Effect on Capacitance

The junction capacitance of a diode is formed due to the depletion region acting as a dielectric between the
P-type and N-type regions. This capacitance depends on the width of the depletion region, which, in turn, is
affected by the doping levels.

 Higher Doping: A heavily doped diode has a narrower depletion region and thus higher junction
capacitance. This is particularly important in high-frequency applications, where junction capacitance
can affect the switching speed and overall performance.
 Lower Doping: Lower doping levels result in a wider depletion region and lower capacitance. This is
beneficial in some applications, such as RF circuits, where lower capacitance allows for better high-
frequency performance.
1. Thermal Noise (Johnson-Nyquist Noise)

 Cause:
o Arises due to the random thermal motion of charge carriers in the junction's resistive elements.
 Characteristics:
o Present in all resistive components, even in the absence of a current.
o The noise power (PPP) is given by: P=4kBTRΔf Where:
 kB: Boltzmann constant.
 TTT: Absolute temperature (Kelvin).
 RRR: Resistance.
 Δf\Delta fΔf: Bandwidth.
 Frequency Dependence:
o Independent of frequency (white noise).

2. Shot Noise

 Cause:
o Due to the discrete nature of charge carriers (electrons and holes) crossing the junction.
o Occurs in forward-biased p-n junctions due to the random emission of carriers over the barrier.
 Characteristics:
o The mean squared noise current is proportional to the DC current: ⟨in2⟩=2qIΔf Where:
 qqq: Elementary charge.
 III: Average current.
 Δf\Delta fΔf: Bandwidth.
 Frequency Dependence:
o Independent of frequency (white noise).

3. Flicker Noise (1/f Noise)

 Cause:
o Associated with defects, impurities, or traps in the junction region.
o Particularly significant at low frequencies.
 Characteristics:
o The noise power spectral density (S(f)S(f)S(f)) varies inversely with frequency: S(f)∝1fnS(f) \propto
\frac{1}{f^n}S(f)∝fn1 Where nnn is typically close to 1.
 Frequency Dependence:
o Dominant at low frequencies; diminishes as frequency increases.
4. Generation-Recombination (G-R) Noise

 Cause:
o Arises from the random generation and recombination of carriers in the depletion region and bulk
material.
 Characteristics:
o Significant in reverse-biased junctions where carrier generation dominates.
o Results in a noise spectrum that can exhibit peaks corresponding to specific time constants of the
recombination centers.
 Frequency Dependence:
o Typically exhibits a Lorentzian shape: S(f)∝τ1+(2πfτ)2S(f) \propto \frac{\tau}{1 + (2\pi f
\tau)^2}S(f)∝1+(2πfτ)2τ Where τ\tauτ is the carrier lifetime.

5. Avalanche Noise

 Cause:
o Occurs in p-n junctions under high reverse bias when avalanche breakdown takes place.
o Results from the multiplication of carriers due to impact ionization.
 Characteristics:
o Highly random and strong noise.
o Common in Zener diodes and avalanche photodiodes.
 Frequency Dependence:
o Broad spectral content (can extend to high frequencies).

Comparison of Noise Sources

Noise Type Primary Cause Frequency Dependence Occurrence

Thermal Noise Random thermal motion of carriers Independent (white) Always present

Shot Noise Discrete carrier flow Independent (white) Forward-biased junctions

Flicker Noise Defects/traps in the material 1/f1/f1/f dependent Low-frequency operation

G-R Noise Random generation/recombination Lorentzian Reverse-biased junctions

Avalanche Noise Impact ionization Broad spectrum High reverse bias, avalanche mode

varactor diode, also known as a Varicap or volt-cap, is a type of PN junction

diode primarily utilized in the reverse-biased mode. It is a device whose capacitance
varies with the variation in the applied reverse bias potential

While standard diodes are used for current conduction, varactor diodes are specialized
for their capacitance characteristics and are primarily operated in reverse bias to exploit
their capacitance properties effectively.
Its ability to change its capacitance with applied voltage makes it valuable in oscillator
circuits and various tuning applications. Varactor diodes share a similar basic structure
with p-n diodes, but their key feature lies in their nonlinear reactance characteristics.
Formula of Varactor Diode
CT= ɛA/W
CT :- transition capacitance ɛ :-dielectric constant
A :-capacitor’s plate area W:-depletion layer’s width.
The above relationship shows that transition capacitance is inversely related to depletion
layer width.
CT= ɛA/W
Schotkey effect;

Δϕ=root[qE/4πϵ]

Where:

 qqq: Elementary charge (1.6×10−19 C1.6 \times 10^{-19} \, \text{C}1.6×10−19C).

 EEE: Electric field strength near the surface.
 ϵ0\epsilon_0ϵ0: Permittivity of free space (8.85×10−12 F/m8.85 \times 10^{-12} \,
\text{F/m}8.85×10−12F/m).

The effective work function becomes:

ϕeff=ϕ−Δϕ\phi

Working of a Schottky Diode

 The operation relies on the principle that the electrons in different materials have different potential energy.
 N-type semiconductors have higher potential energy than electrons of metals.

 When these two are brought into contact, there is a flow of electrons in both directions across the metal-
semiconductor interface.
 A voltage is applied to the Schottky so that the metal is positive when compared to the semiconductor.
 The voltage opposes the built-in potential and makes the current flow easy.

What is a Tunnel Diode?

A tunnel diode is a very heavily doped p-n junction diode. In a Tunnel diode electric current decreases as the applied
voltage increases, and at high voltage, it works as an ordinary p-n junction diode. In the Tunnel Diode, electric current
is due to the "Tunneling effect". Due to its fast switching ability, it is used in high-frequency oscillators and amplifiers.
Due to the tunneling effect, charge carries moves across the depletion layer at very low voltage. The circuit shown
below is the symbolic diagram of the Tunnel diode. In tunnel diode the p-terminal acts as an anode and the n-terminal
acts as a cathode.
Tunnel Diode SymbolWorking of Tunnel Diode
Width of the depletion region depends on the level of doping in semiconductor materials, If the doping level is high then
the width of the depletion region is thin and if the doping level is low then width of depletion layer is more. In tunnel
diode the width of the depletion region is very thin(because tunnel diode is very highly doped semiconductor device),
thus when low voltage is applied across the terminal in forward biasing electron moves across the depletion from n-
type semiconductor towards p-type semiconductor.

1. Unbiased condition or Unbiased Tunnel Diode

At unbiased condition means when no voltage is applied band of n-type is overlapped with the p-type semiconductor
material, due to heavy doping.

Because of overlapping the electron of conduction band of n-type and the hole of valence band of p-type are nearly at
same level. thus when temperature increase some electron tunnel from conduction band of n-type to valence band of
p-type and some hole tunnel from valence band p-type to conduction band n-type semiconductor material, but the
current flow is zero because the number of tunneled electron and holes are same but in opposite direction.
2. In Forward Biased Condition (Some positive voltage is applied across tunnel diode)
When a small positive voltage is applied less than the potential of the depletion region. In this condition some of the
electron of conduction band of n-type tunnel in empty valence band of p-type, this creates a small current flow through
the diode.
3. At Vp (voltage is increased further)
When voltage is increased a large number of free electron at n-side and holes at p-side generates. Because of the
increase in voltage the over lapping is increased. Energy level of conduction band of n-type is exactly equal to the
energy level of valence band at p-type result maximum tunnel current flow.

4. If applied voltage is more than peak voltage(V>Vp)

When we further increase the voltage more than the peak voltage, the energy level of conduction band at n-side and
the valence band at p-side misalign. Due to this misalignment tunneling of charge carrier decreases, as result
decrease in tunnel current.

If the applied voltage is increased largely then the tunnel diode behaves like an ordinary diode, and show zero tunnel
current and maximum diode current. If the applied voltage is greater than the voltage of the depletion layer the tunnel
current start decreasing till the valley voltage level after that current increase exponentially.