MODULE 2

COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

MODULE OUTCOME (Course Outcome 2):

 After navigating this module, you will present the collected data using different
formats.

INTRODUCTION

This module is designed to provide you with the different types of data, methods of data
collection and the ways with which data is presented.
VOCABULARY LIST (Keywords to Remember)
experimental graphs tabular histogram

observation textual frequency distribution

LESSON 1: METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you must have:

 identified the different types of data;

 employed the different methods of data collection;
 presented data in different formats; and
 constructed a frequency distribution table.

Introduction

This lesson begins by discussing the different types of data, the different methods of
data collection and then showing the different ways they are presented.
TYPES OF DATA
Data are measurements or observations of variables from every individual or object
under consideration. Data may be quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data are expressed
as numbers such as height, weight, or age while qualitative data are attributes or characteristics
such as hair color, race, or gender. They are classified into primary and secondary data.

Primary data are obtained directly from the source of information.

Secondary data are obtained usually from publications or existing records.

Note: Sometimes we call unprocessed or untransformed data as raw data.

COLLECTION OF DATA

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 There are several ways by which data may be collected. These are experimental method,
observation method, survey method, use of existing records, and registration method.
1. Experimental Method
Data are collected under controlled conditions. Usually experiments are done in a
laboratory (physical, biological, and chemical experiments), in a field (agricultural
experiments), or in the classroom (educational experiments).
2. Observation Method
Data are collected by recording the behavior at the time of the occurrence. This
method is commonly employed in psychological or behavioral researches.

3. Survey Method
Data are provided by identified respondents either by personal interviews or by
mailed questionnaires.
4. Use of Existing Records
Data are collected from published materials like reports, personal files, historical
records, from the world wide web (internet), and from other sources of media.
5. Registration Method
The respondents provide information in compliance to certain laws, policies, rules,
regulations and/or decrees.

PRESENTATION OF DATA

Data in its raw form need to be organized in order to extract the maximum amount of
information from them. Organized data are then presented either in textual, tabular, or
graphical form. These methods are usually in combination with each other to present a given set
of data.

1. Textual Presentation
Data are presented in narrative form to describe the data. Highlights of the data are
mentioned in the textual presentation. Numerical measures that summarize the data such as
mean and standard deviation can serve as highlights. A more comprehensive description of the
data is provided because of the written explanation of its nature.

Example:
Based on the preliminary data released by the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS)
and National Food Authority (NFA) on August 14, 2018, rice stocks as of July 01, 2018 reached
2,226.1 thousand metric tons, distributed as follows: households – 54.5%, commercial
establishment – 21.1% and NFA – 24.4%. The stock inventory is good for 84 days supply with
around 46 days stored in the households, 18 days in the commercial warehouses and 20 days in
NFA depositories. The July 01, 2018 inventory was 14.8% higher than the inventory recorded
on June 01, 2018, placed at 1,939 thousand metric tons.

Source: National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB)

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2. Tabular Presentation
In a tabular presentation, data is presented in condensed form by arranging them
systematically in rows and columns. The simplest form of a statistical table that can be
constructed to present data collected is the frequency distribution table.
A frequency distribution table is a tabular arrangement of the data by grouping the
values into mutually exclusive classes and showing the number of observations falling in each
category. There are two types of frequency distribution tables: Ungrouped and grouped.
a) Ungrouped Frequency Distribution or Categorical Frequency Distribution
In an ungrouped frequency distribution table, the distinct values are used as
categories (classes) and with its corresponding frequencies. This is useful only if the
data has few distinct values. It is, particularly, useful for qualitative types of data.

Example 1 shows the blood type of patients afflicted with HIV/AIDS.

Table 1.0 Blood Types of Twenty-five Patients Afflicted with HIV/AIDS

Blood Type Number of Patients

O 7
A 6
B 7
AB 5

TOTAL N=25

Example 2 shows the raw data taken from a survey of 40 households on the number of
cellphones that they own.

Table 1.1a Number of Cell phones per Household

2 0 3 1 2 1 0 4
2 1 1 7 2 0 1 1
0 2 2 1 3 2 2 1
1 4 2 5 2 3 1 2
2 1 2 1 5 0 2 5

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 Table 1.1b A Frequency Distribution for Table 1.1a

Observed event Frequency

Number of cell Number of
phone, households, f, with x This row indicates
that there are 14
x cell phone households with two
cell phones.
0 5
This column shows the 1 12
actual data from Table 2 14
1.1a 3 3 This column counts
4 2 the number of
5 3 households having
6 0 the corresponding
7 1 number of cell
phones
Total N=40

b) Grouped Frequency Distribution

This type of frequency distribution table is useful if we have large data sets. In
this, the data is transformed as intervals. These intervals are usually mutually exclusive.
This type of tabular presentation is commonly used for quantitative data.

Example:

Table 1.2a Frequency Distribution Table of the Distance Travelled (in km.) from a
Warehouse by 25 Delivery Trucks of ABC Company.
Classes Frequency
70 - 74 1
65 - 69 5
60 - 64 9
55 - 59 7
50 - 54 3
Total N = 25

Grouped frequency distribution table can be presented using an upside down

format in which the highest frequency is located at the bottom such as shown in Table
1.2b.
Table 1.2b Frequency Distribution Table of the Distance Travelled (in km.) from a
Warehouse by 25 Delivery Trucks of ABC Company.
Frequenc
Classes
y
50 - 54 3
55 - 59 7
60 - 64 9
65 - 69 5
70 - 74 1
Total N = 25

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3. Graphical Presentation
Data collected can also be presented in pictorial from. This form is known as a graph or
a chart. Graphs are so constructed to attract and hold the interest of readers. Common types of
graphs are: line graph, bar graph, and pie graph.
When constructing graphs, the following qualities must be considered. A good graph is:
a) Accurate – should not be deceptive, distorted, or misleading
b) Simple – should be straightforward, not loaded with irrelevant or trivial symbols
and ornamentation
c) Clear – should be easily read and understood.

TYPES OF GRAPHS
1. Line Graph – useful for showing trends that change over a period of time.
For example:

Figure 2.1 The Main Crops Harvested in the Philippines Last 2018 (in Million Metric
Tons)

2. Bar Graph – consists of a series of rectangular bars where the length of the bar
represents the magnitude/frequency to be presented or demonstrated.
For example:

Figure 2.2 The Military Personnel of the Philippines (in hundred thousand)
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority

3. Pie Graph – uses a circle which is divided into sectors in such a way that the area of
each sector is proportional to the size of the quantity represented by that sector.
For Example:

Total Budget: 1.0 Trillion Pesos (Year 2018)

Figure 2.3 Philippine Department with Their Shared Budget (in Billion)

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Other forms of graphical presentations
The following are the other forms of graphical presentation which can be used to
present other data. These are: pictograph, stem-and-leaf plot, and box-and-whisker plot.
These will be presented only for your familiarization.

4. Pictographs – Pictures or symbols are used to depict certain quantity or volume.

Example.

Figure 2.6 Number of Heart Transplant Conducted by Six Selected Hospitals in

the Philippines Last 2019

5. Stem-and-leaf Display. Sometimes called stem-plot or stem-and-leaf plot. Similar to a

histogram but provides more information since it preserves all of the first few digits of the
data values. There are two types of stem-and-leaf display. These are: single stem-and-leaf
display and back-to-back stem-and-leaf display.

a) Single Stem-and-Leaf Display

Example

Figure 2.7 Medical Expenses (in Peso) of Twenty-Eight Senior Citizens

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 b) Back-to-back Stem-and-Leaf Display

Example.

Figure 2.8 Test Scores of Two Classes Taking the Same Examination

6. Box-and-whisker Plot. A visually appealing and useful way to present a five-number

summary (lowest and highest values observed, first and third quartiles, and median); useful
for displaying the following features of the data: location, spread, and symmetry; allows
easy comparison of the center and spread of data collected for two or more groups.
Example. Draw the box-and-whisker plot of a data set with the following information:
Minimum value = 26; Maximum value = 73
Median = 43, First quartile, Q1 = 39 Third quartile, Q3 =51.5
Answer

GRAPHICAL DISPLAY OF THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

1. Frequency Polygon – graphical presentation of a frequency distribution table (FDT) that
uses midpoint as an axis while frequency on the y-axis.

Figure 2.4 The Ages of One Hundred Senior Citizens

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2. Histogram – a bar graph of a frequency distribution table in which class boundaries are
represented by the width of the bars and the frequencies that fall within the classes are
represented by the height of the bars.

3. Ogive – line graphs of cumulative frequencies against the class boundaries.

CONSTRUCTING A GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Now let us make our own frequency distribution table. But first let us get acquainted with
the elements of our grouped frequency distribution table. Using Table 1.2b as reference:
Table 1.2b

Classes Frequency
Lower limit
50 - 54 3
55 - 59 7 Upper limit
Number of classes, 9
60 - 64
k=5
65 - 69 5
70 - 74 1 Total number of observations

Total N = 25

Class size or class width, c = difference between two consecutive lower or upper limits
55 – 50 or 64 – 59 or 70 – 65, etc.
Note: There is only one class size so you choose only one.
But how do you construct a grouped frequency distribution given a data set? First, let us
observe the following guidelines:
1. There should be between 5 and 20 classes. Although there is no hard-and-fast rule for the
number of classes contained in a frequency distribution, it is of the utmost importance to
have enough classes to present a clear description of the collected data.

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2. It is preferable but not absolutely necessary that the class width be an odd number. This
ensures that the midpoint of each class has the same place value as the data.
Note: Rule 2 is only a suggestion, and it is not rigorously followed, especially when a
computer is used to group data.

3. The classes must be mutually exclusive. Mutually exclusive classes have no overlapping class
limits so that data cannot be placed into two classes. The classes must be continuous. Even if
there are no values in a class, the class must be included in the frequency distribution. There
should be no gaps in a frequency distribution. The only exception occurs when the class
with a zero frequency is the first or last class. A class with a zero frequency at either end can
be omitted without affecting the distribution.
5. The classes must be exhaustive. There should be enough classes to accommodate all the
data.
6. The classes must be equal in width. This avoids a distorted view of the data. One exception
occurs when a distribution has a class that is open-ended. That is, the class has no specific
beginning value or no specific ending value. A frequency distribution with an open-ended
class is called an open-ended distribution. Here are two examples of distributions with
open-ended classes.

Let us now proceed with constructing our grouped frequency distribution. Follow the
steps I have outlined below.
Step 1. Determine the range, r = highest observed value – lowest observed value
Step 2. Determine the number of classes, k

k =√ n , where n is the number of observation/cases in the data.

Note: k should be rounded up to the nearest whole number. For example, 2.8 is
rounded up to 3 and 2.11 is also rounded up to 3. If there is no remainder, add one
more class to accommodate all the data.
You may also choose the number of classes arbitrarily.
Step 3. Calculate the class size or class width, c.
r
c= (c should be rounded up to the nearest number that has the same number of
k
decimal places as the raw data)

Step 4. Enumerate the classes or categories. The lowest class must include the smallest
observed value.

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Step 5. After defining the classes, tally the observations to determine the class frequencies.
Step 6. Build additional columns (as needed) to obtain other information about distributional
characteristics of the data. These are: Class Boundaries (CB) – it is halfway between the
upper limit of a class and the lower limit of the succeeding class.
a) Class Mark or Midpoint (CM) – average of the lower and upper limits of a class
interval.

b) Relative Frequency (RF) – divide the frequency of that class by the total number of
observations.

c) Relative Percentage (RP) – multiply the relative frequency by 100.

d) Cumulative Frequency (CF) – the accumulated frequency of a class.

i) “less than” CF (<CF) of a class is the total number of observations whose values
do not exceed the upper limit of the class.

ii) “greater than” CF (>CF) of a class is the total number of observations whose
values are not less than the lower limit of the class.

Example. Consider the age of 100 senior citizens in a certain municipality.

90 87 86 63 87 71 89 76 71 75 60 74 72 73 61
60 84 82 68 88 71 89 76 71 75 75 77 75 69 60
90 81 83 68 78 79 79 69 68 87 60 88 70 65
60 78 60 63 78 76 64 70 68 75 76 75 79 77
61 77 62 66 66 62 64 67 68 75 75 80 72 75
61 77 62 68 66 77 66 67 76 76 65 88 69 67
84 75 75 68 63 77 66 67 68 76 80 70 73 75

Using the steps outlined above, construct a frequency distribution table of the given
data.
Step 1. Determine the range. The highest age is 90 and the lowest age is 60.
r = HV – LV r = 90 – 60 r = 30

Step 2. Determine the number of classes.

k =√ 100
k = 10 (the actual number of classes should be 10+1=11)
Step 3. Calculate the class size
k 30
c= c= c=3
r 10
Step 4. Enumerate the classes. You may select a starting point as your lowest class limit. This
can be the smallest data value or any convenient number less than the smallest data value. In
this case, 60 is the lowest value, class size is 3 so add 3 to 60 to get the lower limit of the next

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class. Keep adding 3 until you have 11 classes. For the upper limits, add (c -1) to the lower
limits. 60 + (3-1) = 62, and so on.
Step 5. Tally the observations
to determine the class
frequencies.

Step 6. Class Boundaries (CB) – it is halfway between the upper limit of a class and the lower
limit of the succeeding class. For the first class, subtract 0.5 from the lower limit. Thus, 60-0.5 =
59.5 is the lower-class boundary of the first class. For the last class, the upper-class boundary is
the upper limit of that class, 92 + 0.5 = 92.5. The upper boundary of one class is the lower
boundary of the succeeding class.
(62 + 63)/2 = 62.5, (65+66)/2 = 65.5, and so on.
Now here is the completed frequency distribution table.

Figure 2.0 Age of 100 Senior Citizens

Did you get the correct answers? If so, proceed to Lesson 2.3. Otherwise, repeat the procedure until
you get the correct answers.

CONSTRUCTING CUMULATIVE GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

For the <Cf column

1st class interval - start with the first
frequency, 12
2nd class interval – add its frequency to
the frequency of the first class
interval, 7+12=19
3rd class interval – add its frequency to the
result, 19+17=36
And so on.

For the >Cf column

Start with the last class interval
11
11th class interval - start with the
last frequency, 2
 Practice Exercises

These data represent the record high temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit ( oF) for each
of the 50 states.

1. Using the blank table below, construct a grouped frequency distribution for the given data
using 7 classes. Then answer the questions which follow.

Solution:

Step 1. r = HV – LV r = ________________
Step 2. The number of classes is given as 7
Step 3. Calculate the class size c = _____________________
Step 4. Write the class intervals. Start with the lowest value found in the given data set.
Step 5. Make a tally.
Step 6. Compute the class boundaries.
End of process.

Create a table similar to this

Class Intervals/
Class limits Class boundaries Tally Frequency

From your frequency distribution table (fdt), identify the following:

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First class interval ___________________________

Fourth class interval ___________________________

Lower limit of the 2nd class interval ___________________________

Upper limit of the 4th class interval ___________________________

Lower boundary of the fifth interval ___________________________

Higher boundary of the 3rd interval ___________________________

Frequency of the 7th interval ___________________________

2. Given a frequency distribution table. Fill up the <Cf and >Cf columns.

Class Intervals/
Frequency <Cf >Cf
Class limits
55– 64 4
65 – 74 9
75 – 84 17
85 – 94 20
95 – 104 13
105 – 114 10
115- 124 2
n = 75

From your frequency distribution table (fdt), identify the following:

total number of observations ___________________________

Cumulative frequency less than 104 ___________________________

Cumulative frequency greater than 105 ___________________________

Cumulative frequency less than 84 ___________________________

Cumulative frequency more than 65 ___________________________

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SUMMARY
Data collection is important in any statistical activity. There are several ways by which
data may be collected. These are experimental, observation, survey, use of existing records, and
registration methods.

Collected data are then presented either in textual, tabular, or graphical form. Common
types of graphs are the line graph, and pie graph or pie chart. Other types of graph are the
pictograph, stem-and-leaf plot, and box-and-whisker plot. The frequency distribution table is
constructed for large data sets. It can be presented graphically by the use of a histogram,
frequency polygon, or an ogive. Cumulative frequency tables (less than and greater than) are
also useful in summarizing the given data.

REFERENCES
1. Belecina, R., et.al. (2016). Statistics and probability. Manila: Rex.
2. Bluman, Allan G. (2012). Elementary Statistics. A Step by Step Approach retrieved from
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Elementary-Statistics%3A-A-Step-By-Step-
Approach-Bluman/06b7b73bb7de6fca598a8487d8302ffa7eface3e
3. Chu, Kathy, et al(2013). Elementary Statistics retrieved from file:///C:/Users/D
%20gonsalez/Desktop/SLSU%20MCC%20FILES/elementary-statistics-4.1.pdf
4. Lane, David et al (nd)Introduction to Statistics Online edition retrieved from
http://onlinestatbook.com/Online_Statistics_Education.pdf
5. Triola, Mario F. (2007). Elementary Statistics, 7th Edition
6. http://erho.weebly.com/uploads/2/7/8/4/27841631/s101-fe-003.pdf
7. https://www.classcentral.com/course/basic-statistics-4312

Congratulations for completing Module 2.

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