not affect ME. The spark discharge energy is defined as CV2 = 2. value of charge was increased and there was no need to be used
Ceper [59] experimented hydrogen engine of 4.9 L port fuel injec- water for NOx reduction. Peschka and Carpets [63] at DVFLR insti-
tion. The highest thermal efficiency at 10° CA and with 0.6 mm tute studied cryogenic hydrogen storage and dispensing. He
spark plug gap at 100 % WOT were about 34.2% and 34% as shown demonstrated refilling time for a tank of 120 to 150 L was mini-
in Fig. 3 below. mum 5 min which was very less than metal hydride storage tank
Verhelst et al [6] tested supercharged single-cylinder engine and equivalent to gasoline fuel.
with 1 bar pressure and NOx production was less than gasoline Deluchi[20] studied different cryogenic hydrogen engines such
counterpart supercharging stoichiometric and with EGR, power as Musashi-4, Musashi-5, Musashi-7, Musashi-9 and MBW 520
output is 30 % higher than gasoline. It has been observed that peak and found min power increased by 11 % to a maximum of 25 %
cylinder pressure and rate of heat release was increased with an of gasoline engines in external mixture configuration. Kiesgen
increase in compression ratio[57]. The hydrogen engine operation [21] at BMW AG has 12 cylinders 5.9L engine on liquid hydrogen.
was smooth and without knocking [47]. The swirl [60] is important The base engine was gasoline direct injection. The compression
for hydrogen engine to accelerate the mixing and as well as ratio was reduced from 11.3 to 9.5 for hydrogen manifold injection
increase combustion reaction to reduce combustion duration and to avoid the knocking. The engine developed 170 kW and 340 Nm
improve the engine power output with reduced combustion varia- torque in hydrogen operation. The hydrogen was injected in the
tion. At 20° entry angle, optimum swirl was observed resulted in intake manifold. The same engine was operated at richer mode,
the three-way catalyst was used. Hydrogen has high reactivity
hence 99.9 conversion of NOx was possible. The characteristic of
H2-combustion depends strongly on the set mixture composition.
At near to stoichiometric combustion, the ignition energy found
decreased and combustion speed increased. This was due to the
pressure increase gradient was more than the gasoline counter-
part. The optimal ignition timing was approximately 1° crank angle
(CA) before ignition for 50% mass fraction burned. The combustion
cycle was without fluctuation. Below Table-3 shows recently
developed port fuel injection engines and observed that maximum
BTE was recorded as 38 %.

4. Direct injection

In a port fuel injection system, there is always a chance of back-

fire and engine knocking at high load. The hydrogen has low den-
sity hence power output is limited. To overcome these problems,
direct injection strategy was experimented by many scientists.
Table-4 shows the BTE/ITE (Brake Thermal Efficiency)/ (Indicated
Thermal Efficiency) improvements indirect injection hydrogen
engine. The maximum brake thermal Efficiency was 45.5 %
Fig. 4. Injection and air/fuel ratio strategy [57] recorded.
1572
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

Fig. 6. Map of engine efficiency of BTE 45.5 %

spark plug locations. To optimize the effect of injector position,

the injection sweep was also studied where early injection just
after intake valve open to late injection, just before the valve closes
are studied. The injection angle has a great effect on thermal effi-
ciency. When hydrogen jet was injected towards the spark plug,
more stable combustion was observed and highest thermal effi-
ciency at the high load of 8 bar IMEP was 36 % as shown in below
Fig. 5. Kanti Roy et al [77] used the high-speed video camera to
study hydrogen jet in constant volume and captured 25,000 frames
per second. Two 3 and 5 MPa injector pressures were tested with
different ambient pressure conditions. A 5 MPa jet has travelled
the long distance with less time than 3 MPa jet. Four different
Fig. 5. Indicated efficiency, start of injection and injection angle.
[77] injection timing were studied as mentioned below-

Wakayama et al [73]developed RENESIS RX-8 Hydrogen RE  Tail Ignition (TI)

(Rotary Engine) with both port and direct injection injectors. This  Late Ignition (LI)
engine was with dual fuel system, operating with both Gasoline  Centre Ignition (CI
and Hydrogen. The maximum power output on hydrogen gas  Head Ignition (HI):
was 84 kW and on gasoline fuel 154 kW. The direct injector was
fitted on top of engine housing and port fuel injector on the intake TI injection mode has stable combustion due to the availability
manifold. The mixing of hydrogen and air was better due to the of hydrogen gas within the vicinity of the spark plug. Naganuma
time available for mixing was more than the direct injection et al[78] tested 1.054 L single-cylinder engine 13:1 compression
method. At low load and low engine rpm, the lean-burn operation ratio to study the effect of a different injection and ignition strat-
was used as shown in Fig. 4 below. The excess air–fuel ratio was egy for best brake thermal efficiency. Bleechmoreet et al [74]devel-
maintained to 1.6 to reduce NOX emissions. At lower engine rpm oped direct injector for hydrogen application. The fuel pressure
and high load stoichiometric operation was used. The stoichiomet- was 2000 kpa. Due to the low density of hydrogen, hydrogen injec-
ric operation has developed high torque and engine emissions tors required high flow rate with accurate metering. The base gaso-
were reduced. line injector was modified for CNG and hydrogen application by
The thermal efficiency was improved by 23 % than gasoline improved/ modified for gas sealing by M/s Westport Innovation
operation. The engine has met Japanese SULEV norms. Bleechmore Inc. [75]. For fuel jet penetration and mixing of air–fuel was suffi-
et al [74] developed electrically driven supercharged single cylin- cient with 8 MPa injection pressure. The gas injectors were
der 454 cc, 10.7 compression ratio on direct hydrogen injection. equipped with a seven-hole nozzle with 0.52 mm each. Roy et al
Start of injection was changed from 95° to 255° bTDC at 40° incre- [77] used solenoid-driven GDI injector developed by Mitsubishi
ments. To avoid backfire the start of injection (SOI) was set to 135° Electric Co. for transferring gas from the pressurized vessel. Mat-
bTDC after IVC. The optimum ignition timing depended on the load thias et al[71]designed a direct-injection engine which has been
condition. At lower load, ignition timing was independent of the met the Department of Energy (DOE) target of 45% peak brake ther-
load. As equivalence ratio increased to phi = 1, the due to excess mal efficiency (BTE) and 31% part-load efficiency with targeted
fuel availability, the rate of burn increased and reached to limiting emissions.
condition, hence the ignition advance was retarded. Fig. 5 shows, it has met DOE target of 45 % and 31 % BTE at WOT
Mohammadi et al [75]tested 857 cc engine with 11.5 compres- and part-load conditions. Nieminen et. al. [79] developed compar-
sion ratio for direct injection performance. The main aim was to ative second law exergy model for gasoline and hydrogen naturally
assess. The highest thermal efficiency was 38.9 % with U=0.5 was aspirated engine. The hydrogen engine has converted maximum
achieved. Wallner et al [76] tested research engine for a single hole exergy into work hence efficiency was 41.37 % as against gasoline
direct injector for the various position of angle with respect to of 35.7 % as shown in Fig. 6.

1573
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

Single-cylinder gasoline as well as hydrogen DI [80]tested and with 5H (5 holes) injector and spark plug located centrally. Another
found at 30 % more brake mean effective pressure as an effect of head was with the dual spark plug located at sidewise opposite to
hydrogen has high flame speed at WOT with the k = 1 condition. each other and 3 + 3H(3 and 3 holes)at central. Both cylinders head
Nakagawa et al [67]tested 3 cylinder engines in both naturally tested for optimized injection timing best thermal efficiency. The
aspirated as well as supercharged configuration. The maximum dual ignition with 3 + 3H injector has delivered the highest NOX
thermal efficiency was 34 % with a compression ratio of 12.5 with as well as high net thermal efficiency. Bleechmore et al [74] tested
135 kPa air pressure was achieved. Zanforlin et al [70]converted supercharged single cylinder hydrogen engine for EGR and water
gasoline Aprilia 651 cc engine to direct injection hydrogen engine. injection for NOX reduction. NOx could be reduced by adopting
The innovative two-step injection system was developed and the excess air, EGR in both hot and cooled and Water injection. If
engine was optimized for stoichiometric combustion. The base equivalence ratio was decreased ITE was increased due to reduced
engine has 5 valves. The gasoline and hydrogen performance was pumping loss. Dilution with EGR was achieved not by altering fuel
compared with 4 valve configurations. The engine was optimized flow but by increasing EGR to full .open condition and Airflow was
for best ignition timing as 3° aTDC and without knocking and reduced till charge has attained the stoichiometric condition The
preignition. both hot and cooled EGR was tested with different ignition timing
Younkins et al [81]tested 592 cc direct injection hydrogen swing. EGR consisting of primarily water Vapour and nitrogen gas.
engine with optimized 3 + 3H hole injector with the dual ignition The water vapour possesses a high specific heat capacity and helps
system. This performance was compared with a 5H injector in both to reduce combustion slower than dilution with excess air. When
single and dual injection configuration. The 3 + 3H injector found water injection was used, it has reduced combustion temperature
better and continued for further evaluation of injector position. and subsequently, ignition timing was optimised to achieve maxi-
The new combustion system using the dual plug cylinder head mum power. The use of EGR at higher load could be problematic
and the 3 + 3 fuel injector at b = 0° delivered a remarkable peak hence water injection was used and high power output was
indicated thermal efficiency of 47.8% at 3000 RPM. Kawamura achieved.
et al [82]developed a Truck of 6 cylinders 7.684 L four-stroke
engine. The engine has 13 compression ratio and in naturally aspi-
rated engine configuration. The actual testing was done on a 5. Water injection
single-cylinder 1.050L engine with the same compression and
injector configurations. The engine was optimized for different Nande et al[85] tested Ford Make 0.5 L hydrogen engine with
excess air ratio; MBT, injection timing, and NOx emissions were 11.5 compression ratio for different percentage of water injection.
recorded. The single-cylinder engine has delivered 950 kpa IMEP The engine was initially optimised for highest torque and NOx
which was equivalent to meeting multi-cylinder targets. Naga- emissions were recorded. The presence of water in combustion
numa et al [83]tested Turbocharged diesel converted to Naturally has reduced peak temperatures and subsequently NOx emissions.
aspirated hydrogen engine with the bowl on the piston with 12.7 At high load when water was injected, the NOx emissions were
compression ratio. The engine was optimized for injection timing, more by 12 % than retarding ignition timing, but power loss was
ignition timing, excess air ratio and EGR percentage for various reduced by 79 %, hence water injection was used than retarding
load conditions. The critical EGR rate was defined as the rate at ignition timing.
which the hydrogen concentration in the exhaust gas was less than The engine was tested with low load at 4 bar IMEP and high
2% and also the decreased in brake thermal efficiency was less than load 8 bar IMEP. Hydrogen injected pressure was 100 bar. The
3%. The application of EGR reduced NOx emissions by as much as engine was tested with h = 0.23 to 0.9 an. Younkins et al [86] tested
91%. Initially, with an application, EGR emission has a reduced 592 cc direct injection engine for different strategies for NOx emis-
level of 1.07 g/kWh. There was a possibility of reducing the NOx sion reduction. One of the strategy was to use water in the intake
level further by adding a transient fuel compensation control. A manifold. The test was conducted with 0.6 equivalence ratio with
mean NOx emission level of 0.08 g/kWh has obtained the JE05 test and without water injection. The thermal efficiency was checked
mode by installing NOx storage reduction (NSR) and Diesel oxida- for different test configurations.
tion catalyst (DOC) catalysts. The water injection strategy was demonstrated as an effective
Nakagawa et al [67] converted 3 cylinders 658 cc gasoline, 9 way of reducing NOx emissions. An 87% reduction in NOx emis-
compression ratio engine to supercharged hydrogen direct injec- sions was achieved with only a 2% fuel consumption penalty. The
tion. The air pressure was 110,135 160 and 200 kpa used for exper-
imentation. The NOx emission for all air intake pressure was
almost similar but when excess air ratio changed to 2.4, the NOx
emissions reduced. This has indicated that NOx emissions are inde-
pendent of air pressure. Tanno et al [84] tested 2.2L mass-
production diesel engine to direct injection hydrogen. This engine
has a facility to test only one cylinder out of 4 independently. In
these experiments, the engine combustion was studied at low to
medium as well as medium to high load with different combustion
strategy. At low, to medium load, the stoichiometric combustion
strategy was adopted employing changing the start of injection
timing. As SOI was towards the TDC, it had increased degrees of
constant volume and hence indicated thermal efficiency has been
increased by 3 %. The purpose of this type of combustion was to
reduce cooling loss by air heat insulation and to control the com-
bustion rate by the injection.
Younkins et al [81] tested 592 cc single-cylinder for a single and
dual ignition system for engine performance and NOx production.
The compression ratio of 12.5 and 11.6 was used for dual and sin-
gle ignition respectively. Two cylinders were proto made, one was Fig. 7. Comparative exergy distributions.

1574
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

NOx mitigation strategy of multiple fuel injections was less advan- gen is directly injected into the combustion chamber and gasoline
tageous, only achieving a 68% reduction in NOx emissions with a at the port. The engine was tested at constant rpm of 1500. The
6% fuel consumption penalty. The minimum NOx achieved with equivalence ratio was maintained to 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, and 1.5 by inject-
water injection approximately 30 ppm, albeit with a 12% increase ing hydrogen by 0, 3.99, 5.87, 7.68, 9.41 and 11.09 % of total energy.
in fuel consumption. As this U = 0.6 condition was anticipated to The injector pulse width was modified to maintain the desired
be the peak load of the engine, it was reasonable to assume this equivalence ratio. Hydrogen was injected directly into the combus-
condition could be used in a drive cycle that complies with emis- tion chamber and gasoline into port was not reduced the volumet-
sions regulations. In contrast, the multiple fuel injection strategies ric efficiency of the engine. By the addition of hydrogen, the energy
tested were not able to reduce NOx below 125 ppm as shown in of total charge was increased and accelerated the Combustion reac-
Fig. 7. Naganuma et al [87] used a single-cylinder to study the tion. With the addition of hydrogen thermal efficiency increased
effect of EGR on NOx emission. By adding EGR the degrees of drastically. The combustion was found stable even at 1.5 equiva-
advance to get same power output. Similarly, the application of lence ratios. This addition of hydrogen in the port fuel gasoline
EGR makes it possible to advance the onset of fuel injection, engine, NOx and CO found significantly reduced. The lean-burn
thereby promoting better mixing before ignition, which should combustion resulted in improvement in economic and emission
also work to reduce NOx emissions performance of the engine.

6.2. Diesel
6. Hydrogen as additional fuel
Hydrogen fuel is also used in a diesel engine. Antunes et al [92]
6.1. Gasoline modified 825 cc research engine from diesel direct injection to
hydrogen direct injection. For developing hydrogen direct opera-
Hydrogen can be used with gasoline as an energy booster. Zhao tion, the main target was to redesign injectors for hydrogen fuel
et al [88] tested optical 561.8 cc spray-guided spark ignition direct as well as the requirement of hot air for attaining a self-ignition
injection engine with 150 bar to review the effect of hydrogen on temperature of charge. The base engine of diesel fuel has rated
particulate mass and number. Hydrogen with 2%, 5%, and 10% of power of 9000 W. To increase the inlet air temperature 120° C
the stoichiometric fraction was introduced in gasoline direct injec- heating system of 3.5 kW was used. The engine efficiency increased
tion engine. Ignition and injection sweeps were conducted to from 27.9 % on diesel to 42.8 % on hydrogen. Saravanan et al [93]
achieve the best thermal efficiency with hydrogen blending condi- studied direct injection diesel 553 cc for hydrogen and diesel
tions. The direct-injection engine has the potential to achieve dual-fuel operation. The % hydrogen and diesel was varied accord-
power more than port fuel configuration and with same as diesel ing to the engine load requirement. At NO load /idle condition
engine efficiency. For Direct Injection engine time for mixing hydrogen and diesel was used in 24.48 and 75.52 %. And at Full
fuel–air mixing is reduced hence PM (Particulate emissions) are a load operation, 6.76 % hydrogen energy and 93.24 of diesel energy
major drawback. The test was conducted with two load condition, were used. At full load, condition efficiency found increased with
high load and low load. In both cases, lambda was maintained with both cases i.e. without and with EGR. The optimized fuel flow
0.9 and 1.Ignition and injection timing sweep was performed. Due was 7.5 lpm with 30° CA injection timing.
to higher diffusion coefficient and higher flame speed with small Chintala et al[94]studied three compression ratios of 19.5, 16.5
quenching distance improves combustion hence organic PM emis- and 15.4. The base engine was 947.3 cc with a compression ratio of
sion is reduced. MBT timing was retarded due to an addition of 19.5. The main fuel was hydrogen and diesel was pilot fuel. Hydro-
hydrogen fraction. At low load with 5% of the stoichiometric blend gen was introduced just before the engine knock limit. The energy
has reduced PM and PN by up to 90 %. Further to that after addition share of hydrogen increased from 19 % to 59 % with 19.5 compres-
of 10% of hydrogen can further reduce PN and PM by 97 % and95 % sion ratio and subsequently increased to 63% for 15.4 compression
respectively. At low load with richer mixture found a remarkable ratio. The optimum compression ratio was 16.5:1 based on energy
reduction in Particulate Number (PN). share utilised and minimum NOx emissions with the highest ther-
Amrouche et al [89] tested hybrid gasoline-hydrogen rotary mal efficiency. The NOx emission found reduced with lower com-
engine 530 cc. The engine performance was checked at pression ratio. Sandalci et al[95]tested 5.1 kW single-cylinder
3000 rpm. The modified engine was suitable for the testing blend constant speed 1300 rpm engine. The system was with diesel fuel
of gasoline and hydrogen. The ignition timing was not altered as pilot fuel and hydrogen as a main fuel. The hydrogen was added
and kept same as gasoline timing. Hydrogen was introduced in in 0, 16, 36 and 46 % of total energy. With the addition of hydrogen,
intake manifold from 0 to 10 % of total energy fraction. The enrich- there was a drastic reduction in engine-out smoke.
ment of the lean-burn engine found improved at high speed. The
brake thermal efficiency was also increased by 28 % when 10 % 6.3. CNG
hydrogen energy fraction was added. With the addition of hydro-
gen energy fraction from 0% to 10%, the peak combustion pressure HCNG is nowadays considered to promising fuel for spark-
and temperature increased which has increased the NOx brake- ignition engines. Moreno et al [96]modified 505 cc, 2 cylinder gaso-
specific emissions by 137% and reductions in CO, CO2 and HC by line engine to operate on CNG and hydrogen. The engine was
64 %, 36%and 85% respectively. This was due to the addition of updated with a knock sensor, cam sensor, and Wideband lambda
hydrogen has resulted in better combustion of charge. sensor. The original EUM was blocked by any new PEMS (Pro-
Kim et al[90] tested 1998 cc 4 cylinder T-GDI with 9.5:1 com- grammable Engine Management System) was used. Liu et al [97]
pression ratio. The Max.Power 204 kW and Torque of 352 Nm at the original diesel engine was modified to run on Liquefied
6000 rpm and at1750-4500 rpm respectively with hydrogen and Methane Gas (LMG) and hydrogen. The engine compression ratio
EGR. The engine was tested at 2000 rpm with three loads of 4, 6, maintained at 13.6:1. The engine performance was measured with
and 8 bar with 0 %, 1 %, 3 % and 5 % energy fraction of total energy. different BMEP(Brake Mean Effective Pressure) condition. The BTE
CO2 and HC were drastically reduced and NOx emission found at 0% hydrogen energy was 24.7 %, 31.2 % and 32.7 % .At 1000 rpm
increased with hydrogen addition. When EGR was added the with BMEP of 2,6 and 10 bar, the maximum BTE increase was
cycle-to-cycle variation reduced. Du et al [91] converted original 12.6%, 3.6% and 1.4%. This was due to increase in power developed
gasoline direct injection engine to hydrogen engine where hydro- due to an increase in load and reduction in heat loss. The 50 % com-
1575
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

bustion location is advanced and the combustion duration is 7.4. Leakage detection-Engine
reduced with an increase in the percentage of hydrogen content
due to a higher flame speed of hydrogen fuel. When 10.4 % and Engine compartment–For the development of the 6.8L V10
16.2 % hydrogen energy added, the peak cylinder pressure engine, final delivery point of fuelling system is the engine com-
increased by 27.8 % and 36.9 % as compared to 0% hydrogen energy partment. The fuel rail is fitted at engine top and connected by
content. two low-pressure fuel lines. The front and bottom portion of the
bonnet is open for ventilation and an engine-driven fan is also
7. Hydrogen safety there. This compartment is separated from the passenger compart-
ment. All wiring harness are sealed by rubber grommet when it
The safety requirements of hydrogen fuel are different from passes through the bulkhead. [105].
gasoline and methane. All the possible operating condition must
be taken into consideration during the vehicle design stage itself. 7.5. Leakage detection-Vehicle
This includes driving through tunnels, parking the vehicle out of
use in an enclosed space, refueling and engine and vehicle servic- At the start of the hydrogen vehicle project, safety was prime
ing. As discussed earlier in this paper, hydrogen has a wide range most things. The Ford team had experience of developing engines
of flammability (4 to 75 %) in the air and require low ignition on fuel cell and compressed natural gas. The redundancy safety
energy (0.02 MJ) which is lower than methane and gasoline fuel is a combination of both active and passive ventilation with hydro-
The hydrogen has higher auto-ignition temperature, high specific gen detectors. This system contains four sensors which are located
heat value and high diffusivity is considered as safe fuel. Hydrogen in the engine compartment, trunk and passenger compartment.
safety fact is published by DOE[98] shows the difference between The hydrogen sensors are set to hydrogen concentration of 0.6
hydrogen and gasoline cars when fire. The gasoline car was %,1% and 1.6 % [23].
destroyed completely. This indicates hydrogen is safe fuel. Vezir-
oǧlu and Sßahin[99] made a comparison of Gasoline, Methane and 7.6. Engine test cell safety requirements
Hydrogen safety ranking. The parameters were considered such
as ignition temperature, flame emissivity, toxicity concerning com- While using hydrogen in laboratory purpose, the gas line is
bustion and fuel, specific heat and found hydrogen as safest fuel. preferably routed from rooftop to minimise the dangerous effect
due to unintentional leakage. An emergency shut off valve with
7.1. Storage electrical connections must be fitted just before the gas to the
engine. The material properties such as diffusion coefficient, per-
Hydrogen is used in various forms in internal combustion engi- meability, machinability and hardness must be taken into consid-
nes and vehicles including compressed hydrogen gas, liquid hydro- eration for hydrogen use. The hydrogen has a high diffusion
gen (LH2), organic or metal hydride and Carbon nanotubes. These coefficient and lower permeability with steel.[106]. The ASTM
storage systems have disadvantage and advantages over each A269-2001 grade stainless steel pipes shall be used for fuel tanks.
other. The commonly used system is compressed gas. Propane [107]. Test cell should be fitted with a leakage detector sensor at
storage pressure is 300 psi whereas hydrogen is from minimum top of the test cell.
5000 to a maximum of 10,000 psi. The hydrogen fuel has a negative
value of J-T coefficient which is more dangerous in case of failure
8. Challenges and scope for future development
but the temperature increased was 33.8° C from 25.8° C for 5000
and 1000 psi pressure which is found to be safe with these high
The detailed analysis has been performed for engine perfor-
pressures. [100]DOE (Department Of Energy, US) which is the
mance and emission with both PFI and Direct injections. Still, there
authority to revise hydrogen standards. The mainly SAE J2578
are various challenges such as an increase in efficiency and heat
and J1766 are used for hydrogen fuel. Technical Information
transfer to the cylinder wall. To achieve the high engine power out-
Reports (TIR) is also published by Working Group. The perfor-
put, high efficiency and lower emissions, understanding the heat
mance and system-level requirement are defined in SAE J2579
transfer inside the engine is always subject of interest. Sierens
standard. [101].
et al[108] investigated heat transfer between methane and hydro-
gen engine at same indicated power. The peak cylinder pressure
7.2. Transportation was 42 bar for hydrogen as against 28 bar due to a slow flame
speed of methane. The peak combustion pressure was drastically
The in-depth of study of issues of internal combustion engine reduced when air to fuel equivalence changed from 1 to 2. The
such as wear, corrosion, leakage and compatibility of material is peak in the heat flux was reduced by 80 % and power reduced by
required. Hydrogen can be stored at cryogenic temperature to store 23 % but not heat transfer. The indicated efficiency of hydrogen
more gas. It requires a special tank with safety arrangements. The at the highest power was less due to high heat loss of hydrogen
tank consists of mainly filling and venting connections heat engine at high load and speed.
exchanger, electrical shut-off valve and safety valves [102]. It is
estimated by Japan that highest fuel use in 2050 will be hydrogen  Demuyncke et al [109] studied engine parameters and heat flux
fuel.[103] The observations are similar to Sierens.
 Heat flux increased with an increase in compression ratio.
7.3. Dispensing  Heat flux also increases with advancing the ignition timing.

Currently, hydrogen dispensers are specially designed and Wimmer [110] studied the comparative performance of PFI and
available for refuelling public vehicles. The filling time required Direct Injection at Ghent University. The detailed analysis of differ-
is three to five minutes which is similar to gasoline or diesel vehi- ent losses was done. Losses during injection during compression
cle refuelling. These dispensers are designed as per ASME standard stroke were negligible in case of gasoline and diesel engine but
with a fuel pressure of 3600 or 3000 psig and 17,000 Nm3/hr fuel in case of hydrogen engines, it was major portion. Losses due to
flow rate. [104] real combustion are same for PFI and DI operation. Loss due to
1576
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

compression during an injection can be reduced. For DI operation [11] V. Kumar, D. Gupta, N. Kumar, Hydrogen Use in Internal Combustion Engine:
A Review, Int J Adv Cult Technology 3 (2) (2015) 87–99, https://doi.org/
efficiency is directly proportional to compression ratio hence com-
10.17703/IJACT.2015.3.2.87.
pression ratio needs to be optimised and injection timing can be [12] S. Verhelst, P. Maesschalck, N. Rombaut, R. Sierens, Increasing the power
optimised for improving DI efficiency. Stratified combustion [84] output of hydrogen internal combustion engines by means of supercharging
has improved engine efficiency by 3 %(44.4 to 47.4) as against and exhaust gas recirculation, Int J Hydrogen Energy 34 (10) (2009) 4406–
4412, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.03.037.
homogeneous combustion at low load, this was achieved by using [13] Sapru K, Ramachandran S, Sievers P, Tan Z. Hydrogen Internal Combustion
high injection pressure and thus maintaining a high degree of con- Engine Two Wheeler with on-board Metal Hydride Storage. Proceedings of
stant volume combustion. Optimised injection timing of 10 MPa the 2002 U.S. DOE Hydrogen Program Review NREL/CP-610-32405
[14] M.A. Escalante Soberanis, A.M. Fernandez, A review on the technical
has generated 52 % indicated thermal efficiency because of the adaptations for internal combustion engines to operate with gas/hydrogen
reduction of cooling as the flame was way from the wall surface. mixtures, Int J Hydrogen Energy 35 (21) (2010) 12134–12140, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.09.070.
[15] L.M. Das, Near-term introduction of hydrogen engines for automotive and
9. Conclusion agricultural application, Int J Hydrogen Energy 27 (2002) 479–487, https://
doi.org/10.1016/S0360-3199(01)00163-X.
[16] S. Verhelst, T. Wallner, R. Sierens, Hydrogen-Fueled internal combustion
The existing port and direct injection hydrogen engines are engines, Hand book of Hydrogen Energy 35 (2014) 821–902, https://doi.org/
offering good brake thermal efficiency in comparison with gasoline 10.1201/b17226.
[17] R. Amirante, E. Distaso, S. Di Iorio, P. Sementa, P. Tamburrano, B.M. Vaglieco,
engines. The hydrogen properties are more suitable for gasoline R.D. Reitz, Effects of natural gas composition on performance and regulated,
application, but it requires certain changes to make full utilisation greenhouse gas and particulate emissions in spark-ignition engines, Energy
of hydrogen potential. For DI operation further research should Conversion and Management 143 (2017) 338–347, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2017.04.016.
continue to use late injection strategy to perform near to ideal
[18] Dinçer Akal, Semiha Öztuna, Mustafa Kemalettin Büyükakın, A review of
combustion. The efficiency losses such as compression work, hydrogen usage in internal combustion engines (Gasoline-LPG-diesel) from
improper combustion and heat transfer to the coolant should be combustion performance aspect, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,
reduced. The EGR has increased engine efficiency and dehumidified Vol 45, (60), pp. 35257-35268.
[19] S. FURUHAMA, K. YAMANE, I. YAMAGUCHI, Combustion improvement in a
EGR further improves efficiency, hence provision should be worked hydrogen fueled engine, Int J Hydrogen Energy 2 (3) (1977) 329–340, https://
out for using EGR-dehumidification. When the engine is down- doi.org/10.1016/0360-3199(77)90027-1.
sized, the efficiency increases at the cost of an increase in NOx [20] Delucm MA. Hydrogen Vehicles : An Evaluation of Fuel Storage,Performance,
Safety,Environmental Impact and Cost Int J Hydrogen Energy 1989,Vol. 14,
emissions. There should be a balance between NOx and Engine effi- No. 2, pp. 81 130, 1989
ciency. The research should continue for developing hybrid fuelling [21] Kiesgen G, Klüting M, Bock C, Fischer H. The New 12-Cylinder Hydrogen
system with the merger of both direct injection and port fuel Injec- Engine in the 7 Series: The H2 ICE Age Has Begun. SAE Tech Paper
doi:10.4271/2006-01-0431.
tion technology to improve efficiency and reduce the emissions of [22] Natkin RJ, Tang X, Boyer B, Oltmans B, Denlinger A, Heffel J W. Hydrogen IC
engine. Engine Boosting Performance and NOx Study. SAE Tech Paper 2010;1.
doi:10.4271/2003-01-0631.
[23] Stockhausen WF, Natkin RJ, Kabat DM, Reams L, Tang X, Hashemi S, et al. Ford
CRediT authorship contribution statement P2000 Hydrogen Engine Design and Vehicle Development Program SAE
Techical paper 2002 ,doi: 10.4271/2002-01-0240
[24] J. GOMESANTUNES, R. MIKALSEN, A. ROSKILLY, An investigation of hydrogen-
Balu Jalindar Shinde: Conceptualization. K. Karunamurthy: . fuelled HCCI engine- performance and operation, Int J Hydrogen Energy 33
(20) (2008) 5823–5828, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.07.121.
[25] R. Sierens, S. Verhelst, Experimental Study of a Hydrogen-Fueled Engine, J Eng
Declaration of Competing Interest Gas Turbines Power 123 (2002) 211, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1339989.
[26] P.R. Chitragar, V, SK,, N, KG., Use of Hydrogen in Internal Combustion
Engines: A Comprehensive Study, J Mech Eng Biomech 1 (2016) 84–96.
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
[27] Daniel M Kabat, James W Heffel, Durability implications of neat hydrogen
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared under sonic flow conditions on pulse-width modulated injectors, Int J
to influence the work reported in this paper. Hydrogen Energy 27 (10) (2002) 1093–1102, https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0360-3199(02)00007-1.
[28] T. Wallner, H. Lohse-busch, C. Town, S. Africa, Performance, Efficiency, and
References Emissions Evaluation of a Supercharged, Hydrogen-Powered, 4-Cylinder
Engine, Fuels & Emissions Conference (2013), https://doi.org/10.4271/2007-
01-0016.
[1] N.A. Pambudi, K. Itaoka, A. Kurosawa, N. Yamakawa, Impact of Hydrogen fuel
[29] R. Hari Ganesh, V. Subramanian, V. Balasubramanian, J.M. Mallikarjuna, A.
for CO2 Emission Reduction in Power Generation Sector in Japan, Energy
Ramesh, R.P. Sharma, Hydrogen fueled spark ignition engine with
Procedia 105 (2017) 3075–3082, https://doi.org/10.1016/
electronically controlled manifold injection: An experimental study,
j.egypro.2017.03.642.
Renewable Energy 33 (6) (2008) 1324–1333, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[2] T.M. Mcdevitt, Global Population Profile, Demographic Programs Bureau for
renene.2007.07.003.
Global Health International Population Reports 2004 (2002) 1–209.
[30] S.J. Navale, R.R. Kulkarni, S.S. Thipse, An experimental study on performance,
[3] , Energy 52 (2008), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.030.
emission and combustion parameters of hydrogen fueled spark ignition
[4] A. Pal, A.K. Agarwal, Comparative study of laser ignition and conventional
engine with the timed manifold injection system, Int J Hydrogen Energy 42
electrical spark ignition systems in a hydrogen fuelled engine, Int J Hydrogen
(12) (2017) 8299–8309, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.01.059.
Energy 40 (5) (2015) 2386–2395, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[31] T HO, V KARRI, D LIM, D BARRET, An investigation of engine performance
ijhydene.2014.12.030.
parameters and artificial intelligent emission prediction of hydrogen
[5] Natkin RJ, Denlinger AR, Younkins MA, Weimer AZ, Hashemi S, Vaught AT.
powered car, Int J Hydrogen Energy 33 (14) (2008) 3837–3846, https://doi.
Ford 6.8L Hydrogen IC Engine for the E-450 Shuttle Van. SAE Tech Pap Ser
org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.04.037.
2010;1. doi:10.4271/2007-01-4096.
[32] Janarthanam SA, Blankenship JR, Soltis RE, Szwabowski SJ, Jaura AK.
[6] S. Verhelst, S. Verstraeten, R. Sierens, A comprehensive overview of hydrogen
Architecture and Development of a Hydrogen Sensing and Mitigation
engine design features, Proc Inst Mech Eng Part D J Automob Eng 221 (8)
System in H 2 RV - Ford ’ s Concept HEV Propelled With a Hydrogen Engine
(2007) 911–920, https://doi.org/10.1243/09544070JAUTO141.
SAE Technical paper (2004) doi:10.4271/2004-01-0359.
[7] Breen D. Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2017. doi:10.1300/
[33] Y. Maeda, M. Takahashi, Y. Tamura, Test, of, vehicle, ignition, due, to,
J122v22n03_06.
hydrogen, gas, leakage., SAE Techical paper, SAE SP 199 (2006) 1–8, https://
[8] J. Krishnan Unni, P. Govindappa, L.M. Das, Development of hydrogen fuelled
doi.org/10.4271/2006-01-0126.
transport engine and field tests on vehicles, Int J Hydrogen Energy 42 (1)
[34] D. Sáinz, P.M. Diéguez, C. Sopena, J.C. Urroz, L.M. Gandía, Conversion of a
(2017) 643–651, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.09.107.
commercial gasoline vehicle to run bi-fuel (hydrogen-gasoline), Int J
[9] M. DELUCHI, Hydrogen vehicles: An evaluation of fuel storage, performance,
Hydrogen Energy 37 (2) (2012) 1781–1789, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
safety, environmental impacts, and cost, Int J Hydrogen Energy 14 (2) (1989)
ijhydene.2011.10.046.
81–130, https://doi.org/10.1016/0360-3199(89)90001-3.
[35] L DAS, Safety Aspects of a Hydrogen-fuelled Engine System Development, lnt,
[10] Khairallah HA, Vaz WS. Koylu Umit O. Influence of Ignition Timing and EGR
J. Hydrogen Energy 16 (9) (1991) 619–624.
on the performance of an SI Engine fueled with Hydrogen IMECE2015-52761
2015:1–9.

1577
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

[36] Sapru K, Tan Z, Chao B.Development of Advanced Small Hydrogen Engines Hydrogen Engine, Energy Procedia 105 (2017) 1588–1599, https://doi.org/
Final Technical Report DOE Award No: DE-FC26-06NT43026 10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.508.
[37] Srinivas Jilakara, Jaikumar V Vaithianathan, Saravanan Natarajan, [62] W PESCHKA, Liquid-Hydrogen as a Vehicular Fuel - a Challenge for Cryogenic
Venkateswara R Ramakrishnan, GP Subash, Mathew Abraham, Jayakrishnan Engineering, Int J Hydrogen Energy 9 (6) (1984) 515–523.
Krishnan Unni, Lalit Mohan Das, An Experimental Study of Turbocharged [63] W. Peschka, C., CARPETIS., Cryogenic Hydrogen Storage and Refuelling for
Hydrogen Fuelled Internal Combustion Engine, SAE Int J Engines 8 (1) (2015) Automobiles, Int J Hydrogen Energy 5 (1980) 619–625.
314–325, https://doi.org/10.4271/2015-26-0051. [64] Yasin Karagöz, Özgün Balcı, Hasan Köten, Direct Investigation of hydrogen
[38] C. Sopena, P.M. Diéguez, D. Sáinz, J.C. Urroz, E. Guelbenzu, L.M. Gandía, usage on combustion characteristics and emissions of a spark ignition engine,
Conversion of a commercial spark ignition engine to run on hydrogen: Int J Hydrogen Energy 44 (27) (2019) 14243–14256, https://doi.org/10.1016/
Performance comparison using hydrogen and gasoline, Int J Hydrogen Energy j.ijhydene.2019.01.147.
35 (3) (2010) 1420–1429, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.11.090. [65] Dennis PA, Dingli RJ, Atibeh PA, Watson HC, Brear MJ. Performance of a Port
[39] S. Verhelst, J. Vancoillie, K. Naganuma, M. De Paepe, J. Dierickx, Y. Fuel Injected , Spark Ignition Engine Optimised for Hydrogen Fuel SAE Tech
Huyghebaert, T. Wallner, Setting a best practice for determining the EGR Paper doi:10.4271/2012-01-0654.
rate in hydrogen internal combustion engines, Int J Hydrogen Energy 38 (5) [66] Qing-he Luo, Ji-Bin Hu, Bai-gang Sun, Fu-shui Liu, Xi Wang, Chao Li, Ling-zhi
(2013) 2490–2503, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.11.138. Bao, Effect of equivalence ratios on the power, combustion stability and NOx
[40] Fürst, S., Dub, M., Gruber, M. , Lechner, W. and Müller, C.Safety of Hydrogen- controlling strategy for the turbocharged hydrogen engine at low engine
Fueled Motor Vehicles with IC Engines http://conference.ing.unipi.it/ speeds, Int J Hydrogen Energy 44 (31) (2019) 17095–17102, https://doi.org/
ichs2005/Papers/310002.pdf 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.245.
[41] L.M. Das, Hydrogen engine: R & D programmes in Indian Institute of [67] K. Nakagawa, K. Yamane, T. Ohira, Potential of large output power, high
Technology, Int J Hydrogen Energy 27 (2002) 953–965, https://doi.org/ thermal efficiency, near-zero NOx emission, supercharged, lean-burn,
10.1016/S0360-3199(01)00178-1. hydrogen-fuelled, direct injection engines, Energy Procedia 29 (2012) 455–
[42] S FURUHAMA, Hydrogen engine systems for land vehicles, Int. J. Hydrogen 462, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2012.09.053.
Energy 14 (12) (1989) 907–913. [68] K. Klepatz, H. Rottengruber, D. Koch, Loss Analysis of a Direct-Injection
[43] Blagojević VA, Minić DG, Novaković JG, Minić DM, Jesús ÁM De, Pless RC. Hydrogen Combustion Engine SAE Tech Paper (2018) 1–12, https://doi.org/
Hydrogen Economy: Modern Concepts, Challenges and Perspectives. Book 10.4271/2018-01-1686.
ISBN 978-953-51-0812-2 doi.org/10.5772/2824 [69] Arash Nemati, Vahid Fathi, Ramin Barzegar, Shahram Khalilarya, Numerical
[44] R. Sierens, S. Verhelst, Influence of the Injection Parameters on the Efficiency investigation of the effect of injection timing under various equivalence ratios
and Power Output of a Hydrogen Fueled Engine, J Eng Gas Turbines Power on energy and exergy terms in a direct injection SI hydrogen fueled engine,
125 (2003) 444, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1496777. Int J Hydrogen Energy 38 (2) (2013) 1189–1199, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[45] V. Vinoth Kumar, Real Time Fuel Injection in SI Engine Using Electronic ijhydene.2012.10.083.
Instrumentation, International Journal of Engineering Science and [70] Stefania Zanforlin, Stefano Frigo, Implementation of a novel hydrogen direct-
Technology (IJEST) l 4 (2012) 1974–1981. injection concept in single and multi-cylinder engines: CFD, experimental
[46] Verhelst S, Verstraeten S, Sierens R. A comparison between lean burn and engine powertrain design studies, Int J Powertrains 3 (1) (2014) 129,
operation and stoichiometric operation with EGR for a hydrogen fuelled IC https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPT.2014.059411.
engine. 16th World Hydrog Energy Conf 2006, WHEC 2006 2006;2:1–10. [71] Nicholas S. Matthias, Thomas Wallner, Riccardo Scarcelli, A Hydrogen Direct
[47] J.A. Yamin, Heat losses minimization from hydrogen fueled 4-stroke spark Injection Engine Concept that Exceeds U.S. DOE Light-Duty Efficiency Targets,
ignition engines, J Brazilian Soc Mech Sci Eng 29 (2007) 109–114, https://doi. SAE Int J Engines 5 (3) (2012) 838–849, https://doi.org/10.4271/2012-01-0653.
org/10.1590/s1678-58782007000100014. [72] Thomas Wallner, Nicholas S. Matthias, Riccardo Scarcelli, Influence of
[48] Jayakrishnan Krishnanunni, Divesh Bhatia, Lalit Mohan Das, Experimental injection strategy in a high-efficiency hydrogen direct injection engine, SAE
and modelling investigations on the performance and emission Int J Fuels Lubr 5 (1) (2012) 289–300, https://doi.org/10.4271/2011-01-2001.
characteristics of a single cylinder hydrogen engine, Int J Hydrogen Energy [73] N. Wakayama, K. Morimoto, A. Kashiwagi, T. Saito, Development of Hydrogen
42 (49) (2017) 29574–29584, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Rotary Engine Vehicle, WHEC 16 (2006) 13–16.
ijhydene.2017.10.018. [74] C. Bleechmore, S. Brewster, Dilution Strategies for Load and NOx
[49] Thomas Wallner, Henning Lohse-Busch, Neeraj Shidore, Operating strategy Management in a Hydrogen Fuelled Direct Injection Engine, SAE Tech Paper
for a hydrogen engine for improved drive-cycle efficiency and emissions (2007) 776–0790, https://doi.org/10.4271/2007-01-4097.
behavior, Int J Hydrogen Energy 34 (10) (2009) 4617–4625, https://doi.org/ [75] A MOHAMMADI, M SHIOJI, Y NAKAI, W ISHIKURA, E TABO, Performance and
10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.07.099. combustion characteristics of a direct injection SI hydrogen engine, Int J
[50] G.N. Kumar, G.P. Subash, L.M. Das, Implications of Combustion Parameters on Hydrogen Energy 32 (2) (2007) 296–304, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
the Performance of a Hydrogen-Fuelled Research Engine, Energy & ijhydene.2006.06.005.
Environment 78 (2010) 157–162. [76] Thomas Wallner, Abhijeet M. Nande, Jeffrey Naber, Study of Basic Injection
[51] Faizal M, Saidur R. Comparative thermodynamics analysis of gasoline and Configurations using a Direct-Injection Hydrogen Research Engine, SAE Int J
hydrogen fuelled Internal Combustion Engines. Int J Adv Sci Res and Manag Engines 2 (1) (2009) 1221–1230, https://doi.org/10.4271/2009-01-1418.
2017;2.12-18 [77] Mithun Kanti Roy, Nobuyuki Kawahara, Eiji Tomita, Takashi Fujitani, High-
[52] T WALLNER, H LOHSEBUSCH, S GURSKI, M DUOBA, W THIEL, D MARTIN, T Pressure Hydrogen Jet and Combustion Characteristics in a Direct-Injection
KORN, Fuel economy and emissions evaluation of BMW Hydrogen 7 Mono- Hydrogen Engine, SAE Int J Fuels Lubr 5 (3) (2012) 1414–1425, https://doi.
Fuel demonstration vehicles, Int J Hydrogen Energy 33 (24) (2008) 7607– org/10.4271/2011-01-2003.
7618, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.08.067. [78] Kaname Naganuma, Toru Honda, Kimitaka Yamane, Yasuo Takagi, Atsuhiro
[53] Nande AM, Szwaja S, Naber JD. Impact of EGR on Combustion Processes in a Kawamura, Tadanori Yanai, Yoshio Sato, Efficiency and Emissions-Optimized
Hydrogen-Fuelled SI Engine. SAE Tech Paper 2008-01-1039 2008;2008. Operating Strategy of a High-pressure Direct Injection Hydrogen Engine for
doi:10.4271/2008-01-1039. Heavy-duty Trucks, SAE Int J Engines 2 (2) (2009) 132–140, https://doi.org/
[54] H. Lohse-Busch, T. Wallner, J. Fleming, Transient efficiency, performance, and 10.4271/2009-01-2683.
emissions analysis of a hydrogen internal combustion engine pick-up truck, [79] Jonathan Nieminen, Ibrahim Dincer, Comparative exergy analyses of gasoline
SAE Tech Paper (2006), https://doi.org/10.4271/2006-01-3430. and hydrogen fuelled ICEs, Int J Hydrogen Energy 35 (10) (2010) 5124–5132,
[55] Yao H, Sun B, Tian H, Luo Q, Tang H. A Study of Hydrogen Internal Combustion https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.09.003.
Engine EGR System. SAE Tech Paper Ser 2014;1. doi:10.4271/2014-01-1071. [80] N. Negurescu, C. Pana, M.G. Popa, A. Cernat, Performance comparison
[56] H. Yao, B. Sun, H. Tian, Q. Luo, H. Tang, A Study of Hydrogen Internal between hydrogen and gasoline fuelled spark ignition engine, Therm Sci 15
Combustion Engine EGR System SAE Tech paper (2017), https://doi.org/ (2011) 1155–1164, https://doi.org/10.2298/TSCI110203090N.
10.4271/2014-01-1071. [81] Matthew Younkins, Brad Boyer, Margaret Wooldridge, Hydrogen DI Dual
[57] B.L. Salvi, K.A. Subramanian, Experimental investigation on effects of Zone Combustion System, SAE Int J Engines 6 (1) (2013) 45–53, https://doi.
compression ratio and exhaust gas recirculation on backfire, performance org/10.4271/2013-01-0230.
and emission characteristics in a hydrogen fuelled spark ignition engine, Int J [82] Atsuhiro Kawamura, Tadanori Yanai, Yoshio Sato, Kaname Naganuma,
Hydrogen Energy 41 (13) (2016) 5842–5855, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Kimitaka Yamane, Yasuo Takagi, Summary and progress of the hydrogen
ijhydene.2016.02.026. ice truck development project, SAE Int J Commer Veh 2 (1) (2009) 110–117,
[58] Ryo Ono, Masaharu Nifuku, Shuzo Fujiwara, Sadashige Horiguchi, Tetsuji Oda, https://doi.org/10.4271/2009-01-1922.
Minimum ignition energy of hydrogen-air mixture: Effects of humidity and [83] Naganuma K, Takagi Y, Kawamura A, Sato Y. Study of NO x Emissions
spark duration, J Electrostat 65 (2) (2007) 87–93, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Reduction Strategy for a Naturally Aspirated 4-Cylinder Direct Injection
elstat.2006.07.004. Hydrogen ICE . SAE Tech Paper 2010;1. doi:10.4271/2010-01-2163.
[59] Bilge Albayrak Ceper, Experimental investigation of the effect of spark plug [84] Tanno S, Ito Y, Michikawauchi R, Nakamura M. High-Efficiency and Low-NOx
gap on a hydrogen fueled SI engine, Int J Hydrogen Energy 37 (22) (2012) Hydrogen Combustion by High Pressure Direct Injection SAE Tech Paper
17310–17320, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.08.070. 2014;3:259–68. doi:10.4271/2010-01-2173.
_
[60] Habib Gürbüz, Ismail Hakkı Akçay, Dinçer Buran, An investigation on effect of [85] Nande AM, Wallner T, Naber J. Influence of Water Injection on Performance
in-cylinder swirl flow on performance, combustion and cyclic variations in and Emissions of a Direct-Injection Hydrogen Research Engine. SAE Tech
hydrogen fuelled spark ignition engine, J Energy Inst 87 (1) (2014) 1–10, Paper 2010;1. doi:10.4271/2008-01-2377.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2012.03.001. [86] Younkins M, Wooldridge MS, Boyer BA. Port Injection of Water into a DI
[61] X. Cheng, S. Baigang, H. Zhen, Investigation on Jet Characteristics of Hydrogen Hydrogen Engine. SAE Tech Paper 2015;2015-April. doi:10.4271/2015-01-
Injection and Injection Strategy for Backfire Control in a Port Fuel Injection 0861.

1578
Balu Jalindar Shinde and K. K. Materials Today: Proceedings 51 (2022) 1568–1579

[87] Naganuma K, Honda T, Yamane K, Takagi Y. Efficiency and Emissions- methane gas and hydrogen blend, Appl Therm Eng 124 (2017) 585–594,
Optimized Operating Strategy of a High-pressure Direct Injection Hydrogen https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.06.067.
Engine for Heavy-duty Trucks SAE Int. J. Engines vol.2, Issue 2 2009-01- [98] DOE. Hydrogen Safety Facts-Hydrogen and Fuel Cell http://www.
2683,132–40. hydrogenandfuelcellsafety.info
[88] Huayong Zhao, Richard Stone, Lei Zhou, Analysis of the particulate emissions [99] T. Nejat Veziroğlu, Sümer Sßahi_n, 21st Century’s energy: Hydrogen energy
and combustion performance of a direct injection spark ignition engine using system, Energy Convers Manag 49 (7) (2008) 1820–1831, https://doi.org/
hydrogen and gasoline mixtures, Int J Hydrogen Energy 35 (10) (2010) 4676– 10.1016/j.enconman.2007.08.015.
4686, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.02.087. [100] Vivek P. Utgikar, Todd Thiesen, Safety of compressed hydrogen fuel tanks:
[89] F. Amrouche, P. Erickson, J. Park, S. Varnhagen, An experimental investigation Leakage from stationary vehicles, Technol Soc 27 (3) (2005) 315–320, https://
of hydrogen-enriched gasoline in a Wankel rotary engine, Int J Hydrogen doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.04.005.
Energy 39 (16) (2014) 8525–8534, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [101] Glenn W. Scheffler, Jake DeVaal, Gery J. Kissel, Jesse Schneider, Michael
ijhydene.2014.03.172. Veenstra, Tommy Chang, Naoki Kinoshita, George Nicols, Hajime Fukumoto,
[90] Joonsuk Kim, Kwang Min Chun, Soonho Song, Hong-Kil Baek, Seung Woo Lee, Developing safety standards for FCVS and hydrogen vehicles, SAE Tech Paper
The effects of hydrogen on the combustion, performance and emissions of a 1 (1) (2009) 598–604, https://doi.org/10.4271/2008-01-0725.
turbo gasoline direct-injection engine with exhaust gas recirculation, Int J [102] H. Knorr, W. Held, W. Prümm, H. Rüdiger, The MAN hydrogen propulsion
Hydrogen Energy 42 (39) (2017) 25074–25087, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. system for city buses, Int J Hydrogen Energy 23 (1998) 201–208, https://doi.
ijhydene.2017.08.097. org/10.1016/S0360-3199(97)00045-1.
[91] Yaodong Du, Xiumin Yu, Jinlong Wang, Haiming Wu, Wei Dong, Jiaqi Gu, [103] S. Kamiya, M. Nishimura, E. Harada, Study on introduction of CO2 free energy
Research on combustion and emission characteristics of a lean burn gasoline to Japan with liquid hydrogen, Phys Procedia 67 (2015) 11–19, https://doi.
engine with hydrogen direct-injection, Int J Hydrogen Energy 41 (4) (2016) org/10.1016/j.phpro.2015.06.004.
3240–3248, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.12.025. [104] Mintz M, Folga S, Gillette J, Molburg J. Hydrogen: On the Horizon or Just a
[92] J.M. Gomes Antunes, R. Mikalsen, A.P. Roskilly, An experimental study of a Mirage? SAE Tech Paper 2010;1. doi:10.4271/2002-01-1927.
direct injection compression ignition hydrogen engine, Int J Hydrogen Energy [105] Alan Richardson, Ravi Gopalakrishnan, Tejas Chhaya, Stephen Deasy, Jacob
34 (15) (2009) 6516–6522, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.05.142. Kohn, Design Considerations for Hydrogen Management System on Ford
[93] N. Saravanan, G. Nagarajan, An experimental investigation on hydrogen fuel Hydrogen Fueled E-450 Shuttle Bus, SAE Int J Commer Veh 2 (1) (2009) 101–
injection in intake port and manifold with different EGR rates, Int J Energy 109, https://doi.org/10.4271/2009-01-1422.
and Environ 1 (2010) 221–248. [106] R.J. Natkin, X. Tang, K.M. Whipple, D.M. Kabat, W.F. Stockhausen, Ford
[94] P.K. Bose, Banerjee Rahul, Deb Madhujit, Effect of hydrogen-diesel Hydrogen Engine Laboratory Testing Facility, SAE 2002 World Congress
combustion on the performance and combustion parameters of a dual (2002–01-0241.).
fuelled diesel engine, Int J Energy and Environ 4 (2013) 497–510. [107] , Electric Transportation Applications.HICEV America Vehicle Specificatioin.
[95] Tarkan Sandalcı, Yasin Karagöz, Experimental investigation of the (2004).
combustion characteristics, emissions and performance of hydrogen port [108] R. Sierens, J. Demuynck, Paepe M De, S. Verhelst, R. Sierens, J. Demuynck,
fuel injection in a diesel engine, Int J Hydrogen Energy 39 (32) (2014) 18480– et al., Heat Transfer Comparison between Methane and Hydrogen in a Spark
18489, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.09.044. Ignited Engine, Energy & Environment 78–6 (2010).
[96] J. Arroyo, F. Moreno, M. Muñoz, C. Monné, Experimental study of ignition [109] Joachim Demuynck, Michel De Paepe, Henk Huisseune, Roger Sierens, Jeroen
timing and supercharging effects on a gasoline engine fueled with synthetic Vancoillie, Sebastian Verhelst, Investigation of the influence of engine
gases extracted from biogas, Energy Convers Manag 97 (2015) 196–211, settings on the heat flux in a hydrogen and methane-fueled spark ignition
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.03.061. engine, Appl Therm Eng 31 (6-7) (2011) 1220–1228, https://doi.org/10.1016/
[97] J. Liu, X. Duan, Z. Yuan, Q. Liu, Q. Tang, Experimental study on the j.applthermaleng.2010.12.023.
performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a high [110] A. Wimmer, F. Gerbig, Hydrogen direct injection a combustion concept for
compression ratio heavy-duty spark-ignition engine fuelled with liquefied the future, AutoTechnology 6 (2006) 52–55, https://doi.org/10.1007/
BF03246937.

1579