WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

PART 1

1. What is propagation model?

Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary transmitter – receiver separation
distance are useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a transmitter.

2. What are the two types of propagation model?

The propagation models are classified mainly into two types:

1. Outdoor propagation model.

2. Indoor propagation model.

Outdoor propagation models

In the mobile communication system radio transmission often takes place over discontinuous terrain. The
terrain profile may vary from a simple curved earth profile to a highly mountainous profile. The presence of
trees, buildings, and other obstacles also must be taken into account. A number of propagation models are
available to predict path loss over irregular terrain.

Indoor Propagation Models

It provides a alternative in to the nature of propagation over irregular terrain and the losses occurred due to
obstacles in a radio path. The disadvantage of this model is it cannot assumes propagation effects due to
foliage, buildings, and other manmade structures and does not supports multi path communication.

3. What are the two types of path loss model?

 FreeSpacePathLoss computes the loss of signal power in a single line-of-sight propagation path,
without any reflections or shadowing.
 TwoRayGroundReflection computes the loss of signal power by assuming a line-of-sight wave
interfering with another wave reflected from the ground between the transmitter and the receiver. This
model computes interference in the far-field only and is the same as free space path loss up until a
certain crossover distance.

4. What is the necessity of Link budget?

A link budget is a design aid, calculated during the design of a communication system to determine the
received power, to ensure that the information is received intelligibly with an adequate signal-to-noise ratio.

5. Explain basic link budget equation?

 A link budget is an accounting of all of the power gains and losses that a communication signal experiences
in a telecommunication system; from a transmitter, through a communication medium such as radio
waves, cable, waveguide, or optical fiber, to the receiver. It is an equation giving the received power from the
transmitter power, after the attenuation of the transmitted signal due to propagation, as well as the antenna
gains and feedline and other losses, and amplification of the signal in the receiver or any repeaters it passes
through. A link budget is a design aid, calculated during the design of a communication system to determine
the received power, to ensure that the information is received intelligibly with an adequate signal-to-noise
ratio. Randomly varying channel gains such as fading are taken into account by adding some margin
depending on the anticipated severity of its effects. The amount of margin required can be reduced by the use
of mitigating techniques such as antenna diversity or frequency hopping.
A simple link budget equation looks like this:
Received power (dBm) = transmitted power (dBm) + gains (dB) − losses (dB)
Power levels are expressed in (dBm), Power gains and losses are expressed in decibels (dB), which is
a logarithmic measurement, so adding decibels is equivalent to multiplying the actual power ratios.

6. What is free space propagation model?

Friis free space propagation model is used to model the line-of-sight (LOS) path loss incurred in a free space
environment, devoid of any objects that create absorption, diffraction, reflections, or any other characteristic-
altering phenomenon to a radiated wave.

7. Explain friis free space equation?

The Friis equation is the basic equation used to calculate open-space communication links. It assumes
reflection-free propagation where the far field depends on distance as 1/r, while the power density falls off as
1/r2. In this case, the ratio of received to transmitted power is found as
PrPt=(1−|Γt|2)(1−|Γr|2)FPL(λ4πr)2Gt(θt,φt)Gr(θr,φr),
where Γt and Γr are the reflection coefficients at the terminals of the transmitting and receiving
antennas, Gt and Gr are their respective gains, and FPL is the polarization loss factor due to polarization
mismatch between the two antennas, ρρFPL=|ρˆt⋅ρˆr|. The polarization vectors of the transmitting and
receiving antennas, ρρˆt and ρρˆr, must be evaluated in a common coordinate system, as explained previously.
If the antennas’ main beams are not aligned, then their gains are taken at the respective angular
positions: (θt,φt) is the angular position of the receiving antenna in the coordinate system of the transmitting
antenna, while (θr,φr) is the angular position of the transmitting antenna with respect to the receiving antenna.
The term λ2/(4πr)2 is called the free-space loss factor. It reflects two effects: (1) the spherical spread of power
as 1/(4πr2), and (2) the effective antenna aperture dependence on the wavelength as λ2/(4π).
In a multipath environment, the loss factor may deviate significantly from that of free space. Typically, it is
evaluated statistically because interference results in a highly irregular field distribution along the
communication channel.

8. Explain d-4 power law?

In statistics, a power law is a functional relationship between two quantities, where a relative change in one
quantity results in a proportional relative change in the other quantity, independent of the initial size of those
quantities: one quantity varies as a power of another. For instance, considering the area of a square in terms of
the length of its side, if the length is doubled, the area is multiplied by a factor of four.

9. Explain path loss equation of a free space propagation model.

 In telecommunication, the free-space path loss (FSPL) is the attenuation of radio energy between the
feedpoints of two antennas that results from the combination of the receiving antenna's capture area plus the
obstacle-free, line-of-sight path through free space (usually air).[1] The "Standard Definitions of Terms for
Antennas", IEEE Std 145-1993, defines "free-space loss" as "The loss between two isotropic radiators in free
space, expressed as a power ratio." It does not include any power loss in the antennas themselves due to
imperfections such as resistance. Free space loss increases with the square of distance between the antennas
because the radio waves spread out by the inverse square law and decreases with the square of
the wavelength of the radio waves. The FSPL is rarely used standalone, but rather as a part of the Friis
transmission formula, which includes the gain of antennas. It is a factor that must be included in the
power link budget of a radio communication system, to ensure that sufficient radio power reaches the receiver
such that the transmitted signal is received intelligibly.

10. Define EIRP

Equivalent isotropic radiated power, EIRP, is the total radiated power from a transmitter antenna times the
numerical directivity of the antenna in the direction of the receiver, or the power delivered to the antenna
times the antenna numerical gain. The numerical path loss is the ratio of EIRP to the power available at the
receiver, which is the output of an isotropic antenna substituted for the receiver antenna. An isotropic
radiator is an ideal antenna that radiates equally in all directions and therefore has a gain of 0 dB. Sometimes,
for clarity, the ratio is called the isotropic path loss. In free space, the isotropic path loss PL is derived and
resulting in
PLd=EIRPPr/Gr=PtGtPr/Gr=4πdλ2

11. What is path loss model?

Path loss models are used to compute the decrease in the power of a radio signal as it propagates
away from the transmitter. Path loss models are implemented by path loss modules, which are
submodules of the radio medium module. The default path loss model is most often free space path
loss, which computes attenuation according to the inverse square law along a single line-of-sight
propagation path. This is a simple model, and realistic only in certain cases, e.g. when modeling
satellite-to-satellite communications. Because of its low computational cost, it is also useful if the
emphasis of the simulation is not on the accuracy of radio propagation.

12. Define small scale fading?

Small-scale fading refers to the rapid changes of the amplitude and phase of a radio signal over a short period
of time (on the order of seconds) or a short distance (a few wavelengths).

13. Explain Two Ray ground reflection model?

The two-rays ground-reflection model is a multipath radio propagation model which predicts the path
losses between a transmitting antenna and a receiving antenna when they are in line of sight (LOS). Generally,
the two antenna each have different height. The received signal having two components, the LOS component
and the reflection component formed predominantly by a single ground reflected wave.
14. Explain received power of a Two Ray ground reflection model?

Friis propagation model considers the line-of-sight (LOS) path between the transmitter and the receiver. The
expression for the received power becomes complicated if the effect of reflections from the earth surface has
to be incorporated in the modeling. In addition to the line-of-sight path, a single reflected path is added in
the two ray ground reflection model, as illustrated in Figure 1. This model takes into account the phenomenon
of reflection from the ground and the antenna heights above the ground. The ground surface is characterized
by reflection coefficient – which depends on the material properties of the surface and the type of wave
polarization. The transmitter and receiver antennas are of heights and respectively and are separated by
the distance of meters.

Figure 1: Two ray ground

reflection model

The received signal consists of two components: LOS ray that travels the free space from the transmitter and a
reflected ray from the ground surface. The distances traveled by the LOS ray and the reflected ray are given
by

Depending on the phase difference ( ) between the LOS ray and reflected ray, the received signal may suffer
constructive or destructive interference. Hence, this model is also called as two ray interference model.

where, is the wavelength of the radiating wave that can be calculated from the transmission frequency.
Under large-scale assumption, the power of the received signal can be expressed as
where is the product of antenna field patterns along the LOS direction and is
the product of antenna field patterns along the reflected path.

15. Explain path loss equation of a Two Ray ground reflection model?

Assume two components arrive at receiver: one LOS and one reflected from the ground. For small angles of
incidence assume the reflection coefficient Γ = −1. At large distances compared to the antenna heights the two
components will have approximately equal amplitude and a small phase difference:

θδ = 2πδ λ where δ is the path length difference which can be approximated as:

δ ≈ 2hthr d

For large d (≫ √ hthr) it can be shown that:

Pr ≈ PtGtGr h 2 t h 2 r d 4 For this model the path loss varies as d 4 , the square of the antenna heights and is
independent of frequency. This approximation does not apply for distances that are short relative to the
antenna heights.

16. What are the factors influencing small scale fading?

The factors which influence small scale fading are: Multipath propagation, Speed of the mobile, Speed of
surrounding objects and the transmission bandwidth of the signal.

17. What flat fading?

In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than the bandwidth of the signal. Therefore,
all frequency components of the signal will experience the same magnitude of fading. In frequency-selective
fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the signal.

18. What is frequency selective fading?

Selective fading or frequency selective fading is a radio propagation anomaly caused by partial cancellation
of a radio signal by itself — the signal arrives at the receiver by two different paths, and at least one of the
paths is changing (lengthening or shortening).

19. Define fast fading channel?

 Fast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative to the delay requirement of the
application. In this case, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel varies considerably over the
period of use.

20. Define slow fading channel?

In a slow-fading channel, it is not possible to use time diversity because the transmitter sees only a single
realization of the channel within its delay constraint. A deep fade therefore lasts the entire duration of
transmission and cannot be mitigated using coding.

21. Define coherence bandwidth?

Bandwidth (range of frequencies) over which channel is constant is called coherence Bandwidth.

Coherence Bandwidth ~ (1/Maximum Delay Spread)

The better way to calculate coherence bandwidth is using RMS Delay Spread, as different channel will
experience different signal intensity over different delay span with same delay spread.

22. Define Doppler shift?

When a body that is emitting radiation has a non-zero radial velocity relative to an observer,
the wavelength of the emission will be shortened or lengthened, depending upon whether the body is moving
towards or away from an observer. This change in observed wavelength, or frequency, is known as
the Doppler shift.

23. Define large scale propagation model?

Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary transmitter-receiver (T-R) separation
distance which is useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a transmitter are called large-scale
propagation models, since they characterize signal strength over large T-R separation distances.

24. Define Small scale propagation model?

The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength, when unobstructed line-of-sight
path between transmitter & receiver.

25. Differentiate constructive interference and destructive interference?

Destructive interference is when two waves traveling in the same direction are aligned at the crest of one
wave and the trough of the other. The waves cancel out. Constructive interference is when two waves
traveling in the same direction overlap, and their crests combine to produce a larger wave.

26. Define Power delay profile?

The power delay profile (PDP) gives the intensity of a signal received through a multipath channel as a
function of time delay. The time delay is the difference in travel time between multipath arrivals.
The abscissa is in units of time and the ordinate is usually in decibels. It is easily measured empirically and
can be used to extract certain channel's parameters such as the delay spread.
27. Define mean excess delay?

The mean excess delay, rms delay spread and excess delay spread (X dB) are multipath channel parameters
that can be determined from a power delay profile. The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power
delay profile and is defined to be. Where P (τ) is the power measured at time τ.

28. Define RMS delay spread?

The root-mean-square (RMS) delay spread is probably the most important single measure for the delay time
extent of a multipath radio channel. Since the impulse response (IR) and the transfer function (TF) of a
channel are related by the Fourier transform, it is intuitively understandable that the TFmagnitude shows more
fades per bandwidth, the longer the IR.

29. Define maximum excess delay?

The maximum excess delay (X dB) of power delay profile is defined to be the time delay during which
multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum. In other words, the maximum excess delay is defined as
tx - t0.

30. Define Doppler spread?

Doppler spread refers to the widening of the spectrum of a narrow-band signal transmitted through a
multipath propagation channel. It is due to the different Doppler shift frequencies associated with the multiple
propagation paths when there is relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver.

31. What is FDMA?

Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) is a channel access method used in some multiple-access
protocols. FDMA allows multiple users to send data through a single communication channel, such as
a coaxial cable or microwave beam, by dividing the bandwidth of the channel into separate non-
overlapping frequency sub-channels and allocating each sub-channel to a separate user. Users can send data
through a subchannel by modulating it on a carrier wave at the subchannel's frequency. It is used in satellite
communication systems and telephone trunklines.
FDMA splits the total bandwidth into multiple channels. Each ground station on the earth is allocated a
particular frequency group (or a range of frequencies). Within each group, the ground station can allocate
different frequencies to individual channels, which are used by different stations connected to that ground
station. Before the transmission begins, the transmitting ground station looks for an empty channel within the
frequency range that is allocated to it and once it finds an empty channel, it allocates it to the particular
transmitting station.

32. What are the basic units of a Cellular system?

A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. The term cellular comes from the honeycomb shape of
the areas into which a coverage region is divided. Cells are base stations transmitting over small geographic
areas that are represented as hexagons.

33. What is base station?

A base station is a fixed communications location and is part of a network’s wireless telephone system. It
relays information to and from a transmitting/receiving unit, such as a mobile phone. Often referred to as a
 cell site, a base station allows mobile phones to work within a local area, as long as it is linked to a mobile or
wireless service provider.

34. What is MSC?

This MSc covers a range of advanced topics related to wireless communications and communications-related
signal processing, including associated enabling technologies. It provides an excellent opportunity to develop
the skills required for careers in some of the most dynamic fields in wireless communications.

35. What do you mean by forward and reverse channel?

The forward channel carries information from the base station to the mobile unit; the reverse channel carries
information from the mobile unit to the base station. The transmission channels are shown; the reception of
each channel follows the reverse sequence.

36. Define cell

Cell in wireless communication technologies, the geographical region that is covered by a transmission
facility. The term «cell» is most often used in reference to cellular phone technology, but it can also be used in
reference to the coverage areas for transmission of cordless telephones, satellite transmissions, wireless local
area networks (LANs), packet radio, and paging technologies.

37. What is channel assignment? What are the types?

Channel assignment affects the performance of the system, especially when it comes to handoffs. There are
several channel assignment strategies

Basic types Channel Assignment Strategies

A. Fixed Channel Assignment

In this channel assignment, channels are pre‐allocated to different cells meaning that each cell is assigned
a specific number of channels and the frequencies of these channels are set.

Such a channel assignment has the following aspects:

 Any call attempts in a cell after all channels of that cell become occupied gets BLOCKED
 Very simple and requires least amount of processing
 A variation of this method is the Borrowing Strategy:

a. Cells in this strategy are allowed to borrow channels from adjacent cells if their channels are fully
occupied while adjacent cells have free channels

b. MSC (Mobile Switching Center) monitors the process and gives permission to borrowing cell to
borrow channels putting in mind

 donating cell is not affected by the borrowing process,

 No interference will occur by moving the channel from one cell to another.

B. Dynamic Channel Assignment

In this channel assignment, channels are NOT pre‐allocated to any cells meaning that any channel can be
allocated to any desired cell during the operation of the system.
 Such a channel assignment has the following aspects:

 MSC (Mobile Switching Center)monitors all cells and all channels,

 Each time a call request is made, serving BS requests a channel from the MSC,
 MSC runs an algorithm that takes into account:

1. Possibility of future blocking in cells

2. Frequency being used for channel

3. The reuse distance of the channel

 MSC assigns a channel only if it is not used and if it will not cause co‐channel interference with
 any cell in range,
 This algorithm provides higher capacity (less blocking),
 It requires huge computational power,
 MSC collects real‐time data of channel occupancy, traffic distribution, and radio signal strengths
 Indicators (RSSI).

38. What are the techniques used to expand the capacity of cellular system?

Techniques such as cell splitting, sectoring, and coverage zone approaches are used in practice to expand the
capacity of cellular systems. Cell splitting allows an orderly growth of the cellular system. Sectoring uses
directional antennas to further control the interference and frequency reuse of channels.

39. What is meant by frequency reuse?

Technique for using a specified range of frequencies more than once in the same radio system so that the total
capacity of the system is increased without increasing its allocated bandwidth.

40. What is Multiple Access?

Multiple access is a technique that lets multiple mobile users share the allotted spectrum in the most effective
manner. Since the spectrum is limited, the sharing is necessary to improve the overall capacity over a
geographical area. This is carried out by permitting the available bandwidth to be used simultaneously by
different users. In computer networks and telecommunications, the multiple access method permits various
terminals to connect to the same multi-point transmission medium to transmit over it and share its capacity.

41. What is co channel interference?

Co-channel interference or CCI is crosstalk from two different radio transmitters using the same channel. Co-
channel interference can be caused by many factors from weather conditions to administrative and design
issues. Co-channel interference may be controlled by various radio resource management schemes.

42. Define adjacent channel interference.

Adjacent-channel interference (ACI) is interference caused by extraneous power from a signal in an adjacent
channel. ACI may be caused by inadequate filtering (such as incomplete filtering of
unwanted modulation products in FM systems), improper tuning or poor frequency control (in the reference
channel, the interfering channel or both).

43. Define Grade of service.

 Grade of service is the probability of a call in a circuit group being blocked or delayed for more than a
specified interval, expressed as a vulgar fraction or decimal fraction. This is always with reference to the busy
hour when the traffic intensity is the greatest. Grade of service may be viewed independently from the
perspective of incoming versus outgoing calls, and is not necessarily equal in each direction or between
different source-destination pairs. "Grade of Service" sometimes means a measure of inbound call
center traffic to verify adherence to conditions to measure the success of customers served.

44. What is blocked call clear system?

In a system, a user is blocked without access by a system when no channels are available in the system . The
call blocked by the system is cleared and the user should try again .This is called BCC system

45. What is blocked call delay system?

Blocked Calls Delayed: This system does not offer queuing for call request. It is a memory less system. For
every user who requests service, it is assumed there is no setup time and the user is given immediate access to
a channel if one is available.

46. Define cell splitting.

Cell splitting is a means of increasing the capacity of a cellular system by subdividing or splitting cells into
two or more smaller cells.

47. What is cell sectoring?

Cell sectoring is used to increase the cellular system capacity through reducing the co-channel interference.
Traditional sectoring is fixed sectoring with 3 or 6 sectors and identical sector size. It is efficient to mitigate
the interference in case of uniform traffic in a cell.

48. What is TDMA?

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone communication technology. It
facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference. Its technology divides a signal into
different timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.

49. What is CDMA?

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that facilitates various signals to occupy a
single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of available bandwidth. The technology is commonly used in
ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems, bands ranging between the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz.

50. Write is microcell zone concept

The increased number of hand off, increase load on the switching and control link because of sectoring. A
solution to this problem is given by microcell zone concept. Large control base station is replaced by several
lower power transmitters on the age of cell.

PART 2
1. With diagram explain the system model for MIMO systems.

Multiple-In, Multiple-Out (MIMO) communication sends the same information as several signals
simultaneously through multiple antennas, using a single radio channel.

MIMO System
It uses multiple antennas to improve signal quality and strength of an RF link channel in a form of antenna
diversity. The data are divided into multiple data streams at the transmission point and rearranged on the
receive side by another MIMO radio configuration with the same number of antennas.

Basically, a communication medium may be affected by signal fading and this will affect the signal to noise
ratio. If these can be made to be affected in different ways by the signal path, the probability that they will all
be affected at the same time is considerably reduced. Accordingly, diversity helps to stabilize a link and
improves performance, reducing error rates.

Spatial multiplexing and spatial diversity two methodologies are used to provide improvements in the signal
to noise ratio (SNR) and they are characterized by improving the reliability of the system with respect to the
various forms of fading.

2. Discuss about the operation of spatial multiplexing systems.

Spatial multiplexing is a MIMO wireless protocol that sends separate data signals or streams between
antennae to enhance wireless signal performance or functionality. It is a type of “spatial diversity” and an
engineering trick that helps to increase the possibilities for various types of end-to-end transmission.

3. Explain the operation of transmit precoding and receiver precoding schemes?

Precoding is a technique that exploits transmit diversity by weighting the information stream, i.e. the
transmitter sends the coded information to the receiver to achieve pre-knowledge of the channel. The receiver
is a simple detector, such as a matched filter, and does not have to know the channel state information. This
technique will reduce the corrupted effect of the communication channel.

4. Why is beam forming important for wireless systems, With illustration explain transmit beam forming,
receive beam forming and opportunistic beam forming.

Beamforming is a technique that focuses a wireless signal towards a specific receiving device, rather than
have the signal spread in all directions, like from a broadcast antenna. The resulting direct connection is faster
and more reliable than it would be without beamforming.

Downlink Transmitter-Side Beam Adjustment

Downlink transmitter-side beam adjustment aims at refining the network transmit beam, given the receiver
beam currently used at the device side. To enable this, the device can measure on a set of reference signals,
corresponding to different downlink beams. Assuming analog beam forming, transmissions within the
different downlink beams must be done in sequence, that is, by means of a beam sweep.

Downlink Receiver-Side Beam Adjustment

Receiver-side beam adjustment aims at finding the best receive beam, given the current transmit beam. To
enable this, the device should once again be configured with a set of downlink reference signals that, in this
case, are transmitted within the same network-side beam (the current serving beam). As outlined in Fig. 12.3,
the device can then do a receiver-side beam sweep to measure on the configured reference signals in sequence
over a set of receiver beams. Based on these measurements the device may adjust its current receiver beam.

The opportunistic beamforming is a multiple input single output system that provides higher diversity on the
downlink in slow fading systems [6]. The diversity gain results in higher data rates for the users. This
scheme does not require any extra hardware changes and can be easily implemented in the cellular
systems of common usage. It is the interesting feature of the opportunistic beamforming. To achieve higher
data rate, reliable and a system with high
spectral efficiency the exploitation of multiuser diversity has received considerable attention in recent times.
The concept of opportunistic communication is a practical consideration of a system to benefit from use of
multiuser diversity.

5. Using diagrams explain transmit diversity and receive diversity.

Transmit Diversity
MISO = Multiple Input Single Output
Principle

 More complex than SISO.

 2 or more transmitters and one receiver.
 MISO is more commonly referred to as transmit diversity.
 The same data is sent on both transmitting antennas but coded in such a way that
the receiver can identify each transmitter.

Benefits

 Transmit diversity increases the robustness of the signal to fading and can increase
performance in low Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) conditions.
 It does not increase data rates as such, but rather supports the same data rates using
less power.
When the eNodeB uses 2 antennas in DL to transmit twice the same data, it is the diversity in
transmission, also called the TxDiv. It improve the quality and the coverage at the cell edge.
Receive Diversity
SIMO = Single Input Multiple Output
Principle

 It uses one transmitter and 2 or more receivers.

 It is often referred to as receive diversity.

Benefits

 It is particularly well suited for low SNR conditions in which a theoretical gain of 3 dB
 is possible when two receivers are used.
 No change in the data rate since only one data stream is transmitted, but coverage
 at the cell edge is improved due to the lowering of the usable SNR.

6. Explain the working principle of nonlinear equalizer based on decision feedback equalizer

The basic limitation of a linear equalizer, such as the transversal filter, is the poor perform on channel having
spectral nulls. A decision feedback equalizer (DFE) is a nonlinear equalizer that uses previous detector
decision to eliminate the ISI on pulses that are currently being demodulated. In other words, the distortion on
a current pulse that was caused by previous pulses is subtracted.
Decision feedback Equalizer
 Figure shows a simplified block diagram of a DFE where the forward filter and the feedback filter can each be
a linear filter, such as transversal filter. The nonlinearity of the DFE stems from the nonlinear characteristic of
the detector that provides an input to the feedback filter. The basic idea of a DFE is that if the values of the
symbols previously detected are known, then ISI contributed by these symbols can be canceled out exactly at
the output of the forward filter by subtracting past symbol values with appropriate weighting. The forward and
feedback tap weights can be adjusted simultaneously to fulfill a criterion such as minimizing the MSE.

The advantage of a DFE implementation is the feedback filter, which is additionally working to remove ISI,
operates on noiseless quantized levels, and thus its output is free of channel noise.

7. Write different kind of performance of adaptive equalizer algorithm are determine the various factor
and explain.

The adaptive channel equalizer based on gradient decent least mean square (LMS) algorithm, artificial neural
network and genetic algorithm aim to minimize the inter symbol interference(ISI) present in the linear
dispersive communication channel. There are gradient decent learning algorithms such as least mean square,
which have a possibility that during training mode of the channel equalizer, its weights do not achieve
optimum values hence mean square error (MSE) falls to local minimum. In this section, we propose a new
adaptive channel equalizer, simulated using artificial neural network with various architectures and derivative
free optimization technique such as genetic algorithm(GA).The performance of proposed equalizer is
measured and analyzed in terms of mean square error and convergence rate. It is observed that adaptive
equalizer based on GA yield better performance compared to its LMS counterpart. It is found that simulated
results are true for both linear and nonlinear channels.

8. Explain the detail of maximum like hood sequence estimation (MLSE) of Nonlinear equalizer

The MSE-based linear equalizers described previously are optimum with respect to the criterion of minimum
probability of symbol error when the channel does not introduce any amplitude distortion.

MLSE Equalizer:

 Using a channel impulse response simulator within the algorithm, the MLSE tests all possible data
sequences (rather than decoding each received symbol by itself), and chooses the data sequence with the
maximum probability as the output.
 The MLSE is optimal in the sense that it minimizes the probability of a sequence error.
 The MLSE requires knowledge of the channel characteristics in order to compute the metrics for making
decisions.
 The MLSE also requires knowledge of the statistical distribution of the noise corrupting the signal.

The block diagram of a MLSE receiver based on the DFE:

.
 Figure 2.14 block diagram of a MLSE receiver based on the DFE

 Using the MLSE as an equalizer set up a basic MLSE estimator structure and implemented it with the
Viterbi algorithm. This algorithm was recognized to be a maximum likelihood sequence estimator (MLSE)
of the state sequences of a finite state Markov process observed in memoryless noise.
 It has recently been implemented successfully for equalizers in mobile radio channels.

9. Write detail operation of micro diversity in terms of Special, Temporal, Frequency, Angle polarization

We know that we normally have several independent paths from TX to Rx of different lengths, these are
affected and delayed differently, Signals that start out together at the transmitter will be separated in time
when they reach the receiver

Diversity doesn’t work with Line of Sight, This is exploiting Multipath rather than fighting it to gain big
benefits.

Diversity gain: The SNR gain given by extracting the same information from two or more independently
fading channels.

Space diversity: Multiple antennas are used to receive the signal. Antenna spacing must be such that the
fading at each antenna is independent (coherence distance).

Time diversity: Signal is transmitted in different time slots (coherence time). Channel coding plus interleaving
is used to provide time diversity. Not effective over slow fading channels. Space-time processing: Smart
antennas with antenna combining in space AND time.

Spatial multiplexing (SM): Transmission approaches where several transmit antennas carry multiple signals
independent from each other to increase data rates.

Frequency diversity: Signal is transmitted in several frequency bands (coherence BW). Not effective on flat
(non-frequency selective) channels. Techniques that exploit frequency diversity include: RAKE Receivers,
OFDM and equalization.

Polarization diversity: use two antennas with different polarization for reception and/or transmission. Using
Cross-polarized antennas for reception of a signal that, due to multiple reflections, arrives having different
polarizations.

10. What you mean by combining diversity and explain selective, switching combining diversity

Diversity combining is the technique applied to combine the multiple received signals of a diversity
reception device into a single improved signal.

 Switched combining: The receiver switches to another signal when the currently selected signal drops
below a predefined threshold. This is also often called "Scanning Combining".
 Selection combining: Of the N received signals, the strongest signal is selected. When the N signals are
independent and Rayleigh distributed, the expected diversity gain has been shown to be , expressed as a
power ratio.[2] Therefore, any additional gain diminishes rapidly with the increasing number of channels.
This is a more efficient technique than switched combining.