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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES AND DESIGN

Aircraft Design Fundamentals, Structural Loading Conditions, Structural
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and other Structural Parts, and Non-Structural Component Design

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SESSION: Aircraft Structures and Design

REVIEW LECTURER: ENGR. JUSTIN AUSTRIA
Aircraft Design

What is Aircraft Design?

Airplane design is the intellectual engineering
process of creating on paper (or on a computer
screen) a flying machine to
(1) meet certain specifications and requirements
established by potential users (or as perceived by the
manufacturer) and/or
(2) pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology. Mission Profile
• Payload and type
• Range and/or loiter requirements
• Cruise speed and altitude
• Field length for take-off and landing
• Fuel reserves
• Climb requirements
• Maneuvering requirements
• Certification base (experimental, FAR 23, FAR
25, military)

BV 141

What is the starting point in aircraft design?

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Design Requirements
1. Range.
2. Take-off distance.
3. Stalling velocity.
4. Endurance [usually important for
reconnaissance airplanes; an overall
dominating factor for the new group of very
high-altitude uninhabited air vehicles (UAVs)
that are of great interest at present].
5. Maximum velocity.
6. Rate of climb.
7. For dogfighting combat aircraft, maximum
tum rate and sometimes minimum tum
radius.
8. Maximum load factor.
9. Service ceiling.
10. Cost.
11. Reliability and maintainability.
12. Maximum size (so that the airplane will fit
inside standard hangars and/or be able to fit
in a standard gate at airline terminals).

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Suggested Approach Plate elements

Are two dimensional extensions of bar elements.
Plates made to carry only in-plane axial loads are
called membranes. Those which are capable of
carrying only in-plane shearing loads are referred to
as shear panels; frequently these are found in missile
fins, aircraft wing, and tail surfaces.

Structural System Shell elements

Any deformable solid body which is capable of are curved plate elements which occupy a space.
carrying loads and transmitting these loads to other Fuselages, building domes, pressure vessels, etc., are
parts of the body typical examples of shells.

Bar elements
Are one-dimensional structural members which are
capable of carrying and transmitting bending,
shearing, torsional, and axial loads or a combination
of all four. Bars which are capable of carrying only
axial loads are referred to as axial rods or two-force
members. Structural systems constructed entirely
out of axial rods are called trusses and frequently are
used in many atmospheric, sea, and land based
structures, since simple tension or compression
members are usually the lightest for transmitting
forces.

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Load Classification Statically Determinate and Indeterminate

Structures
Surface load- those loads which are produced by
surface contact. Examples are dynamic and/ or static A structure is said to be determinate if all its external
pressures. If the area of contact is very small, then the reactions and the internal loads on its members can
load is said to be concentrated; otherwise, it is called be obtained by utilizing only the static equations of
a distributed load. equilibrium. Otherwise the structure is said to be
Body loads- Loads which depend on body volume statically indeterminate (redundant structure)
are called body loads. Examples are inertial,
magnetic, and gravitational forces. Generally, these
loads are assumed to be distributed over the entire
volume of the body.

Dynamic loads- are time dependent, whereas static

loads are independent.

Thermal loads- are created on a restrained structure

by a uniform and/or nonuniform temperature Flight Vehicle Imposed Loads
change. The first aerodynamic data required for the
structural system analysis are the lift, drag, and
Regardless of the classifications of the externally pitching-moment force distributions for the complete
imposed loads, a structural member, in general, aircraft with the horizontal tail removed, through the
resists these loads internally in the form of bending, range of angles of attack from the negative stalling
axial, shear, and torsional actions or a combination of angles to the positive stalling angle.
the four. General Considerations
Limit loads/ Applied loads- the limit loads used by
Bending moment- may be defined as a force whose civil agencies or applied loads used by military
vector representation lies in and parallel to the plane agencies are the maximum anticipated loads in the
of the cut. entire service life-span of the vehicle. The ultimate
loads, commonly referred to as design loads, are the
Torque- is a force whose vector representation is limit loads multiplied by a factor of safety (FS):
normal to that cut.
FS = ultimate load / limit load
Shear load- is a force which lies in and is parallel to
the plane of the cut. Limit load factor- is a factor by which basic loads on
Axial loads- is a force which acts normal to the plane a vehicle are multiplied to obtain the limit loads.
of the cut

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Ultimate load factor - is a factor by which basic sudden decrease in angle of attack while flying at the
vehicle loads are multiplied to obtain the ultimate speed of Vg
loads; in other words, it is the product of the limit
load factor and the factor of safety. The gust load factors on an aircraft are greater when
it is flying at the minimum flying weight than they are
Basic Flight Loading Conditions at the gross-weight condition.

Positive High Angle of Attack (PHAA) condition- is Classes of Aircraft Structure

obtained in a pullout at the highest possible angle of
attack on the wing. The lift and drag forces are Primary Structure
perpendicular and parallel respectively, to the • A critical load-bearing structure on an aircraft
relative wind, which is shown as horizontal. • If this structure is severely damaged, the aircraft
cannot fly
Positive Low Angle of Attack (PLAA) condition -
the wing has the smallest possible angle of attack at
which the lift corresponding to the limit-load factor
may be developed. For a given lift on the wing, the
angle of attack decreases as the indicated airspeed
increases, and consequently the PLAA condition
corresponds to the maximum indicated airspeed at
which the airplane will dive.
This condition represents an upward acceleration at
its design gliding speed Vg

Negative High Angle of Attack (NHAA) condition-

occurs in intentional flight maneuvers in which the
Secondary Structure
air loads on the wing are down or when the airplane
• Structural elements mainly provide enhanced
strikes sudden downdrafts while in level flight. In this
aerodynamics
condition usually the wing is assumed to be at the
• Fairing, for instance, are found where the wing meets
negative stalling angle of attack for steady flow
the body or a various locations of the leading edge or
conditions.
trailing edge of the wing
Negative Low Angle of Attack (NLAA) condition -
occurs at the diving-speed limit of the airplane. This
condition may occur in an intentional maneuver
producing a negative load factor or in a negative gust
condition. This condition allows for the effect of a

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Monocoque
• The skin carries all the load
• Unstiffened Shell. Must be relatively thick to resist
bending, compressive, and torsional loads
• Consist of skin and frames/formers/ bulkhead

Types of Aircraft Structures

Truss Type
a rigid framework made up of members such as beams, struts,
and bars to resist deformation by applied loads.

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Semi-Monocoque
• Construction with stiffening members that may also
be required to diffuse concentrated loads into the Skin
cover
• Reacts the applied torsion and shear forces transmits
• More efficient type of construction that permits much
aerodynamic forces to the longitudinal and transverse
thinner covering shell
supporting members
• Acts with longitudinal members in resisting the
applied bending and axial loads
• Acts with the transverse members in reacting the
hoop, or circumferential, load when the structure is
pressurized

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Other Structural Terms

• Longeron - Main longitudinal member of a fuselage or
nacelle.
• Tie Rod (Tension Rod) – Member taking a tensile
load.
• Strut – Member taking a compression load.
• Stressed skin – Structure where loads are shared
between skin and framework.
• Bulkhead - A partition within the structure. Usually
lateral but can be longitudinal. If it forms the boundary
Spar of pressurized structure it is called a pressure
• Resist bending and axial loads bulkhead.
• Form the wing box for stable torsion resistance • Crack stopper - A reinforcing member normally
placed at right angles to the path of an anticipated
crack which will reduce the rate of further
propagation.
• Gussets - A flat sheet triangular in shape used to
reinforce the corners of structure.
• Keelson/Keel beam - structural element frequently
used to carry the fuselage bending loads through the
Stiffener and Stringers portion of the lower fuselage which is cut up by the
wheel wells.
• Resist bending and axial loads along with the skin
• Divide the skin into small panels and thereby increase
Aircraft Drag
its buckling and failing stresses
• Act with the skin in resisting axial loads caused by
Total Drag = Profile Drag + Induced Drag
pressurization
𝑪𝑫 = 𝑪𝑫𝒐 + 𝑪𝑫𝒊

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Exceedance Drag – Drag produced due to surface roughness.

Induced Drag – Drag induced while producing lift Could be reduce by installing flush fasteners or using flush
This type of drag decreases as speed increases repair or application of filleting sealants

𝐶𝐿 2 𝐵2
𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑅 =
𝜋𝐴𝑅 𝑆

Profile / Form Drag – Drag produced by shape and form of

the aircraft
This type of drag increases as speed increases
Part of this drag is interference drag and exceedance drag

Interference Drag - Interference Drag is generated by

the mixing of airflow streams between airframe components,
such as the wing and the fuselage, or the landing gear strut
and the fuselage.

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Shape
Fuselage
Circular Cross Section
- Efficient Structural Design
- Offers theoretically greater strength for shell structure
- Inefficient in availability of useful shape
Rectangular Cross Section
- Permits the most economical use of the space
- Not Suitable for shell structures
Oval/Elliptical Cross Section
- Best Compromise between circular and rectangular cross
section

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Frames

Just as for the ribs in the wing structure, the primary function of
the transverse fuselage frames are:
1. Maintain the shape of the fuselage
2. To sustain concentrated loads imposed
3. Serve as attachments for equipment,
flooring, and the like
4. Transmit the loads to adjacent structural
members
The frames may be roughly classified as the following:
1. Simple Frames
Simple Frames
2. Intermediate Frames
1. Serve mainly to maintain the shape of the
3. Main Frames
fuselage
2. These are not subjected to stress unless
distortion of the entire adjacent structure has
taken place
Intermediate Frames
1. Serve to act as anchorage for medium
weight equipment, control system and the
like.
2. Similar simple frames but must be reinforced
locally to carry the load and reduce
deflection to a minimum
3. Additional brackets may have to be
introduced and tied in with the longitudinal
stingers as well as the frames
4. These are not subjected to stress unless
distortion of the entire adjacent structure has
taken place
Main Frames
1. To which large external loads are supplied
through the landing gear, powerplant, or
wing structure.
2. These are usually two in number, spaced a
small distance apart and designed so as to

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take fittings to serve as carry through

members
3. Act as the main transverse load carrying
member

Stringers
Since the fuselage is essentially a beam, the longitudinal
stringers serve an important function in that they, along with
the effective width of sheet covering, are the main bending
elements of the structure.

In general, since the stringers are the main bending elements,

they should be continuous and therefore pass through the
transverse frame
.
Where local stresses are likely to be high, bracket tying the
frames and stringers together are added for greater rigidity
and load carrying capability

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The stringer spacing is determined by the number required for

the loads imposed.
Longitudinal members are spaced from 6 to 12 inches apart
around the largest cross section.
Since the cross section gradually decreases in size, the
spacing is closer towards the tail post so that alternated
members may be stopped at a forward frame.
It is desirable not to end all the longitudinal members at the
same frame.

Wings
The wing is essentially a beam that is subjected to shear,
Since the openings have to be reinforced along the edges, it is bending, and torsion imposed upon it by aerodynamics and
desirable to have the top and bottom of all frames for such inertia loads.
opening rest on longitudinal stringers.

It is customary to spot in the stringers first, in order to avoid

unnecessarily close spacing, should the desired stringer
spacing and the required stringer spacing not coincide

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Mean Aerodynamic Chord

The center of gravity of the complete airplane is placed,
usually at the maximum forward position of the center of
pressure on the mean aerodynamic chord in order to get the
desired stability
The mean aerodynamic chord is difficult to determine unless
Taper Ratio
the pressure distribution is know. Moreover, the pressure
A wing with taper is a trade-off between elliptical (least induced
distribution varies with angle of attack. It is customary
drag, difficult to manufacture) and a rectangular wing (more
therefore to use the mean geometric chord of the wing
induced drag, easy to manufacture).
instead.
▪ More taper (smaller taper ratio) means less weight
▪ More taper (small tip chord), more conducive to tip
The mean aerodynamic chord, or mean geometric chord, is
stall
determined for only 1/2 of the wing, either to the side of the
▪ Less taper means more fuel volume
fuselage, or up to the plane of symmetry for a parasol wing
▪ Tapered wings cost more than untapered wings

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Advantage:
▪ Delays drag divergence effects
▪ Used for balance
▪ Used for stability (dihedral effect)
▪ Better ride through turbulence characteristics

Disadvantage:
▪ Contributes to pitch up characteristics
▪ Performs less during take-off and landing
▪ Reduces subsonic lift
▪ Significant weight penalty
▪ Liable to tip stall

Sweepback
For Aircraft operating at high subsonic speeds, the use of the
sweepback in the planform of the wing is favored in order to
increase the critical Mach number of the wing

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Anhedral
Decrease lateral stability/ Angle varies around 3 to 6 degrees
Also known as negative dihedral or drooped wing

Wing Loading
Wing loading is weight of aircraft over wing area (W/S)
▪ Affects [a] take-off and landing field length, [b] cruise
performance (L/D), [c] ride through turbulence, and [d]
weight
Dihedral and Anhedral ▪ For a short field length, a large wing / low wing
loading is required
Affects lateral stability but may also relate to relation of lateral ▪ Wing can be kept small by using flaps
to directional Stability ▪ For cruise at (L/D)max, a high wing loading is required
▪ For flight at high altitudes and at low speeds, a large
wing is required.
▪ Of course a large wing means more weight
A low wing loading translates to a high load factor and thus
poor ride qualities

Dihedral
Increase lateral stability. Angle varies around 3 to 8 degrees

Aspect Ratio

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▪ High aspect ratio means reduced induced drag;

increased (L/D)max
▪ Also means high lift curve slope; good approach
attitude; bad ride through turbulence
▪ The higher the AR, the higher the span, the heavier

b2
AR =
S

Thickness Ratio
▪ Most important geometric consideration when
selecting and airfoil
▪ Higher thickness ratio, higher profile drag / wave drag
▪ Higher thickness ratio, lower weight
▪ Higher thickness ratio (up to 12-14%), higher Clmax
▪ Higher thickness ratio, greater fuel volume
max thickn ess
t/c =
chord

How does aspect ratio affect induced drag?

Wingtip has less area, there is less vortex induced downwash,
which means a lot less induced drag.

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Aerodynamic Twist – difference in the zero-lift angles of the

root and tip airfoil. Same as geometric twist if one type of airfoil
is used
Note: It is possible for a wing without geometric twist to have
an aerodynamic twist. This can happen, for example, when the
root and the tip are using different airfoil.

Wing Twist

Wash-out – tip airfoil has negative incidence relative to root

airfoil.

Wash-in – opposite of wash-out

▪ Washout delays tip stall

▪ May increase induced drag
▪ Less-loaded tip; less strength requirements; less
weight
Wing twist will only be optimal relative to lift distribution for one
value of coefficient of lift

Geometric Twist – one type of airfoil used, incidence is

changing relative to root chord.
Linear Twist – incidence is proportional to distance from root
airfoil.

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Angle of Incidence High Wing

The angle of incidence (sometimes referred to as the mounting ▪ Places fuselage closer to the ground; easier
angle) is the angle between the chord line of the wing where loading/unloading; adapted by cargo aircraft
the wing is mounted to the fuselage, and a reference axis ▪ Sufficient ground clearance for engine nacelle or
along the fuselage propeller; less landing gear height needed
▪ Used to minimize drag at some operating condition, ▪ Wing tips less likely to strike the ground
usually cruise. ▪ Usually less in weight (Semi-Cantiliver)
▪ set the wing at an angel to the longitudinal axis of the ▪ A strutted wing usually presents less weight but struts
fuselage corresponding to the angle at which adds to drag.
minimum drag occurs. ▪ Struts for a high wing, that is struts below the wing,
▪ Used to improve attitude offer less drag compared to struts above the wing
▪ Usually at 1-3 degrees ▪ Weight savings for placing wing box at the top; no
fuselage stiffening necessary; however, increased
frontal area adds to drag
▪ For a STOL aircraft, a high wing provides ground
clearance for the large flap necessary for high CL
▪ Prevents floating (ground effect is reduced) which
makes it hard to land on desired spot
▪ STOL aircraft are usually designed to operate in
unimproved fields; High wing places engines and
propellers away from rocks and debris
▪ Landing gear is installed to the fuselage rather than
the wing to reduce strut length
▪ Fuselage needs stiffening; means more weight
▪ External blisters (landing gear housing) might be
necessary; means added weight and drag
▪ Fairing where wing connects to the circular fuselage
is necessary
▪ Flattened bottom will provide desired floor height but
means more weight
Wing Vertical Position

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Mid Wing
▪ Needs fuselage stiffening; means more weight
▪ Carry-through structure will limit space for a
passenger or cargo aircraft; difficult to incorporate in a
fighter aircraft in which most of the fuselage is
occupied by the jet engines and inlet ducts

Low Wing
▪ Landing gear can be attached to (and retracted into)
the wing which is already strong with no stiffening
(and no external blisters) necessary
▪ Allows for a shorter landing gear strut which means
less weight; however there still must be enough
ground clearance Multi-Wing
▪ Given enough ground clearance, aft-fuselage
▪ upsweep can be reduced, reducing drag
▪ Commonly adapted by large commercial transports
which normally operate in well-equipped airfields;
loading and unloading is not a problem
▪ Ground clearance problems may be alleviated by a
dihedral; but too much dihedral can cause Dutch roll
tendencies.
▪ Placing the propellers higher above the wing
increases interference effects and cruise fuel
consumption.

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Terms:
Gap– the vertical distance between the two wings
Span Ratio – the ratio between the shorter to the longer wing
Stagger – the longitudinal offset of the two wings relative to
each other (positive, when upper wing is closer to the nose;
negative, otherwise)
Decalage – relative incidence between the two wings (positive,
when upper wing has a larger incidence; negative, otherwise)
Sesquiplane – Biplane that has smaller lower wing than the
upper wing

Spar Cap (flange):

These consist of the upper and lower flanges attached to the
spar webs. The spar caps carry the bending moment
generated by the wing in flight. The upper spar cap will be
loaded in compression and the lower in tension for a positive
load factor (wing bending upward). The spar caps also form a
boundary onto which wing skin is attached and support the
wing skin against buckling. Concentrated load points such as
engine mounts or landing gear are attached to the main spar.

Spar web:
The spar web consists of the material between the spar caps
Wing Spar
and maintains a fixed spacing between the them. This allows
In general, a spar is though of as a member having a relatively
the spar caps to act in pure tension and compression
large material in the flanges, chords, or caps located at the top
(bending) during flight. The spar web is responsible for
and bottom member, with a relatively thin shear web
carrying the vertical shear loads (lift) which arises from the
connecting the two.
aerodynamic loading of the wing. The spar webs and caps are
• The spar is designed to be subjected to shear,
collectively referred to as the wing spar
bending and torsion.
• Form the wing box for stable torsion resistance
• It may be classified as tension-field beam or shear
resistant beam

Location
Front Spar = 12 to 17 % chord
Rear Spar = 65% to 75%. Usually 70% to accommodate 25%
chord aileron
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Tension-field beam Stringers

- allows the shear web to wrinkle, and this the transverse shear The primary purpose of stringers in wings is to add bending
is resisted by tension in more or less the same way as wire- strength to the wings
braced truss. The stringer spacing is determined by the number required for
- relatively light the loads imposed.
- will not wrinkle would not occur until load limit was imposed, Longitudinal members are spaced from 6 to 12 inches apart
so that a loads less than the load limit, the spar can be around the largest cross section.
considered a shear resistant beam Since the cross section gradually decreases in size, the
spacing is closer towards the tail post so that alternated
members may be stopped at a forward frame.
It is desirable not to end all the longitudinal members at the
same frame.

Shear resistant Beam

- designed so that the shear web will not wrinkle under limit
loads
- In order to increase the shear load that the web can
withstand, stiffeners are attached at specified intervals

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Ribs
The primary function of the ribs in the wing are
1. to maintain the chordwise shape of the airfoil
2. Act as supports of the wing skin panel or envelope
3. Transmit the pressures on the wing to the spanwise
members

In some cases, they also serve to act as the support members

to which the landing gear members or engine mount members
are attached or as support for fuel tanks, control systems and
localized loads.

In turn, such ribs transmit the loads to the spanwise spars. Wing Attachments
Externally braced - Semi-Cantilever
- reduction of the bending moment imposed produces Lighter
structure
- Any gain in wing structure may be offset by the additional
supporting structure
- Causes more drag

The spacing of ribs may be determined by the need to prevent

oil canning of the skin or by the optimum panel proportions.
For preliminary considerations, rib spacing from 6 to 18 inches
may be assumed

Internally braced/bolted - Cantilever

- No external brace
- May be heavier due wing junction will carry the bending
moment
- Less drag

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Wing Tips
Wingtip devices are intended to improve the efficiency of fixed-
wing aircraft by reducing drag. There are several types of wing
tip devices which function in different manners, their intended
effect is always to reduce an aircraft's drag by partial recovery
of the tip vortex energy. Such devices increase the
effective aspect ratio of a wing without greatly increasing
the wingspan

▪ A sharp tip is more effective than a rounded tip in

alleviating tip vortex effects
▪ The Hoerner tip is the most widely used low-drag
wingtip
▪ Tip curved upwards/downwards increase effective
span without increasing actual span
▪ A swept wing tip addresses the condition that vortices
tend to be located at the trailing edge of the wing tip;
increases torsional load
▪ Cut-off forward swept is used for supersonic aircraft;
part with little lift is cut-off; reduced torsional load
▪ The endplate is an intuitive solution to the leakage of
the high pressure flow below the wing to the low
pressure flow above it.
▪ Adds to wetted area, and therefore drag
▪ Might be better to just add to the span instead
▪ Solution to a short span requirement

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The positive factors and offsetting factors that contribute to the

performance improvement can be listed as follows:
Positive factors:
• Induced drag is reduced at takeoff and cruise.
• Shock drag is sometimes reduced a little at cruise
due to the change in spanload produced by the
device.
Offsetting factors:
• Profile drag is increased due to:
– Increased wetted area.
– Junction flows, high sectional loadings, etc.
• Weight is increased due to:
Vertical Stabilizers
– The weight of the device itself. – The weight of
• The Vertical Tail surface consist of the fixed surface
attachment fittings.
and the movable surface (rudder)
– Increases in the weight of the existing wing
• Its function is to provide directional stability and
structure due to increases in static loads and to meet
control in flight
flutter and fatigue requirements
• It is very important that these tail surfaces be located
that they are not blanketed by the fuselage
Wing Fuel Tanks
Integral fuel tank
Aspect Ratio
• areas inside the aircraft structure that have been
• The aspect ratio of the vertical tail surface may
sealed to allow fuel storage
somewhat restricted by the possible torsional moment
• Inspection panels must be provided to allow internal
imposed on the fuselage
inspection, repair, and overall servicing
• Typical aspect ratio is around range 2 to 4

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(2) transmit the loads on the fin to greater number of the

fuselage frames
(3) reduce torsional moment about the longitudinal axis
(4) reduce height of the vertical tail
(5) possible weight saving

Ventral Fin
Located below the fuselage
More effective since area is not blanketed by the fuselage

Area
• Dependent on the distance from C.G.
• Range from 10 to 15 percent of wing area
• Rudder is around 30 to 50 percent of stabilizer area
Tail Length

• Located at the distance from C.G to the estimated CP

of the horizontal or vertical stabilizer is form 2.5 to Single Vertical Tail
3.5 times the wing mean geometric chord ▪ Lighter construction
▪ Fuselage blankets the vertical Stabilizer

Dorsal Fin

May be added to increase the fin area

(1) increase directional stability of the original surface

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Multiple Vertical Tail Conventional Tail

▪ Undistrubed flow in vertical tails at high angles of ▪ It works! Adapted by about 70% or more of aircraft in
attack service (Raymer)
▪ May enhance engine out control in multiengine ▪ Relatively lightweight
aircraft with the rudders positioned in the propwash ▪ Horizontal tail is in the wake of the wing
▪ Endplate effect on the horizontal tail; reduced size ▪ Does not allow for an aft-mounted engine
possible ▪ Low horizontal tails are best for stall recovery
▪ Heavier than conventional

Horizontal Stabilizer T-Tail

▪ Heavier than conventional due to strengthening of the
• Horizontal Tail consist of the horizontal stabilizer and vertical tail to support the horizontal tail
the elevator ▪ Allows for a smaller vertical tail due to end plate effect
• This should be located that any blanketing by the ▪ Horizontal tail is clear of wing wake and propwash
wing or the fuselage is avoided. ▪ Allows for an aft-mounted engine
• Partial blanketing usually exist, however certain ▪ Prone to deep stall due wing blanketing at High angle
features may be incorporate to limit the effect. of attack
• Conventional airplane locate the tail surface about 2.5
to 4 MAC length behind the CG to assure reasonable
static longitudinal stability

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▪ Pushes wing aft; bigger pitching moments due to

flaps
▪ Canard is closer to CG; less effective pitch control;
surface must be increased; resulting in more trim drag
▪ Pitch up tendencies are avoided

Canard
▪ Contributes to lift; higher aspect ratio for reduced
induced drag; greater camber for increased lift
▪ Theoretically more efficient than an aft-tailed aircraft;
wing lift reduced - smaller wing; in aft-tailed aircraft,
tail produces negative lift for stability – wing must
produce more lift – bigger wing.

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Three (3) Plane

V-Tail ▪ Theoretically offers minimum trim drag
▪ May allow for a reduced wetted area ▪ Additional weight; more interference drag; complexity
▪ Reduced interference drag
▪ Control/Actuation complexity
▪ Adverse roll-yaw coupling
▪ Surfaces are out of the wing wake

Aircraft yaws right with tendency to roll left (counter-clockwise)

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Flight Controls

Design Consideration
Weight of the aileron, elevator, rudder & flaps controls is
assumed to be a function of Wingspan

Primary Flight Controls

Ailerons
• control roll about the longitudinal axis.
• attached to the outboard trailing edge of each wing
• move in the opposite direction from each other.
• Around 25 to 27% chord of the wing

Adverse Yaw -is the natural and undesirable tendency for an

aircraft to yaw in the opposite direction of a roll.

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The downward deflected aileron produces more lift as

evidenced by the wing raising, it also produces more drag.
This added drag causes the wing to slow down slightly. This
results in the aircraft yawing toward the wing which had
experienced an increase in lift (and drag). Coupled Ailerons and Rudder
Corrects for aileron drag by automatically deflecting the rudder
Differential Ailerons at the same time the ailerons are deflected
one aileron is raised a greater distance than the other aileron
is lowered for a given movement

Frise-Type Ailerons
when pressure is applied to the control wheel or control stick,
the aileron that is being raised pivots on an offset hinge. This
projects the leading edge of the aileron into the airflow and
creates drag

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Flaperons
Combine both aspects of flaps and ailerons. A mixer is used to
combine the separate pilot inputs into this single set of control Elevator
surfaces • The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis.
An aileron flap combination could be employed whereby the • When the control column is pulled, the elevator goes
aileron function would take place form any flap position up and aircraft pitches up
• When the control column is pushed, the elevator goes
down and aircraft pitches down

Inboard and Outboard Aileron

• Both inboard and outboard Aileron operate at low
speed to give maximum control
• Only inboard Aileron operates at high speed to avoid
over control The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis.
Stability, power, thrust line, and the position of the horizontal
tail surfaces on the empennage are factors in elevator
effectiveness controlling pitch.

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• When the rudder is deflected into the airflow, a

horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction.
• Rudder effectiveness increases with speed; therefore,
large deflections at low speeds and small deflections
at high speeds may be required to provide the desired
reaction

Secondary Flight Controls

Flaps
Attached to the trailing edge of the wing, increase both lift and
induced drag for any given AOA

Plain Flaps
It increases the airfoil camber, resulting in a significant
Factors that affect Elevator effectivity
increase in the coefficient of lift (CL) at a given AOA.
• Distance from C.G
It greatly increases drag and moves the center of pressure
• Aerodynamic effectiveness of surface
(CP) aft on the airfoil
• Thrust Line
• position of the horizontal tail surfaces on the
Split Flaps
empennage
The split flap is deflected from the lower surface of the airfoil
Rudder
and produces a slightly greater increase in lift than the plain
• The rudder controls movement of the aircraft about its
flap. More drag is created because of the turbulent air pattern
vertical axis. This motion is called yaw
produced behind the airfoil
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Slotted Flaps Leading Edge Devices

The high energy air from the slot accelerates the upper surface
boundary layer and delays airflow separation, providing a Fixed Slot
higher CL. Higher CL than lain and split Flap Direct airflow to the upper wing surface and delay
airflow separation at higher angles of attack. The slot does
Fowler Flaps not increase the wing camber, but allows a higher maximum
Instead of rotating down on a hinge, it slides CL because the stall is delayed
backwards on tracks. In the first portion of its extension, it
increases the drag very little, but increases the lift a great deal
as it increases both the area and camber. Moveable Slot
At low angles of attack, each slat is held flush against the
wing’s leading edge by the high pressure that forms at the
wing’s leading edge. Opening a slat allows the air below the
wing to flow over the wing’s upper surface, delaying airflow
separation

Leading Edge Flap

used to increase both CL-MAX and the camber of the wings.
frequently used in conjunction with trailing edge flaps and can
reduce the nose-down pitching

Leading Edge Cuff

Increase both CL-MAX and the camber of the wings. The fixed
nature of leading edge cuffs extracts a penalty in maximum
cruise airspeed

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Spoilers
Deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing
lift and increasing drag.

• Roll Spoiler - used for roll control, an advantage of

which is the elimination of adverse yaw.
• Speed Brake - allows the aircraft to descend without
gaining speed
• Ground Spoiler - destroying lift, they transfer weight
to the wheels, improving braking effectiveness.
Usually, all spoilers are deployed

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Trim tab / Trim System

• Trim systems are used to relieve the pilot of the need
to maintain constant pressure on the flight controls,
• Aerodynamically assist movement and position of the
flight control surface to which they are attached.
• Typically .15 to .20 area of the rudder and elevator

Trim Tabs goes the opposite direction of the desired control

movement.

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Anti-Servo Tab
• Works same as Balance tabs that aerodynamically
assist in moving control surface
• Only difference is that they move on same direction
as control surface

Ground Adjustable Tab

• This tab is bent in one direction or the other while on
the ground to apply a trim force to the rudder.
• The correct displacement is determined by trial and
error.
Balance Tabs
• Usually, small adjustments are necessary until the
• Balance tabs aerodynamically assist in moving
aircraft no longer skids left or right during normal
control surface
cruising flight.
• It is coupled to the control surface rod so that when
the primary control surface is moved in any direction,
the tab automatically moves in the opposite direction
• They look like trim tabs and are hinged in
approximately the same places as trim tabs.

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Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer Slipping Turn

Rather than using a movable tab on the trailing edge of the • Angle of bank is too great for the rate of the turn
elevator, some aircraft have an adjustable stabilizer. • Too much aileron, too little rudder

Skidding Turn
• rate of turn is too great for the bank angle
• Too much Rudder, too little Aileron

• With this arrangement, linkages pivot the horizontal

stabilizer about its rear spar.
• This is accomplished by use of a jackscrew mounted
on the leading edge of the stabilator

Windows
Windscreens and flight deck windows of many aircraft use
electrically heated systems to prevent ice from obscuring the
vision of the flight crew
Cockpit windows are typically made of the 3 plies with
conductive coating in between.

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Blade Element Theory

• the variation in airfoil shape and blade angle along
the length of a propeller blade compensates for
differences in rotational speed and allows for a more
even distribution of thrust along the blade.
• as a propeller blade rotates at a fixed rpm, each
blade- segment moves through the air at a different
velocity. V = 2πr x rpm

Propeller
The purpose of the propeller is to pull the airplane through the
Air.
It does this by means of the thrust obtained by the action of the
rotating blades on the air
The Aircraft propeller normally consist of two or more blades
and central hub by which are attached to a shaft driven by the
Engine

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Types of Installation in the level takeoff attitude with the critical

1. Tractor propeller mounted on the front of an engine tire(s) completely deflated and the
and pull an aircraft through the air. corresponding landing gear strut bottomed.
2. Water clearance - at least 18 inches between
each propeller and the water,
3. Structural clearance
1. At least one inch radial clearance between
the blade tips and the airplane structure,
plus any additional radial clearance
necessary to prevent harmful vibration;
2. At least one-half inch longitudinal clearance
between the propeller blades or cuffs and
stationary parts of the airplane; and
2. Pusher propeller - mounted on the aft end of an 3. Positive clearance between other rotating
aircraft and push an airplane through the air. parts of the propeller or spinner and
stationary parts of the airplane.
Propeller Pitch
Pitch
• refers to the distance a spiral threaded object moves
forward in one revolution. As a wood Screw moves
forward when turned in wood, same with the propeller
move forward when turn in the air.
Geometric pitch
• is theoretical distance a propeller would advance in
one revolution.
• tan-1 pitch angle 2r
Propeller Clearance: Effective pitch
1. Ground clearance. • is the actual distance a propeller advances in one
1. Seven inches (for each airplane with nose revolution in the air. The effective pitch is always
wheel landing gear) shorter than geometric pitch due to the air is a fluid
2. Nine inches (for each airplane with tail wheel and always slip.
landing gear) between each propeller and
the ground with the landing gear statically
deflected and in the level takeoff, or taxiing
attitude, whichever is most critical. In
addition, there must be positive clearance
between the propeller and the ground when

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because of the higher pitch, cruise propeller are very

inefficient during take-off and climb out.

Ground- adjustable propeller

• the ground adjustable propeller operates as a fixed
pitch propeller. The pitch or blade angle can be
changed only when the propeller is not turning. This is
done by loosening the clamping which hold the
blades in place after the clamping mechanism which
Types of Propeller: hold the blades in place. After the clamping
Fixed Pitch mechanism has been tightened. The pitch of the
• a fixed pitch propeller has the blade pitch, or blades cannot be change in flight to meet variable
blade angle, built into the propeller. The flight requirements. Like the fixed-pitch propeller.
blade angle cannot be changed after the • The ground adjustable propeller is used on airplanes
propeller built of low power, speed, range, or altitude.
• a fixed pitch propeller installed on a light • ground adjustable propellers utilized either clamp
aircraft has a diameter between 67 and 76 rings or bolts to secure the hub valves and holds
inches and a pitch between 53 and 68 the blade tightly.
inches
• aircraft manufacturers are normally designed
blade pitch in inches at 75% radius

Automatic (Aeromatic ) propeller

• uses to balance between the aerodynamic twisting
1. Standard propeller - to provide the best all around force to maintain a relatively constant speed for any
performance under normal circumstances. given throttle setting
2. Climb propeller - a propeller with the lower blade • the forces were amplified by offsetting the blades
angle provides the best performance for take-off and from the hub with a pronounced lag angle to
climb. the low blade angle allows the engine to • increase the effect of the centrifugal twisting force
develop its maximum rpm at the slower airspeed trying to move the blades into a low pitch, and by
associated with the climb out. However once the installing counter weights on the blade roots to help
aircraft reaches its cruising altitude and begins to move the blades into the high pitch.
accelerate the, low blade angle becomes inefficient.
3. Cruise propeller – is designed to be efficient at
cruising speed at high altitude flight, however

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Constant-Speed propeller Gyroscopic precession

• other called variable pitch or controllable-pitch
The turning propeller of an airplane also exhibits
propeller
characteristics of a gyroscope – rigidity in space and
• the main advantage of constant speed propeller is
precession. The characteristic that produces a left-turning
that it converts a high percentage of the engines
tendencies is precession.
power into thrust over a wide range of rpm and
airspeed combinations Gyroscopic precession is the resultant reaction of an object
• the primary reason why a constant-speed propeller is when force is applied. The reaction to a force applied to a gyro
more efficient than other propellers is because it acts 90° in the direction of rotation
allows the operator to select the most efficient engine
rpm for the given conditions

Effect of Propeller on Aircraft

Propeller torque effect

In airplanes with a single engine, the propeller rotates

clockwise when viewed from the pilot’s seat. Torque can be
understood most easily by remembering Newton’s third law of
motion. The clockwise action of a spinning propeller causes a
torque reaction which tends to rotate the airplane counter-
clockwise about its longitudinal axis. P-Factor / Asymmetrical Thrust

Generally, aircraft have design adjustments which compensate When a single-engine airplane is at high angle of attack, the
for torque while in cruising flight. For example, some aircraft descending blade of the propeller takes a greater “bite” of air
have aileron trim tabs which correct for the effects of torque at than the ascending blade on the other side. The greater bite is
various power settings. caused by higher angle of attack for the descending blade,
compared to the ascending blade.

This creates the uneven, or asymmetrical thrust, which is

known as P-factor. P-factor makes an aircraft yaw about its
vertical axis to the left.

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Landing Gear
• Support the weight of the aircraft when it is on the
Spiraling slipstream / Propwash ground
• As the propeller rotates, it produces a backward flow • Absorb the impact loads during landing and taxi
of air, or slipstream, which wraps around the airplane.
• Enable the aircraft to decelerate after landing and
This spiraling slipstream causes a change in the aborted take off
airflow around the vertical stabilizer.
• Enable the aircraft to move and maneuver on the
• Due to the direction of the propeller rotation, the ground
resultant slipstream strikes the left side of the vertical
fin and causes a yaw to the left.

Critical Engine

On propeller aircraft, there is a difference in the

remaining yawing moments after failure of the left or the right
(outboard) engine when all propellers rotate in the same
direction due to the P-factor
Landing Gear Configuration

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Single Main Conventional / Trail Dragger

▪ Employed by many sailplanes for its simplicity ▪ More propeller ground clearance
▪ Less drag and weight
▪ Easier lift production due to attitude, hence initial AOA
▪ Inherently unstable (ground looping)
▪ Limited ground visibility from cockpit
▪ Inconvenient floor attitude

Bicycle
• Flat attitude take-off and landing; aircraft must have
high lift at low AOA (high AR with large camber and/or
flaps)
• Used by aircraft with narrow fuselage and wide wing
span (e.g. B-47, U2)

Design Consideration:
If the tail wheel is too close to the front wheels or the front
wheels are close together in relation to span of the wing,
the aircraft may ground loop, a phenomenon in which the
airplane may pivot on one wheel, meanwhile dragging a
wing tip along the ground
If brakes were immediately used upon level landing, the
inertia of the airplane might be sufficient to nose it over. It
is necessary to put the wheels farther forward for landing
gear employing brakes than one without.

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Tricycle
▪ Stable on the ground; can be landed with a large
“crab angle” (nose not aligned with runway)
▪ Improved forward ground visibility
▪ Flat cabin floor for passenger and cargo loading

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1. There must be positive means to keep the landing

gear extended
2. There must be an emergency means for extending
the landing gear
3. There must be a position indicator

Fixed Landing Gear

Many small, single engine light aircraft have fixed landing
gear, as do a few light twins.
This means the gear is attached to the airframe and
remains exposed to the slipstream as the aircraft is flown.

Shock Absorbing and Non-Shock Absorbing Landing

Gear
Spring Steel and Composites
do not actually absorb these shocks but rather accept the
energy in some form of elastic medium and return it at a
rate and time that the aircraft can accept.

Retractable Landing Gear

Retractable landing gear stow in fuselage or wing
compartments while in flight.
Once in these wheel wells, gear are out of the slipstream
and do not cause parasite drag.
Most retractable gear have a close fitting panel attached
to them that fairs with the aircraft skin when the gear is
fully retracted
NOTE:
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Rigid Gear
transmit all the loads of landing touchdown directly to the Shock struts /Oleo struts
airframe's structure.
The most widely used shock absorber for aircraft is the air-oil
Some of the shock is absorbed by the elasticity of the tires. shock absorber. The cylinder of this strut is attached to the
aircraft structure, and a close fitting piston is free to move up
and down inside the cylinder.

Bungee cord
Some aircraft use rubber doughnuts or as a bungee cord,
which is a bundle of small strands of rubber encased in a
loosely woven cloth tube to cushion the shock of landing.
Rubber bungee cords accept both landing impact and taxi
shocks

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Braking System

Independent Master Cylinder

In general, small, light aircraft and aircraft without hydraulic
systems use independent braking systems. An independent
brake system is not connected in any way to the aircraft
hydraulic system.
Master cylinders are used to develop the necessary hydraulic
pressure to operate the brakes. This is similar to the brake
system of an automobile.
In most brake actuating systems, the pilot pushes on the tops
of the rudder pedals to apply the brakes.
A master cylinder for each brake is mechanically connected to
the corresponding rudder pedal (i.e., right main brake to the Boosted Brakes
right rudder pedal, left main brake to the left rudder pedal). In an independent braking system, the pressure applied to the
When the pedal is depressed, a piston inside a sealed fluid- brakes is only as great as the foot pressure applied to the top
filled chamber in the master cylinder forces hydraulic fluid of the rudder pedal. Boosted brake actuating systems augment
through a line to the piston(s) in the brake assembly. the force developed by the pilot with hydraulic system pressure
The brake piston(s) push the brake linings against the brake when needed.
rotor to create the friction that slows the wheel rotation. The boost is only during heavy braking. It results in greater
Pressure is increased throughout the entire brake systems and pressure applied to the brakes than the pilot alone can provide.
against the rotor as the pedal is pushed harder. Boosted brakes are used on medium and larger aircraft that do
not require a full power brake actuating system.
A boosted brake master cylinder for each brake is
mechanically attached to the rudder pedals. However, the
boosted brake master cylinder operates differently.

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Power Brakes
Large and high performance aircraft are equipped with power
brakes to slow, stop, and hold the aircraft.
Aircraft Angles
Power brake actuating systems use the aircraft hydraulic
system as the source of power to apply the brakes.
The pilot presses on the top of the rudder pedal for braking as
with the other actuating systems. The volume and pressure of
hydraulic fluid required cannot be produced by a master
cylinder.

Instead, a power brake control valve or brake metering valve

receives the brake pedal input either directly or through
linkages.

The valve meters hydraulic fluid to the corresponding brake

assembly in direct relation to the pressure applied to the pedal.

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Analysis and Design of Airframe Components, Landing Gears, Engine Mounts
and other Structural Parts, and Non-Structural Component Design

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Neutral Static Stability (Neutral) – The aircraft has a

tendency to maintain its current attitude after being influenced
by gust of air or some other perturbation
Negative Static Stability (Unstable) – The aircraft will
continue to change attitude after being influenced by gust of air
or some other perturbation

Longitudinal Stability
Longitudinal Stability is influenced by the position of the wing’s
C.G. and C.P.. This stability affects the design of the horizontal
stabilizers and elevator.

Stability
Stability is the tendency for the airplane to return to its previous
attitude once disturbed.
For an airplane, static stability means that if a gust of air or
some other perturbation causes a change in its current state
such as heading, it will experience a restoring force

Static Stability Positive Longitudinal Static Stability (Stable) – C.G. is in

front of the C.P. If a gust affects the wing, the C.G. will torque
down to its original attitude
Neutral Longitudinal Static Stability (Neutral) – The aircraft
has a tendency to maintain its current attitude after being
The ball in the bowl illustrates a statically stable system. If it is influenced by gust of air or some other perturbation
displaced from the bottom, it will tend to return. An increase in Negative Longitudinal Static Stability (Unstable) – C.G. is
the steepness of the sides of the bowl corresponds to an at the back of the C.P. If a gust affects the wing, the C.G.
increase in stability. torque the wing backwards and increase angle of attack.
If one turns the bowl over, we have an illustration of static
instability. If the ball is moved from the exact center of the Longitudinal Stability is influenced by the position of the wing’s
bowl, it will continue to move away. C.G. and C.P.. This stability affects the design of the horizontal
The ball on the table illustrates neutral stability. If the ball is stabilizers and elevator .
moved, it will tend to stay in its new position.
The following should be considered to take longitudinal stability
Positive Static Stability (Stable) – The aircraft has tendency in aircraft design:
to return to its original attitude after being influenced by gust of • Distance of C.G to the horizontal stabilizer
air or some other perturbation • Size of the horizontal stabilizer
• Size of the Elevator

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES AND DESIGN

Aircraft Design Fundamentals, Structural Loading Conditions, Structural
Analysis and Design of Airframe Components, Landing Gears, Engine Mounts
and other Structural Parts, and Non-Structural Component Design

FOR 1AERO REVIEW PURPOSES ONLY FOR 1AERO REVIEW PURPOSES ONLY FOR 1AERO REVIEW PURPOSES ONL

The following affects lateral stability in an aircraft:

• Wing placement
• High wing – Laterally stable
• Low wing – Laterally destabilizing
• Dihedral
• Wing Sweep

The vertical stabilizer also provides resistance to Roll.

Lateral stability also affects Directional stability

Lateral Stability Directional Stability

An airplane is said to possess lateral static stability if after Directional stability is the stability in the yaw axis, and gives
undergoing a disturbance that rolls it to some bank angle ø rise to the vertical stabilizer.
[Greek letter theta], it generates forces and moments that tend The desire for directional stability is to have the airplane
to reduce the bank angle and restore the equilibrium flight always
condition. line itself with the wind. So, if a gust temporarily perturbs the
direction the nose is pointed, the tail will have a nonzero
angle of attack with the airflow. This causes a restoring force to
realign the tail with the direction of travel.

The following affects lateral stability in an aircraft:

• Wing Sweep
• Stabilizer side and distance
• For single engine size is influenced by vertical height
of forward fuselage and needed to counter propeller
rotation effects and adverse yaw in a turn.

For multi-engine the size of the tail is dictated by the torque

caused by the loss of one engine. The tail should compensate
the torque caused by net thrust being off center.

Dynamic Stability
Static stability deals with the tendency of the airplane when
disturbed to return to its original flight attitude. Dynamic
stability deals with how the motion caused by a disturbance
changes with time.

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES AND DESIGN

Aircraft Design Fundamentals, Structural Loading Conditions, Structural
Analysis and Design of Airframe Components, Landing Gears, Engine Mounts
and other Structural Parts, and Non-Structural Component Design

FOR 1AERO REVIEW PURPOSES ONLY FOR 1AERO REVIEW PURPOSES ONLY FOR 1AERO REVIEW PURPOSES ONL

Dutch Roll
Dutch roll is a result of positive lateral stability with a weak
Positive Dynamic Stability - When the airplane pitched up, directional stability.
there was a restoring force (statically stable). The path Strong lateral stability begins to restore the aircraft to level
oscillates through the original altitude and with the oscillations flight. At the same time, somewhat weaker directional stability
decreasing with time attempts to correct the sideslip by aligning the aircraft with the
Neutral Dynamic Stability - The airplane is statically stable perceived relative wind.
because there is a restoring force. But the amplitude of the Since directional stability is weaker than lateral stability for the
oscillations in this case does not decrease with time particular aircraft, the restoring yaw motion lags significantly
Negative Dynamic Stability - Again the airplane is statically behind the restoring roll motion. The aircraft passes through
stable but the amplitude of the oscillations increases with time level flight as the yawing motion is continuing in the direction of
the original roll. At that point, the sideslip is introduced in the
Phugoid opposite direction and the process is reversed.
Phugoid motion is a trade between kinetic and potential
energy, that is, speed and altitude. It occurs at a constant
angle of attack so as the speed increases, so does the lift. The
extra lift causes the airplane to increase altitude. As it does,
the airspeed falls off, decreasing lift, and thus eventually
altitude.

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES AND DESIGN

Aircraft Design Fundamentals, Structural Loading Conditions, Structural
Analysis and Design of Airframe Components, Landing Gears, Engine Mounts
and other Structural Parts, and Non-Structural Component Design

FOR 1AERO REVIEW PURPOSES ONLY FOR 1AERO REVIEW PURPOSES ONLY FOR 1AERO REVIEW PURPOSES ONL

Spiral Divergence
Spiral Divergence is a result of positive directional stability with
a weak lateral stability.

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