ii Level II Study Guide

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 Radiographic Testing iii

Acknowledgments

The third edition of the Level II Study Guide: Radiographic Testing builds on the work of the previous
editions written by William Spaulding and George C. Wheeler. The content has been subdivided into four
chapters for ease of reference. Material has been added regarding ionization of matter, scatter radiation,
image sharpness, film handling and storage, and replenishment of darkroom chemicals, among other topics.
As with prior editions, the goal of this study guide is to provide basic information to prepare a candidate for
Level II examinations in radiographic testing.
Donald Blanchette of Mistras Group, Inc., deserves special recognition for his work in rewriting and
revising this edition of the study guide. Thanks also goes to the following technical reviewers who assisted
with this publication:

Brad Kienlen - Entergy

Michael V. McGloin - NOT Enterprises
Matthew Patience - Bureau Veritas
Robert Plumstead - Municipal Testing Lab, Inc.
Alejandro Vivas - Engineering & Inspections Unlimited, Inc.
Iv Level II Study Guide

Recommended References

The following references were used in formulating the questions contained in this book.

1. Bossi, R., F. Iddings, G. Wheeler, tech. eds., P.O. Moore, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition:
Volume 4, Radiographic Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
(2002).

2. Staton, J. Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book. Columbus, OH: The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (2005).

3. Bush, J. Gamma Radiation Safety Study Guide, second edition. Columbus, OH: The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (2001).

4. McCain, D. ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety. Columbus, OH: The American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (2009).

Other useful references include:

5. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, latest edition: Volume 03.03, Nondestructive Testing. Philadelphia, PA:
American Society for Testing and Materials.

6. ASM Handbook, Volume 17: Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control. Metals Park, OH: ASM
International (1989).

7. Supplement to Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-lA (Q&A Book): Radiographic Testing Method, latest
edition. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

8. Radiography in Modern Industry, fourth edition. Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Co., (1980). Available at:
www.kodak.com/eknec/documents/87/0900688a802b3c87 /Radiography-in-Modern-Industry.pdf.
 y

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ••••••••••••••••••••.•.•.•.• iii Scatter Control .................................................15

Recommended References ................Iv Filters ...........................................................15
Collimators ...................................................15
Chapter 1: Principles of Radiographic Masking ........................................................15
Testing ••••••••••••.•.•.•.••••••..•.•••.••••••••• 1 Exposure Reduction and
X-Rays and Gamma Rays ................................... 1 Intensifying Screens .....................................15
Advantages and Disadvantages of Principles of Shadow Formation ......................15
Radiographic Testing ......................................1 Image Size ....................................................15
Radiographic Principles .....................................1 Image Shape and Spatial Relationships ....... 16
Nuclear Atomic Model....................................... 2 Exposure ..........................................................16
Types of Penetrating Radiation .........................3 Exposure Calculations ................................. 17
X-Rays .............................................................3 Exposure Factor ...........................................17
Electron Source ..........................................4 Inverse Square Law ......................................18
Electron Target ...........................................4 Radiographic Equivalence Factor .................18
Electron Acceleration .................................4 Exposure Charts ........................................... 18
Gamma Rays ..................................................5 Object Thickness, Intensity, Distance
Radiation Energy .......................................5 and Time ......................................................20
Source Activity ............................................5 Variations in Object Thickness ....................20
Specific Activity ...........................................5 Half-Value Layer ........................................... 21
Radiation Intensity .....................................5 Chapter 2: Review Questions ...........23
Half-Life ......................................................5
Interactions of Radiation with Matter...............6 Chapter 3: Film and Processing........25
Ionization .......................................................6 Film and Film Handling ....................................25
Photoelectric Effect ....................................6 Film Graininess .............................................25
Compton Effect ...........................................6 Film Selection ............................................... 25
Pair Production ...........................................6 Available Forms of Film ................................ 26
Scatter Radiation ............................................7 Film Handling ...............................................26
Internal Scatter ...........................................7 Film Storage .....................................................26
Sidescatter ..................................................7 Film Processing ................................................27
Backscatter .................................................8 Darkrooms ....................................................27
Chapter 1: Review Questions .............9 Manual Processing ....................................... 28
Chemical Replenishing .............................. 28
Chapter 2: Radiographic Film Automatic Processing .................................. 29
Exposures ••••••.•...•.•..•••••••••••••.•.•.• 11 Chapter 3: Review Questions ...........31
Film Density .....................................................11
Image Quality ..................................................11 Chapter 4: Exposure Techniques and
Radiographic Contrast ..................................11 Radiographic Interpretation ...........35
Subject Contrast ....................................... 12 Exposure Techniques ....................................... 35
Film Contrast ............................................ 12 Image Quality Indicators .............................. 36
Effect of Radiation Energy ........................12 Identification Markers ..................................36
Sharpness .....................................................12 Discontinuity Depth Determinations ........... 37
Geometric Exposure Principles .................13 Interpretation and Evaluation of
Film/Detector Image Sharpness ............... 13 Radiographs .................................................37
Image Distortion .......................................14 Visual Acuity and Dark Adaptation .............. 38
Nongeometric Factors Affecting Viewing Conditions ......................................38
Unsharpness .........................................14 Film Density Measurement ..........................38
vi Level II Study Guide

Identifying lndications ...........................•..••.. 38 Appendix A: Radiation Safety ...........43

Sources of Discontinuities ............................... 38 Appendix B: Radiographic
Inherent Discontinuities ..............................39 Conversion Factors .......................44
Processing Discontinuities ..........................39
Service Discontinuities .................................39 Glossary ••••.•.•.•••••••••••.•.•••••••••••••.•••45
Identifying Discontinuities ••...............•...••........39
Radiographic Inspection Documents .............. .40
Chapter 4: Review Questions ........... 41
 1

Chapter 1
Principles of Radiographic Testing

Radiographic testing unofficially began in I 895 assemblies). Radiography is applied in building and
when Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen, a German bridge construction, aircraft aviation and
scientist, discovered that an unknown form of aerospace, automotive and space components
radiation emitted from a gas-filled electron tube manufacturing, and aircraft overhaul, mainte nance
was capable of penetrating objects that were and repair. It is also used for inspecting piping and
opaque to light. After considerable investigatio n, pipelines, refinery vessels, steel pressure vessels and
Rontgen (Figure I. I ) named the rays X-rays to storage tanks.
indicate their origin was unknown.
At about the same time, Antoine Henri Advantages and
Becquerel, a French scientist, found that radiation
from certain uraniu m
Disadvantages of
compounds had similar Radiographic Testing
properties. This radiation Radiographic testing can be used to detect
was later determined by internal discontinuities in almost any material that
Ernest Rutherford to be is not too thick. X-ray machines capable of
two distinct types called penetrating as much as 660 mm (26 in.) of s teel,
alpha and beta radiation. and greater thicknesses of other mate rials, are
In 1900, Paul Ulrich available. In additio n to discontinuities,
Villard, also a French radiography can disclose internal structures,
scientist, found Lhat a configurations, Ouid levels and fabrication or
third type of radiation assembly errors. rn most applications, radiography
emitted from some provides an image of the test object that can be kept
radioac tive materials was as a permanent record.
similar to X-rays. This Figure 1.1: Wilhelm Isotopes are often used over X-ray machines
radiation was called Conrad Rontgen. because they are portable, do1it need electricity and
gn111111a rays. can access hard-to- reach places. Isotopes are also
used in field testing because they have greater
X-Rays and Gamma Rays penetrating ability than the X-rays generated by
X-rays and gamma rays are essentially the same, most portable X-ray machines.
differing only in their origin. X-rays are produced The major limitations of radiography are that
artificially by accelerating or decelerating high- the opposing sides of the test object must be
energy electrons using electronic equipment, while accessible, precautions are required to prevent
gamma rays arc produced by the decay personnel exposure to radiation, and the
(disintegration of the nuclei) of radioactive configuration of the object must allow for the
isotopes. satisfactory formation of shadows of its internal
Significant use of X-rays and gamma rays for structure.
industrial purposes began in the 1920s. Since then, Note: In ASNT necom111e11ded Practice No. SNT-
industrial radiographic testing has become one of TC-JA: Perso1111e/ Qualification and Certification in
the most commonly used methods of No11destructive Testi11g (2011), radiographic testing
nondestructive testing. Radiography is most often is considered a technique of the radiologic testing
used for process control during manufacturing, to ( RT) method.
detect subsurface discontinuities in end products
(e.g., castings, welds, ceramics, composite materials Radiographic Principles
and electronic components) and for quality control Radiographic testing is based on the detection
inspections of electronic components (e.g., of differences in the transmission/absorption of
determining internal fits, alignments and/or gaps in penetrating radiation by different parts of the
2 Level II Study Guide

object being radiographed. The differences in detect unless the plane of the discontinuity is nearly
transmission may be caused by differences in the parallel to the radiation beam.
thickness or composition of the absorbing material. Images of higher quality and greater sensitivity
Sensors that respond to the ionization produced are generated through the use of higher quality
when radiation is absorbed are used to detect the films with a larger variety of film grain sizes. Film
radiation that passes through the object. processing has evolved to an automated state,
Traditionally, special photographic film was the producing more consistent image quality by
most commonly used detection medium. As with a removing manual processing
photographic negative, the regions of Lhe lilm variables.
where more radiation strikes the film will be Electronics and computers also allow
blacker after the film is developed. ln radiography, technicians to capture images digitally (Figure 1.3).
this produces an image of the part that includes its Digital radiography (DR) captures an image that
internal structure and discontinuities. Electronic can be presented for interpretation immediately.
sensors that react to ionization (e.g., geiger tubes Images can also be digitally enhanced and sent
and scintillation devices) also detect X-rays and anywhere in the world. An archived digital image
gamma rays, and are used more often in will not deteriorate with time. The advantages of
radiographic testing DR over film include immediate image preview,
applications. immediate availability and a wider dynamic range
Most discontinuities effectively reduce the that makes it more forgiving of over- and under-
thickness of the object, locally, so that more exposure.
radiation is transmitted at that point. When film is
the detector, the transmittal of more radiation
results in greater darkening of the film (i.e., the
discontinuity image is darker than the remainder of
the object as in Figure 1.2). However, some
discontinuities, such as tungsten inclusions in
welds, may absorb more radiation than the
surrounding material, which will appear as lighter
images on a radiograph.

E:i] --- Source Figure 1.3: Digital image.

Material Is
Nuclear Atomic Model
The nuclear atomic model describes the atom as
Object FIim
consisting of a small, relatively heavy nucleus

~/ (protons and neutrons) with electrons revolving in

orbit around the nucleus (Figure 1.4). The volume
of that portion of an atom outside the nucleus is
~\ very large comp,1rcd to the volume of the nucleus
itself or of the individual electrons; therefore, the
greatest part of any atom is empty space. The
Darkened area when processed difference in atoms of different elements is the
number of protons in the nucleus. Electrically, the
Figure 1.2: When film is the detector, the t ransmittal of more atom is normally in balance, the number of protons
radiation results in greater darkening of the film. in the nucleus being equal to the number of
electrons in orbit.
Planar discontinuities that do not have any
appreciable thickness, such as cracks and lack of
fusion, are different. Because their small thickness
causes little change in the amount of radiation that
is absorbed, such discontinuities are difficult lo
 Radiographic Testing 3

5. the higher their energy, the greater the depth to

which they can penetrate in a given material;
6. absorption is increased as the atomic number
and density of the absorber increase;
7. they cannot be refracted (as by a lens) or
reflected to any useful degree, but they can be
diffracted by crystalline structures;
8. living tissue is damaged when it absorbs X-rays
or gamma rays.

X-Rays
There are a number of advancements being
Neutron made related to the generation and ef-ficiency of
Nucleus X-rays, yet in general the principles are similar to
conventional X-ray equipment. X-rays are
Figure 1.4: Atomic model. produced when rapidly moving electrons arc
accelerated and then either stopped or changed in
direction. Usually this is done in a vacuum (X-ray
Types of Penetrating tube) by stopping the electrons with a barrier called
Radiation a target (Figure 1.6).
X-rays and gamma rays are a form of This process produces characteristic X-rays,
electromagnetic radiation like light, but their with energies/wavelengths that depend on the
energy is much higher and their wavelengths are
only about l / l 0 000 that oflight. The electro-
Heated filament emits electrons
magnetic spectrum shown in Figure 1.5 compares by thermionic emission
the wavelengths and energies of various forms of
radiant energy. The short wavelength and high
energy of X-rays and gamma rays enable them to
penetrate much more deeply into materials than
light can.
The principal characteristics of X-rays and
gamma rays are that:

1. the higher their energy, the shorter their

wavelength, (wavelength is inversely X-rays produced when high-speed
proportional to energy); electrons hit the metal target
2. they have no mass or electrical charge;
3. they travel at the speed of light; Figure 1.6: X-rays are generated in a vacuum
4. when absorbed or deflected, they ionize matter; tube.

Radiation wavelength (nm)

,os 102 10 10-4 10-5

I
., 1---x-rays - - - - -- - - 1
-Radlo-----lnlra r e d - ii t Ultraviolet -cosmic rays-..
5 = 1
1-Gamma rays --►

,o-7 10-1 10

Photon energy (MeV)

Figure 1.5: The electromagnetic spectrum.

4 Level II Study Guide

target material, and bremsstrahlung X-rays with

energies ranging from near Oto the maximum
energy of the electrons, the voltage at which the
X-ray tube was operated (Figure 1.7).
Bremsstrahlung X-rays are also called white
radiation and make up most of the useful radiation
Filaments
in radiographic testing.

Sh II I
~ Bremsstrahlung
e e ectrons -:;. • radiation

-----~.-:..-r·-~~:~~;-~~-:-~·- -
_____ __,: _____
...
, ... ... .
, •, ·~ .....~, Figure 1.8: Filaments in an X-ray t ube.
• •• - - - ..... •• • .......... 3
. . . . . 0 -
Acceleratei :' 1 \t> . . Accelerated Electron Target
- - - 1free) electron~ ,: (free) electron The target material must have a high melting
. . ·'
:\ ~
point because it becomes very hot when
>: bombarded by electrons from the filament. For the
greatest efficiency in producing X-rays, tl1e target
should be made of a material with a hjgh atomic
- ........•.. Accelerated
number. Tungsten is generally used for the target
(free) electron material because it provides one of the best
Bremsstrahlung radiation
available combinations of high melting point and
high atomic number, although other metals such as
Figure 1.7: Generation of bremsstrahlung X-rays. copper, iron and cobalt arc used in tubes where
special applications require a particular
X-ray machines commonly used in radiography characteristic radiation.
range in energy from 50 keV to 30 000 keV and in
X-ray output from less than 0.05 Gy/min to as Electron Acceleration
much as 250 Gy/min (5 rad/min to as much as By applying a negative charge to the cathode
25 000 rad/min) measured at I m (3.3 ft) from the and a positive charge to the anode, the negatively
source. A typical X-ray tube consists of a source of charged electrons are repelled by the cathode and
electrons and a target in a vacuum chamber, with attracted to the anode. The higher the voltage
the mea11S to apply high voltage across the source- difference between the anode and cathode, the
target gap. higher the velocity of the electrons when they strike
the target, and the higher the energy of the X-rays
Electron Source that are generated. Higher energy radiation has
When electric current is passed through the greater penetrating power than lower energy
wire filament coil in an X-ray tube cathode, the heat radiation. In addition, as the energy of the electrons
generated causes a cloud of electrons to be liberated is increased, the quantity of X-rays generated
from the coil. An increase in the current passing increases.
through the filament increases the number of free In most X-ray machines, the X-ray output is
electrons, which increases the X-ray output of the measured indirectly by measuring the tube current
tube. The focusing cup helps to keep the electrons (i.e., the llow of electrons from cathode to anode)
bunched together to minimize the size of the focal usually in milliamperes or microamperes. In some
spot, the area where the electrons strike the target. machines, typically those with very high X-ray
X-ray tubes contain two filaments that correspond output, such as linear accelerators, the radiation
to the focal spot sizes (Figure 1.8). intensity is measured directly in sievert (roentgen)
per minute at l m (3.3 ft) from the target.
Because the production of X-rays is very
ineflkient, most of the tube current is converted
into heat at the target. Consequently, the focal spot
 Radiographic Testing 5

size and the cooling of the anode to prevent the Radiation Energy
target from melting, are major design limitations. In Gamma-ray sources are available in many
additfon, the ability of insulating materials to energy ranges from about JO keV to 12 MeV. The
withstand high voltages greatly influences tube most commonly used are iridium- l92 with energies
design. As a result, some machines have a duty cycle of310 keV,470 keV and600 keV; andcobah-60
rating based on the kilovoltage, tube current and with energies of I. 17 MeV and 1.33 MeV.
length of e>-.-posure. Ln many industrial X-ray tubes,
a rotating anode is used in order to help distribute Source Activity
the heat allowing the target to cool (Figure 1.9). The activity of a gamma-ray source depends on
X-ray machines are usually rated by their maxi- the amount of radioactive material present and its
mum voltage capability in kilovolts or megaelec- rate of decay. The rate of decay is measured in
tronvolts. becquerels (curies) and is a useful way of
comparing the strength of various sources of the
Molybdenum same isotope.
Copper

~ Specific Activity

1 Specific activity is the activity per unit quantity

of the source, expressed as becquerels ( curies) per
gram. It is useful in radiographic testing because a
source of a given strength with a high specific
activity is physically smaller than one with a lower
specific activity. The smaller source permits a
smaller source-to-film distance than a larger
(a) source, everything being equal. Also, at the same
Tungsten d istance, the smaller source produces sharper
images. (See Sharpness on p. 12.)

Radiation Intensity
The intensity of radiation from an isotope
source (or from a X-ray source) is measured in
sievert (roentgen) per unit of time at a standard
distance from the source. For isotopes, the units are
usually sievert/h at I m (roentgen/hat I m) as
compared to X-rays that are usually measured in
sievert/min at I m (roentgen/mjn at I m). The
Figure 1.9: Anodes: (a) rotating anode; intensity from an X-ray tube is also often expressed
(bl stationary anode. in terms of the tube current with units such as
millian1peres.
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are similar to X-rays but are Half-Life
produced by the decay of naturally occurring or The number of active atoms in a source
artificially produced radioactive isotopes referred diminishes with time because of radioactive decay.
to as radioisotopes. lridium- 192 and cobalt-60 are The time it takes the radioactive material to decay
the most commonly used isotopes for radiographic to one-half of its initial activity is called the half-life
testing and both are artificially produced by of the isotope.
neutron bombardment in a nuclear reactor. Until
these radioisotopes became available after World · Half-life of Ir-192: 75 days.
War ll, naturally occurring radium was used • Half-life of Co-60: 5.3 years.
extensively.
The wavelength (energy) of gamma rays This means that 1.9 Tl3q (50 Ci) of iridium- 192
depends on the isotope. Each isotope produces one will decay to I TBq (25 Ci) in 75 days, to 0.5 TBq
or more fixed wavelengths, but no bremsstrahlung ( 12.5 Ci) in the next 75 days and so on.
radiation.
6 Level II Study Guide

Interactions of Radiation X-rays passing through matter alter the

electrical balance of atoms through ionization
with Matter (Figure 1.10).
X-rays and gamma rays have no mass or weight; The energy of the ray may dislodge an electron
they are bundles of energy called photons that from an atom and temporarily free an electron. The
travel at the speed of light. They can be absorbed or first atom (positively charged) and the electron
deflected by matter in a number of ways, usually by (negatively charged) are, respectively, positive and
causing atoms of the matter to become ionized negative ions, also known as an ion pair. In this
(electrically charged). Electrons and/or lower manner, X-rays cause ionization in all material in
energy photons are emitted from the atom in a their path.
different direction from that of the incident In passing through matter, X-rays lose energy to
photons. These electrons or photons may, in turn, atoms by ionization processes known as the
cause the ionization of other atoms in the absorber. photoelectric effect, the compton effect and pair
production.
Ionization
Any action that disrupts the electrical balance Photoelectric Effect
of an atom and produces ions is called ionization. When X-rays (photons) of relatively low energy
Atoms with a positive or negative charge are called of 0.5 MeV or less pass through matter, the photon
ions. Free electrons are negative ions and free energy may be transferred to an orbital electron,
particles carrying positive charges, such as protons, ejecting it from its orbit. This phenomenon is
are positive ions. known as the photoelectric effect or absorption. The
remainder of the energy gives velocity to the
electron. The photoelectric process absorbs all of
'- Ejected electron
the energy of the photon. It is this absorption effect
i..,_:--,.__ Atom
that makes radiography possible.

electromagnetic A / Compton Effect

radiation • As shown in Figure I. I I, when higher energy
Ionization products
photons of0.l MeV to 3 MeV pass through matter,
~ scattering occurs due to the compton effect.
The atom becomes a positive ion Part of the photon energy is expended in
ejecting an orbital electron and imparting velocity
Figure 1.10: Ionization. to it. The remainder, as a lower energy photon,
continues onward at an angle to the original photon
path. This process, progressively weakening the
photon, is repeated until the photoelectric effect
completely absorbs the last photon.

Pair Production
Pair production occurs only with high-energy
photons of 1.02 MeV or more, as shown in Figure
1.12. At these energy levels, when the photon
approaches the nucleus of an atom, it changes from
energy to an electron-positron pair. Positrons carry
a positive charge, have the same mass as electrons
and are extremely shortlived. They combine at the
end of their path with an electron to emit one
0.5 l MeV photon subject to the compton effect and
Figure 1.11: Compton effect. the photoelectric effect.
 Radiographic Testing 7

Atom

High energy _____:::::;:::: e Newly created electron

electromagnetic
radiatio n ~ egativeion

/
Ionization products

Atom remains neutral

'
Newly created
positron

0 Positive ion

Figure 1.12: Pair production.

Radiation beam
Scatter Radiation

Ill
The three processes - photoelectric effect,
compton effect ,rnd pair production - all liberate
electrons that move with different velocities in
various directions. Because X-rays are generated
whenever free electrons collide with matter, it
follows that X-rays in passing through matter cause
Test
the generation of secondary X-rays. These piece
secondary X-rays are a minor component of what is
"', ~"
known as scatl'er radiatio n or scatter. The major
component of scatter is the low-energy rays
represented by photons weakened in the compton- .I
I
~
~';(\ ,t,
V
't' ~

I , I
effect process. Scatter radiation is of uniformly low-
level energy content and of random direction. Film

Internal Scatter Figure 1.13: Internal scatter.

The scatter lhat occurs in the object being
radiographed, as shown in Figure 1.13, is called
internal scatter. It is reasonably uniform throughout Radiation beam
a test object of one thickness but :iffects definition
by blurring the image outline. The scatter radiation
shown in Figure 1.13 obscures the edges of the test
object and the hole through it. The increase in
radiation passing through matter caused by scatter Test
in the forward di rection is known as buildup.

Sidescatter
The scattering of rays from walls of objects in
the vicinity of the test object or from portions of
the test object that cause rays to enter the sides of
the test object is sidescatter. As shown in Figure
1.1 4, sidescatter obscures the image outline just as Floor
internal scatter does.
Figure 1.14: Sidescatter.
8 Level II Study Guide

Backscatter
The scattering of mys from surfaces o r objects
beneath or behind the test object, as shown in
Figure I. 15, is backscatter. Backscatter also obscures
the test object image.

Radiation beam

Test
piece --
I ... ., '
-
,_ ... I

\ l- ~ Film .,;, 7 \
I I
Floor

Figure 1.15: Backscatter.

 9

Chapter 1: Review Questions

I. Which of the following is a false statement 5. You have an lr-192 source whose strength was
regarding the characteristics of X-ray and 3.7 TBq (100 Ci) on July I. What will be its
gamma rays? approximate strength on Sept. 13 the same year
if the half-life of lr-192 is 75 days?
a. Living tissue is damaged when it absorbs
X-rays or gamma rays. a. I TBq (30 Ci)
b. Absorption is decreased as the atomic b. 1.9 TBq (50 Ci)
number and density of the absorber c. 2.6 TBq (70 Ci)
increases. d. 3.3 TBq (90 Ci)
c. The higher their energy, the greater the
depth to which they can penetrate in a 6. After three half-lives have elapsed, what will be
given material. the strength of an isotope source relative to its
d. The higher their energy, the shorter their original strength?
wavelengths.
a. 25% of the original
2. What would be the result if the wavelength of b. 33% of the original
the X-ray was to increase? c. 12.5% of the original
d. I I% of the original
a. Only fine-grain film would be able to be
used. 7. What radioisotope has a gamma-ray energy
b. The heat on target would increase. emission that is approximately equal to 320 kV
c. The penetration of the beam would radiation from an X-ray tube?
increase.
d. The penetration of the beam would a. Co-60
decrease. b. lr-192
c. Cs-137
3. Charged particles passing through matter lose d. Ur-238
energy primarily because of:
8. The specific activity of a gamma-ray source is
a. scatter radiation important because it determines:
b. ionization
c. secondary scatter a. the size of source required for a given
d. charged electrons activity
b. the energy of the radiation that will be
4. When electrons of many different energies emitted
strike a target, a continuous spectrum of X- c. the rate at which the specific isotope decays
rays is generated. These X-rays are known as: d. which type of radiation (alpha, beta or
gamma) it will emit
a. bremsstrahlung
b. compton X-rays
c. scattering
d. slow electron emission

es QL ::,9 qg ep PC:
 11

Chapter 2
Radiographic Film Exposures

A radiograph is the shadow picture produced where:

by X-ray or gamma radiation that has passed D = density
through an o bject and been partly absorbed by [
0
= light intensity incident on the film
nim. The radjation that is absorbed in the film 11 = light intensit}' transmitted
sensiti:l.es the silver halides in the emulsion in such
a wa)' that development converts them to silver
particles.
In the film areas exposed to higher levels of
radiation, more silver particles are produced by
development, making the film darker. Film areas
exposed to less radiation, due to a thicker or more
absorptive object material, a.re lighter after
processing, as shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.2: Measuring film density.

Film density and exposure time are related.

Exposure is the intensity of radiation multiplied by
the time it takes to produce a particular density.
Thus, exposure is related to the time the film is
exposed to penetrating radiation. All factors being
equal, the longer the film is exposed to the
penetrating radiation, the darker the density will be
on the developed radiograph.
Figure 2.1: Radiographic image.
Image Quality
The usefulness of any radiograph depends on
Film Density the quaJity of the image or the sensitivity.
The degree of film darkening is called fil,n Sensitivity is defined as the smallest detail of the
de11sity. lt is measured by the amount of visible light object that can be seen on the radiograph. It is a
that can penetrate the film (Figure 2.2). function of the contrast and the sharpness of the
Density is defined as the logarithm of the radiographjc image.
amount of Light incident on one side of the film
divided by the amount of light transmitted through Radiographic Contrast
the film. Mathematically, de nsity is presented as: Radiographic contrast refers to the amount of
contrast observed on a radiograph and is affected
D = log(/ I I,)
0
by subject contrast and the contrast sensitivity of
the film . Radiographic contrast can also be affected
Equation 1
by the unsharpness of the detected image.
Contrast is affected by the radiation level. Most
reference books recommend that a radiogrnph
12 Level II Study Guide

should be made with the lowest-energy radiation

or, in the case of X-rays, the lowest kilovoltage that
will transmit adequate radiation intensities to the
film. This is because long wavelengths tend to
improve contrast. However, radiation energies that
are too low produce excessive amounts of scattered
radiation that washes out fine details. On the other
hand, energies that are too high, although they
reduce scattered radiation, may produce images ll: 2.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____,
having contrast that is too low to resolve small
discontinuities. a,
Q

Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is governed by the intensity of
transmitted radiation through various parts of the
object and by the amount of scatter radiation
reaching the film. The amount of radiation
transmitted through various regions of a test object
depends on the thickness of those regions and on
o.___ _.________.__ _....__.....__ __.
the radiation energy being used. Large differences
0 o.s 1.0 I.S 2.0 2.S 3.0
in thickness produce high subject contrast; small
Log Relative Exposure
differences in thickness produce little subject
contrast.
Figure 2.3: Characteristic curves of three typical
Film Contrast X-ray films, exposed between lead foll screens.
Each type of radiographic film has a
characteristic relationship between the amount of is affected by the degree of film development,
exposure and the density that is produced by that including time, temperature and composition of the
exposure. The relationship is usually expressed as a developer. Within limits, an increase in degree of
graph or characteristic curve in which the density is development increases the contrast exhibited by the
plotted against the logarithm of the relative radiograph.
exposure, as shown in Figure 2.3. Relative exposure
is used because there are no other measurement Effect of Radiation Energy
units that apply to all possible exposure conditions. Low-energy radiation produces high-contrast
The log of the relative exposure is used to images because it is more easily absorbed than
compress an otherwise long scale. A log scale has high-energy radiation. Therefore, only a small
the added value that the same distance will separate change in object thickness is necessary to achieve
the logs of any two exposures having the same reasonable contrast. On the other hand, a large
ratio, regardless of the actual exposure values. This thickness difference is necessary to achieve
feature is useful in exposure calculations. reasonable contrast when using high-energy
The slope of a film's characteristic curve is a radiation.
measure of its contrast, while the curve's position
left or right within the graph is a measure of film Sharpness
speed. The contrast is greatest where the greatest The sharpness of a radiograph is usually judged
density difference is produced by a given difference from the image of known features such as edges,
in exposure, that is, where the slope of the curve is steps, or holes in the object. Sharpness is a function
greatest. of geometric factors such as source size, source-to-
Given the same degree of development, a film film distance, object-to-film distance and screen-
with a curve that lies to the left of another film is to-film contact, as well as the type of film and
the faster film, because the left-most curve indicates screens, and the radiation energy used.
that less exposure is required to produce a given Unsharpness is also called geometric unsharpness,
density. The shape of the characteristic curve of a because that is the component of sharpness that can
given film is not sensitive to radiation energy, but it be calculated.
 Radiographic Testing 13

Geometric Exposure Principles

To create a radiograph there must be a source of Source ------1\ I \
radiation, a test object and film or some other type
of imaging detector. A radiograph is a shadow
picture of a test object placed between the
ftlm/detector and the X-radiation or gamma-
Test object ,' \ _Jdo
I
I \

\
radiation source. lf the film/detector is placed too
far from the test object, the discontinuity images
will be enlarged. If the test object is too close to the
source, any discontinuity images will be greatly
enlarged, resulting in the loss of dimensional acuity.
Proper placement of the film/detector minimizes
enlargement and aJJows for more accurate
representation of the size of the discontinuity. Film/
The degree of enlargement varies according to detector
the relative distances of the object from the
film/detector. A certain degree of enlargement
exists in every radiograph because some parts of
the test object are always farther from the film/
detector than others. The greatest enlargement is Figure 2.4: Image enlargement.
found when radiographic test objects are located at
the greatest distance from the recording surface.
Source r-,_ Source ~
Enlargement cannot be eliminated entirely; I\ II I\ I \
however, with the use of an appropriate source-to- I \1 I / y t
film/detector distance, enlargement can be I A I I I\ \
minimized Lo a point where it will not be I I \ I II \ I
I / \ I J/ \ I
objectionable. II \I '1 ,,
Figure 2.4 is a diagram of a radiographic
Test object I/ \I Test object ~
exposure showing basic geometric relationships
between the radiation source, the test object and
the film/detector on which the image is recorded. I
,O ~ -~ \
/I~
/I \\
These relationships are due to X-rays and gamma
rays obeying the laws of electromagnetism. The
(a) (b) .....__ _ __ __ _.
ratio of the test object diameter D0 to the image
diameter DJ is equal to the ratio of the source-to- Film/detector Film/detector
object distance dO to the source-to-film/detector Source r,
distance df. For the radiographic image to be close I\ I I
to the same size as the test object, the film/detector I\I \
must be placed as close to the test object as possible
and the radiation source must be placed as far from
/ AI
II \ I
the film or detector as is practical.
II \ I
II \\
Film/Detector Image Sharpness II \\
The sharpness of the image is determined by
the size of the radiation source and the ratio of the
object-to-film/detector distance and source-to-
Test object ~d
/I \I

-
object distance. Figure 2.S(a) shows a smaJJ
geometric unsharpness {penumbra) when the test
object is close to the film/detector. The umbra
(darkest parl of the shadow) is the only part that is (c)
normally seen in a radiograph. The penumbra Film/detector
(unsharpness) is seldom seen.
Figure 2.5: Image sharpness and penumbra( shadow.
14 Level II Study Guide

Figure 2.S(b) shows greater geometric

unsharpness when the source-to-film/detector
distance remains unchanged but the object-10-
n---
" " - - _ Source
_____--n
film/detector distance is increased. Figure 2.S(c)
I \ II
I I I I
i'II
111,
I
t
I II I I AI
shows a smaller geometric unsharpness when the I i I 11\1
: 1\ : 1111
object-to-film/detector distance is the same as in 111 I 11 11
11 11 Test object II h
Figure 2.S(a), but the source-to-film/detector
distance is increased.
,, .,
fl 11
,,I/ \I,,
I
11 11 I
I/ I I f
Most codes recommend maximum values for I
geometric unsharpness. To determine the
geometric unsharpness, use the formula shown in
Equation 2.

Us d
F D0

or

U = F !!:___ Figure 2.6: Effect of source size on image

X D 0
sharpness.

Equation 2
Nongeometric Factors Affecting
where: Unsharpness
Ug = geometric unsharpness Unsharp ness is also affected by the radiation
F = the source size (the maximum projected energy, the type of film or other detector used, the
dimension of the radiating source, or type and position of screens and filters used, and
effective focal spot, in the plane the contact of the screens with the film. lncreasing
perpendicular to the surface of the weld the radiation energy or increasing the speed of the
or object being radiographed) fiJm being used increases the unsharpness.
D0 = the distance from the source of radiation Fluorescent screens increase unsharpness, while
to the weld or object being radiographed metallic screens vary in their effects depending on
d = the distance from the source side of the their composition, thickness and position relative
weld or object being radiographed to the to Lhe film. All screens and filters that are within tJ1e
film/detector. film holder MUST be in intimate contact with the
film or they wiU greatly increase unsharpness.
Optimum geometric sharpness of the image is
obtained when the radiation source is sma!J, the
distance from the source to the test object is
relatively great and the distance from the test object
to the film/detector plane is small. Figure 2.6
illustrates the decrease in geometric unsharpness
with a decrease in source size.

Image Distortion
Two possible causes of film image distortion are
shown in Figure 2.7. If the plane of the test object
and the film/detector plane are not parallel, image
distortion will result. Image distortion will also
result if the radiation beam is not directed Film/detector
perpendicular to the film/detector plane. in tilted plane

Figure 2.7: Image distortion.

 Radiographic Testing 15

Scatter Control because they reduce the definition of the image. An

Because scatter radiation reduces contrast, it exception is when very long exposure times are
must be prevented from reaching the film or needed.
detector. The most common ways to reduce scatter For radiographic testing with 150 kV radiation
are with filters, collimators and masking. or higher, lead is the most common material for
metallic screens, although other metals may be
Filters useful in some cases. Lead screens 0.03 mm to
Filters reduce scatter in the entire radiation area 0.3 mm (0.001 in. to 0.01 in.) thick are used up to
by removing much of the less penetrating (softer) 1 MeV to 2 MeV. For higher energies, lead screens
primary radiation while leaving greater amounts of as thick as 6 mm (0.25 in.) have been found to be
the more penetrating (harder) radiation needed to useful.
produce the radiographic image. It is the most Metallic screens may be used on one or both
common technique used to reduce scatter. Because sides of the film and when two or more films are
scatter radiation is less penetrating than the used in the same holder, thin screens are sometimes
primary radiation, useful filtering can be used between the films. In all cases, the screen
accomplished with relatively thin sheets of an surface must be kept very clean and free from
absorber such as lead. Many commercial film foreign materials (e.g., grease and dust) because
holders provide a 0.3 mm (0.01 in.) lead back filter they can produce artifacts in the radiograph. Below
to absorb scatter from material behind the holder, 150 kV, a thin layer oflead oxide on a supporting
such as the floor or table on which the object and material is often useful for intensification. Table 1
film are resting. For high-energy radiographic provides examples of maximum application
testing, thicker back filters are usually necessary. thicknesses and intensifying screens.
For many applications, front filters are often useful, Lead and lead oxide screens can shorten
but are usually specific to the application. exposure times by as much as 2 to 2.5 times. Using
lead and lead oxide screens with other metallic
Collimators screens also provides useful filtration of scatter.
Collirnators reduce scatter by reducing the Screens reduce exposure time and increase
width of the primary beam, thus limiting the contrast, and should be used in most radiographic
amount of radiation that would otherwise pass testing applications.
around the object and generate additional scatter.

Masking
Principles of Shadow
Masking is performed by fitting absorptive Formation
material closely around the test object. The In order to produce useful images of the object,
absorptive masking material is often made of lead the radiographer must consider the principles of
sheets formed to the object, but copper, steel shot shadow formation in making the radiograph.
and even some liquids may be useful in specific Because a radiograph is a shadow image of an
cases. object placed between the radiation source and the
recording medium, the shape, size and spatial
Exposure Reduction and relations of the parts on the image are influenced by
the relative positions of the detector (or film), the
Intensifying Screens object and the source.
The exposure time required to produce a
desired radiographic image density can be Image Size
shortened in many cases by placing intensifying If the source of radiation is larger than the
screens in close contact with the film. Intensifying object, the image will be smaller than the object
screens are constructed of materials that, when except when the object is in direct contact with the
struck by the primary radiation, produce secondary film. While most objects radiographed are not
radiation that blackens the film more effectively smaller than the source, the principal objective of
than the primary radiation. Fluorescent screens much radiographic testing is to detect
produce light, while metallic intensifying screens discontinuities. Since discontinuities may well be
produce electrons and secondary X-ray photons. smaller than the source, and the thickness of cracks
Fluorescent screens are seldom used with film and lack of penetration is almost always smaller
16 Level II Study Guide

Table 1: Standard X-ray machine thickness applications and screens.

Maximum
Maximum Application Thickness Screens
Voltage

Thi n metal sections, electronics, ceramics,

<150 kV None or lead oxide
plastics

127 mm (5 in.) aluminum, 25 mm

150 kV (1 in.) steel None, lead foil or lead oxide
Equivalent to 38 mm (1.5 in.) st eel

Equivalent to 51 mm (2 in.) steel Lead foil, fluorometallic or

250 kV
Equivalent to 76 mm (3 in.) steel fluorescent

Equivalent to 76 mm (3 in.) steel Lead foil, fluorometallic or

400 kV
Equivalent to 102 mm (4 in.) steel fluorescent

Equivalent to 127 mm (5 in.) steel

1 M eV Lead foil
Equivalent to 203 mm (8 in.) steel

2 MeV Equivalent to 203 mm (8 in.) steel Lead foil or sheets

8-25 MeV Equivalent to 660 mm (26 in. ) steel Lead foil or sheets

than the source, this rule of shadow formation is Image Shape and Spatial
very important to remember in searching for Relationships
discontinuities. Image distortion occurs when the object plane
If l'he source is smaller than the object, the and the film plane are not parallel. The preferred
image of the object will be larger than the actual practice is to keep the film plane and the plane of
object except when the object is imaged while in t·he object that is of maximum interest as parallel as
contact with the film. possible, even though this may distort the image of
Image quality indicators (IQls) have a known other portions of the object. Note: This does not
size and are placed on the source side of the object, mean that suspected cracks or lack of penetration
so tl1e size of the IQl image is useful 10 estimate the should be oriented parallel to the film; they should
source-to-object distance when the source size is be parnllcl to the radiation beam for reasons
known. Of course, when the IQI is placed directly discussed previously in the Sharpness section.
on the film, this technique is negated. Distortion of spatial relationships ben..,een parts
The degree of enlargement may be calculated of the object may also occur, as shown in Figure
mathematically using Equation 3: 2.8(a). for this reason, the preferred practice for
most radiographic testing is to keep the center of
the radiation beam perpendicular to the film or
detector as shown ill Figure 2.8(b).
Equation 3
Exposure
where: Radiographic exposure is defined as the
S0 = object size intensity of the radiation multiplied by the time
S; = image size that the film (or detector) is exposed to the
00 = source-to-object distance radiation. For a given radiation energy and sourcc-
D; = source-to-film distance to-fil m distance, the exposure may be calculated as:

E = MT
Equation 4
 Radiographic Testing 17

where:
(a)
E = exposure
M = radiation intensity (tube current or
becquerels [curies I)
T =time

Because the amount of radiation reaching the

film through the object is unknown, the intensity
used in the equation is the intensity of the X-ray or
isotope source, as measured in becquerels (curies),
rads/minute or tube current units.
For example, an exposure at 5 mA for 10 min
would be equal to an exposure of 10 mA for 5 min.
The units of exposure are determined by the units Figure 2.8: Geometric principles and spatial relations.
used for radiation intensity and time. In this
example, exposure would have the units of Exposure Factor
milliampere-minutes. Values such as milliampere- To make exposure values more general, the
seconds, becquerel-minutes (curie-minutes) and source-to-film distance may be factored into the
rads are also common. exposure equation to provide what is called an
While the output of X-ray machines can be exposure factor. As shown in Equation 5 (for
selected by the operator within the limits of the X-rays) and Equation 6 (for gamma rays), the
machine, if using an isotope source, the exposure factor is the exposure (E value) divided by
radiographer must consider the half-life of the the square of the source-to-film distance.
source in determining the output at any given time.
For example, a satisfactory exposure of EF = M(t)
3.7 TBq-min (100 Ci-min) required I min when X D~
made 75 days ago with a 3.7 TBq ( 100 Ci) '
Equation 5
iridium-192 source. A comparable exposure will
now require 2 min at the same source-to-film
distance because the source has decayed one half- EF. = S(t)
life to 1.9 TBq (50 Ci). R D~
'
Equation 6
Exposure Calculations
The density of a radiograph depends on the where:
amount of radiation absorbed by the film emulsion EFx = exposure factor (X-rays)
and how the film is developed. The amount of EFR = exposure factor (gamma rays)
radiation absorbed depends on the amount and D; = source-to-film distance
energy of the radiation (primary radiation) that M = X-ray tube current
passes through the object, the amount of scatter s = gamma ray source strength
reaching the film and the action of any intensifying t =time
screens used.
For any given radiation energy, the controllable The exposure factor (EF) is a quantity that
variables that govern exposure are the source combines milliamperage (mA) for X-rays or source
output, the time that the film is exposed and the strength for gamma rays, time (t) and distance (d).
source-to-film distance. Because the output of Activity is measured in becquerels (Bq) or curies
X-ray machines is proportional to the tube current, (Ci). Numerically, the exposure factor equals:
milliamperes or microamperes may be used. The
output of gamma ray sources is measured in mAxt
becquerels (curies). X-ray EF
d2
activity xr
gamma-ray EF
d2
18 Level II Study Guide

For example, an exposure of 400 mA at 508 mm where:

(20 in.) source-to-film distance has an exposure I = intensity
factor of I mA/in. 2, as does an exposure of 100 mA D = distance
at 254 mm ( IO in.) source-to-film distance.
The inverse square law is very important in
Inverse Square Law radiography because different source-to-film
When no absorber is present, the radiation distances are often used for different radiographs.
intensity from any radiation source decreases as the Source-to-film distance changes may be needed ro
square of the distance from the source increases. In satisfy image unsharpness requirements, allow for
other words, the intensity is inversely proportional coverage of the object in one exposure or to modify
to the square of the distance from the source. This the radiation intensity so as to adjust exposure
occurs because the radiation radiates as it travels time.
away from the source, so that the same amount of
radiation covers a larger area. Thus, the radiation is Radiographic Equivalence Factor
less intense farther from the source. Figure 2.9 While many radiographic testing operations are
illustrates this effect, which is known as the inverse performed on one type of material, other
square law. operations radiograph unusual materials. When
Mathematically, this law is expressed as unusual materials are encountered, it is useful to
have a way to determine exposures for the new
material based on exposure data for the well-
known material. This can be done wilh a chart or
table of radiographic equivalence factors similar ro
or Table 2.
'fo use the table, choose the radiation energy of
interest and the corresponding material of interest.
Multiply the resulting equivalence factor by the
thickness of the material to be radiographed. This
Equation 7
results in a thickness value of either aluminum or
steel, depending on the radiation energy, that has
approximately the same absorption as the thickness
of the new material. For example, at 220 kV, 13 mm
A (0.5 in.) of copper is equivalent in absorption to

B
l
D1
Key
A =Radiation source
13 mm (0.5 in.) x 1.4 = 18 mm (0.7 in.) of steel. To
radiograph 13 mm (0.5 in.) of copper at 220 kV, use
the same exposure that was used for 18 mm
(0.7 in.) of steel.

J
B =Focal point
C1 =First fi lm plane
C2 =Second film plane Exposure Charts
C1
D1 =First source-to-film Exposure charts simplify the selection of the
distance proper values of the variables needed to produce
D2 = Second source-to-
film distance
acceptable radiographs. A common type of
f1 = Intensity at exposure chart is shown in Figure 2.10. As in all
distance 1 such charts, certain variables of radiographic
D2 =
lz Intensity at testing have been fixed or predetermined. In Figure

J_
distance 2 2.10, the chart may be applied to film X with lead
foil screens at 1.5 film density and I m (40 in.)
Cz
source-to-film distance. Thus, the fixed variables
are film type, source-to-film distance, screen type
and thickness, and desired ftlm density, while
kilovoltage, material thickness and exposure are
controllable variables.
The chart simplifies the relationships between
Figure 2.9: Inverse square law. material thickness, kilovoltage and exposure by
 Radiographic Testing 19

Table 2: Approximate radiographic equivalence factorsa.

X-rays
(kilovolts) Gamma Rays
Material 50 100 150 220 400 1000 2000 4to25 lr-192 Cs-137 Co-60 Radium
MeV
Magnesium 0.6 0.6 0.05 0.08
Aluminum 1.0 1.0 0.12 0.18 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.40
2024 (aluminum) alloy 2.2 1.6 0.16 0.22 0.35 0.35 0.35
Titanium 0.45 0.35
Steel 12.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.00 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
18·8 (steel) alloy 12.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.00 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Copper 18.0 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.30 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
Zinc 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.20 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0
Brassb 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.20 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
High-temperature 16.0 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.30 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
nickel-chromium
alloycoated
Zirconium 2.3 2.0 1.0
Lead 14.0 12.0 5.0 2.5 3.00 4.0 3.2 2.3 2.0
Uranium 25.0 3.90 12.6 5.6 3.4

a Aluminum Is the standard metal at SO kV and 100 kVan.d sieel .at the higher voltages and gamma rays. The thickness of another metal Is
multiplied by the corresponding factor to obtain the approximate equivalent thickness of the standard metal. The exposure applying to this
thickness of the standard metal Is used. EXAMPLE: To radiograph 12.7 mm (0.5 In.) of copper at 220 kV, multiply 12.7 mm (0.5 In.) by the factor
1.4, obtaining an equivalent thickness of 17.8 mm (0.7 in.) of steel.
b Tin or lead alloyed in brass will Increase these factors.
Note: This chart applies only to one specific X-ray machine a.nd the film processing time, temperature, and chemicals are also fOO!d.

fixing the other variables. This makes it easier for

the radiographer to select exposure values.
1.8 For example, in the radiographic testing of a
25 mm ( I in.) thick steel part with this X-ray
machine, 220 kV, 200 kV, 180 kV or 160 kV might
1.5 be chosen. The chart shows that exposures would
range from about 5.3 mA at 220 kV to 70 mA at
.
GI
:,
Ill
1.2
,...,_,,1---120 _
.c
E
0
160 kV. If the X-ray machine were operated at
5 mA, the required exposure time at 160 kV would
0 "S
Q. l--f+-+-+--l-~--A---lo''--110 §_ be 14 min, while at 220 kV, the time would be
ii1 0.9 1--1--1-,,-.;H-,,__-ll-_-f--...-...+--l g !! l.06min.
1111
.9 i--t-++-+--11----H--i-.--+---1 6 SI
0
Charts in which other variables are fixed are
0.6 Q.
also useful. For example, if the source-to-film
1--f--lf-l--l~~--,..---+--l 4 &1
distance, film, screens, density, film processing and
exposure are fixed, a chart can be prepared that
shows the relationship between kilovoltage and
thickness for a given material.
0 Exposure charts for isotopes typically plot the
0 exposure factor (rather than the exposure) against
(0.25) (0.5) (0.75) ( I.O) ( 1.25) (1.5)
material thickness for various resulting film
Equivalent Thickness
mm (in.) of steel densities as shown in Figure 2.11. This type of chart
reflects the need to allow for source-to-film
distance variance to accommodate different
Figure 2.10: Typical exposure chart for steel.
20 Level II Study Guide

10.0
3. type or thickness of screens or filters - any
50 8.0 change in the energy spectrum of the radiation
reaching the film, such as those produced by
30 - J D= 2.5
6.0
screens and filters, may change the density
0=2.0 4.0 and/or contrast of the resulting radiographs.
II 3.0
;:;-
-D= 1.5 c

-
Ill 2.0
'-
.!:
~
Object Thickness,

,
,f/ , 1.0
Q
.
0
t:Ill
Intensity, Distance and
Time
,,
, ,

~
,,,
IIJ
0.8
0.6 .
LL.
a,
:s
en
The relationships between object thickness,
source intensity, source-to-film distance and
Ill 0.4
0
a. exposure time are mathematical and require that
:IC
Ill 03 "' calculations be made or that the radiographer
~ r; 0.2
interpret charts. The calculations for changes in

·111 source-to-film distance, intensity, or time are

simple arithmetic functions as demonstrated in
0.1 Figure 2.12.
0 25 SI 76 102
(0) (I) (2) (3) (4)
Steel Variations in Object Thickness
mm(in.) An acceptable exposure of an object with
varying thicknesses requires intelligent use of the
Figure 2.11: Typical gamma ray exposure chart radiographic testing variables. The use of filters or
for lr-192, based on the use of film X. higher radiation energy will reduce contrast, but
sensitivity may become unsatisfactory. Reductions
thicknesses, because the radiographer cannot in energy or removal of filters will increase
control the energy or the output of an isotope. contrast. The use of slower films increases contrast
Deviations from some fixed variables of an and sharpness, while faster films reduce contrast
exposure chart can be compensated for and sharpness.
mathematically as follows: For high subject-contrast situations, two or
more films of the same or different speeds may be
I. source-to-film distance - use the inverse exposed simultaneously in the same film holder.
square law; The parts of the image showing suitable density on
2. film type - use the characteristic curve of the any one film are interpreted using a single film
films; while two or more films are superimposed in order
3. desired film density - use the characteristic to view the lower density regions of the image.
curve of the film; Two films, usually of different speeds, that are
4. film processing - if characteristic curves for loaded and exposed together in a single holder are
other temperatures, chemicals or development sometimes viewed separately. The advantages of
times are available, use them; otherwise, see this technique are evident in situations where the
item 2, below. material thickness or absorptivity cannot be
precisely determined or where the object contains
Changes to the following variables of the large differences in thickness.
exposure chart cannot be accurately predicted: Double or triple loading refers to the number of
radiographic films placed in a single film holder.
I. X-ray machine - all X-ray machines are Different film speeds are used to obtain acceptable
different; two X-ray machines operating at the film densities over a wide range of cross-sectional
same nominal kilovoltage and tube current may thicknesses. Each film effectively images a separate
produce significantly different energies and area of interest that, when combined, provides total
intensities of radiation; coverage of the object and enhances latitude.
2. film processing - a change in chemicals, It is especially important in the radiographic
temperature or development time will change testing of multi-thickness parts to understand
the resulting film density and contrast; thoroughly how to use the characteristic curves of
 Radiographic Testing 21

Sample I is based on the folJowing: initial exposure is 2 min, 5 mA, 20 in. source-to-film distance. It is desired to change
the so'urclHo-film distance to 36 in.
General Rule: The current, in milliamperes (M), is directly proportional to the square of the source-to-film distance (D).

5 202 5 400 6480

-= - ➔- =--➔ 400x=5xl296 ➔ x=--=16.2 mA
X 362 X 1296 400
Sample 2 is based on the following:·initial exposure is 2 min, 5 mA, 20 in. source- to-film distance. It is desired to change
the source-to-film distance to 36 in. ·
General Rule: The ell.'Pbsure time (T) is directly proportional to the square of the source-to-film distance (D).

2 202 2 400 2592 .

-=-2
➔ - = -- ➔ 400x=2Xl296 ➔ x=-- =6.48 mm
X 36 X 1296 400
Sample 3
General Rule: The clirrent, in milliampe.res (M), required is inversely proportional to time (T). Usi.nglhe results from
Sample 1 and Sample 2, calculate for lO mA.

16 2
· 105
--=--
X ➔ l Ox=l 6 .2 x 6 .48 ➔ x=-=l 0 .)- mm
.
lO 6.48 10
The calculation may also be performed as folJows:

104.98 lOx
M 1 XT1 = M2 X T2 ➔ 16.2 x 6.48 = l0x ➔ 104.98 = lOx ➔ - - = - ➔ 10.498 =x
10 10
=10.5 mm.
Sample 4 is based on the following: initial exposure ls 3.4 min, 75 Ci Ir-192 somce, 18 in. source-to-film distance.
Calculate the 6me required for 30 Ci.
General Rule: Time (T) is inversely proportional to source strength (S).

Figure 2.12: Sample calculations.

films and the exposure charts for the available uranium, tungsten and lead have high Z numbers,
radiation sources. Proper use of these aids can and are therefore very effective in shielding
greatly increase efficiency and reduce the costs and radiation.
time for radiography. The half-value layer (HVL) is used to determine
what thickness of a given material is necessary to
Half-Value Layer reduce the exposure rate from a source to a certain
A half-value layer (HVL) (also half-value level. At some point in the material, there is a level
thickness) is the thickness of a specified material at which the radiation intensity becomes one half
that reduces the intensity of radiation passing that at the surface of the material. This depth is
through the material by half. known as the half-value layer for that material.
The depth of penetration for a given photon Another way of looking at this is that the HVL is
enerb'Y is dependent upon the material density the amount of material necessary to reduce the
(atomic structure). The more subatomic particles in exposrue rate from a source to one-half its
a material (higher Z number), the greater the unshielded value.
likelihood that interactions will occur and the Sometimes shielding is specified as some
radiation will lose its energy. Therefore, the denser a number of 1-IVL. For example, if a gamma source is
material is, the smaller the depth of radiation producing 369 R/h at 0.3 m ( 1 ft) and a 4 HVL
penetration will be. Materials such as depleted shield is placed around it, the intensity would be
22 Level II Study Guide

reduced to 23.0 R/h as follows: 369 + 2 = 184.5 + 2 radiation energy. This means that for a given
=92.25 + 2 =46.125 + 2 = 23. Each material has its material, if the radiation energy changes, the point
own specific HVL thickness. Not only is the HVL at which the intensity decreases to half its original
dependent on the type of material but also on the value will also change.
 23

Chapter 2: Review Questions

l. To produce an exposure equivalent to 5 mA at 5. All other factors being the same, radiographic
305 mm (12 in.), what current is required if the sharpness or definition is improved by using:
source-to-film distance is changed to 609 mm
(24 in.) and the exposure time is kept the a. slower film
same? b. faster film
c. film with a larger grain size
a. 4mA d. slower film with fluorescent screens
b. l0mA
c. 20mA 6. Other factors being the same, radiographic
d. 40mA contrast is improved by:

2. A source-to-film distance of 762 mm (30 in.) is a. raising the kilovoltage and lowering the
changed to 609 mm (24 in.). What exposure current
time would be required if the original exposure b. lowering the kilovoltage
time was 10 min? c. using faster film
d. adjusting the exposure to produce the
a. 2.5 min minimum film density allowed
b. 5.0min
C. 6.4 min 7. The minimum source-to-film distance needed
d. 15.2 min to produce acceptable radiographs depends on
the focal spot (source) size, the maximum
3. Geometric unsharpness can be reduced by allowable unsharpness, and the:
using a:
a. type of film
a. larger focal spot size b. density of the object
b. smaller focal spot size c. object-to-detector distance
c. shorter source-to-film distance d. atomic number of the object material
d. longer object-to-film distance
8. Radiographic contrast is affected by which of
4. It is required that the radiographs of a part the following:
102 mm (4 in.) thick must have a geometric
unsharpness no larger than 0.4 mm (0.015 in.). a. subject contrast
If the maximum projected dimension of your b. sensitivity of the film
radiation source is 2.5 mm (0.l in.), what c. unsharpness of the image
minimum source-to-film distance must you d. all of above will affect radiographic contrast
use to satisfy the unsharpness requirement?
9. Overall image quality of a radiograph is
a. 66 cm (26 in.) determined by its radiographic contrast and:
b. 76 cm (30 in.)
c. 91 cm (36 in.) a. definition
d. 102 cm (40 in.) b. density
c. sensitivity
d. latitude

es P8 qg eg q17 QE
24 Level II Study Guide

10. What is the half-value layer thickness of 15. For any given radiation energy, the controllable
aluminum for a radiation beam that requires variable(s) that govern exposure is (are):
lO min exposure for 25 mm (I in.) of
aluminum and 20 min exposure for 38 mm a. the composition of the cathode
( 1.5 in.) of aluminum, all other factors being b. distance from the anode to the cathode
the same? c. source output, exposure time and source-
to-film distance
a. 13 mm (0.5 in.) d. material used to construct the vacuum
b. 25 mm (1 in.) envelope
c. 38 mm (1.5 in.)
d. Not enough data are given. 16. At 100 kV, the radiographic equivalence factor
for aluminum is 1.0 and for magnesium is 0.6.
11. The density differential between two areas of a Approximately what thickness of aluminum is
radiograph is radiographic: 51 mm (2 in.) of magnesium equivalent to:

a. sensitivity a. 17 mm (0.7 in.)

b. definition b. 23 mm (0.9 in.)
c. contrast c. 31 mm (1.2 in.)
d. filtration d. 85 mm (3.3 in.)

12. The ratio of radiation intensities transmitted 17. If the source-to-film distance for a technique is
by various sections of a part as a result of modified from 762 mm (30 in.) to 1143 mm
thickness changes, is: (45 in.), the exposure increases by a factor of:

a. subject contrast a. 0.44

b. radiographic contrast b. 0.67
c. sensitivity c. I.SO
d. film gradient d. 2.25

13. What source-to-film distance is required to 18. The initial exposure time for a part was
produce a maximum geometric unsharpness of 3 min, 3 mA, 475 mm (18 in.) source-to-film
0.5 mm (0.02 in.) for an object 142 mm distance. The distance has been increased to a
(5.6 in.) thick using a 5 mm (0.2 in.) focal spot 558.8 mm (22 in.) source-to-film distance. The
(source) size? milliamperes has not changed. What is the new
exposure time?
a. 1422 mm (56 in.)
b. 1574 mm (62 in.) a. 3.Smin
c. 2261 mm (89 in.) b. 6.Smin
d. 2743 mm (108 in.) C. 4.4 min
d. 2min
14. A front filter at the film or at the source, or
multiple-films in the same holder, are
techniques that are used to compensate for:

a. excessive subject contrast

b. low density in thin areas of the object
c. poor definition
d. low subject contrast

081 PH eo1
 25

Chapter 3
Film and Processing
as graininess. All films exhibit graininess to some
Film and Film Handling degree (Figure 3.1 ). Slow-speed, fine-grain films
Industrial radiographic film consists of a thin exhibit lower levels of graininess and higher
sheet of transparent plastic called the base that is definition, as is evident in Figure 3.I(b).
coated, usually on both sides, with photosensitive Graininess is reduced when the radiation
material called the emulsion. The emulsion is a energy that produced the image is low; increasing
solid, gelatinous material approximately 0.03 mm the radiation energy increases the graininess.
(0.001 in.) thick containing microscopic particles of Graininess is also affected by the film development
silver halide. When the silver halide absorbs process.
electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, it
is modified so that the chemicals present in the Film Selection
developer solution can change the silver halide to Choosing the right film for a particular
metallic silver. The developer does not change the application is important. The composition, size and
silver halide that did not absorb radiation. thickness of the object; energy and output of the
After developing, the remaining halide is radiation source; the criticality of the inspection;
removed by photographic fixer, leaving just the and the required level of sensitivity must be
metallic silver. Areas of the emulsion that contain considered when selecting the type of film. The
little silver are relatively transparent to light, while time- and cost-saving advantages of higher speed
those where there is much silver are less ftlms must be weighed against their poorer contrast
transparent, or denser. and sharpness as compared to slower films.
The possibility of using relatively slow film but
Film Graininess decreasing the exposure time by using intensifying
Microscopic grains of silver form the radio- screens must be considered. However, fluorescent
graphic image. However, for various reasons, these intensifying screens should only be used when the
particles tend to clump together in relatively large highest possible photographic speed is required
masses that are sometimes visible to the naked eye and the lower sensitivity can be tolerated.

(a)
-~.ovuu
-«~ollc
(b)
...~~o~°"
~•.,.,.~Dooo
••••~otio fl c:l ~~

'••~%0
1'•'1~o00l]
.1••1•'002>00
•'\~oaOa(lo
tt• ••~oo0£7J
-'(',·•~@<J.""
• •• •o"<? ~,
\t;,oP~ ••'-.!o~o<>o
~•-- ..
1•:,
a~,lcf~
Exposed Unexposed
.-J~ci~O -0
<),Oo
~-.•- c::,f\O CU'O
Exposed Unexposed

Figure 3.1: Film grain variations: (a) fast film (large grains); (b) slow film (small grains).
26 Level II Study Guide

Available Forms of Film radiographic film in the darkroom is completely

Industrial radiographic film is available in secured or sealed with a dark tape to prevent any
individual sheets in a variety of sizes, prepackaged light from reaching the unexposed film. Light
in light-tight envelopes or on large rolls. When reaching the film will result in fog or dark images
smaller pieces are needed for confined spaces, on the developed film.
individual sheets are easily cut in the darkroom; of
course they must be inserted into a light-tight Film Storage
envelope and sealed before leaving the darkroom. X-ray films pose a challenge in the field of
Prepackaged film is available in sealed, light- records management for two principal reasons.
tight envelopes, with or without lead oxide screens. First, though rarely appraised as permanent
This film is ready for exposure without being records, they are frequently scheduled for very long
removed from the envelope. Advantages of retention periods, often as long as 75 years and, in
prepackaged film include the elimination of the some cases, even longer. Second, as film-based
time for loading film holders and its convenience in materials are vulnerable to damage from
situations where a darkroom is not readily available inappropriate storage environments, special
such as in the field. However, compared to standard precautions are needed to keep them in good
sheet film, prepackaged film is expensive. condition until authorized for disposal.
Roll film is advantageous for inspecting large Major factors affecting the archival properties of
circumferential welds or other cylindrical objects. the film include temperature, humidity and the
The film is wrapped around the outside of the manner in which the films were processed.
cylinder while the radiation source is centered Temperature - Continuous temperatures above
inside. Unless the object is extremely large, only one 38 °C ( I 00 °F) will accelerate staining caused by
exposure is needed with this technique. The residual thiosulfate. Temperatures below the dew
advantages of roll film for such work include point of the air may produce condensed moisture
reduction of the required setup time and reduction on the radiographs and cause sticking. In general, a
of the number of identification and location moderate temperature range is recommended.
markers required. between 4.4 °C (40 °F) and 24 °C (75 °F).
Humidity - Extreme conditions must be
Film Handling avoided as prolonged exposures to relative
Film must be handled carefully to avoid humidity over 60% will tend to damage the
damaging the emulsion layers. Pressure marks, emulsion with fungus growth and could cause
creases, fingerprints, scratches, static marks, sticking. Under conditions of low or changing
humidity, heat, moist/contaminated hands and humidity, emulsion adhesion defects such as edge
splashes or spills of processing chemicals can peeling, flaking or cracking can develop. Low
produce artifacts that may render a radiograph humidity will also increase the potential of static
unacceptable. To avoid problems: charges on the radiographs attracting solids that
could harm them. In general, a relative humidity
I. always wear cotton gloves when handling dry range of 30 to 60% is recommended.
film, Film-processing factors - If radiographs are
2. handle it only by the edges, not fully fixed and washed, they can retain some
3. slide it slowly (not rapidly) out of its box or film fixer, or thiosulfate, and some residual silver in the
holder, lower density areas. During storage, these residual
4. keep processing chemicals away from the chemicals can generate permanent, brownish stains
loading bench, and superimposed on the radiographic image. Since the
5. promptly wipe up any spills or splashes. rate at which a stain is generated depends on both
the amount of residual thiosulfate and radiograph
Store films in a cool, preferably air-conditioned storage conditions, factors such as the temperature,
location, away from penetrating radiation and store humidity and air flow in the storage facility must be
only the amount of film that can be used by the considered as they affect this rate. If radiographs
film expiration date. are stored at or below the upper limits of the
Special precautions must be taken to prevent temperature and relative humidity ranges, stain
any exposure of white light to the radiographic generation will be minimized and lowered as these
film. It's a good practice to ensure that the box of two parameters are lowered.
 Radiographic Testing 27

Film Processing
After exposure, film must be developed and
fixed so that the image will not deteriorate as it
ages. Both developing and fo::ing are d1emical
processes that must take place in a darkroom or
other location where there is little light or other
radiation.
Developer chemicals are alkaline organic
compounds that convert exposed silver halide into
silver, while fixers are acidic inorganic compounds
that convert the remaining silver halide into
compounds that can be dissolved in water so that
they can be removed from the film. Both developers
and fixers also have other functions such as
hardening t11e emulsion so that it is not easily
damaged during processing and subsequent
handling.

Darkrooms
Darkrooms must be lightproof, radiation-free Figure 3.2: Film-processing t anks w ith safelight . {Courtesy Scott L.
and have a convenient, clean work area. White light Dean. Northwest Pipe Co., Washington, WV, Facility.)
and penetrating radiation must not be present in
Lhe darkroom because they can ruin any considerable distance away from the processing
undeveloped film. machine or tanks. The bench must be kept clean
Darkrooms should be equipped with safelights and free from chemical spills and dirt that may
(low wattage lights between I 5 to 20 W, with red scratch the film emulsion. In addition, it should be
filters). Safelights should be 0.9 m to l.2 m (3 ft to large enough to facilitate the workload. Sufficient
4 ft) from any part of the darkroom where storage areas for film, cassettes, screens and fi lm
undeveloped film will be exposed. These lights hangars must also be available and conducive to the
provide sufficient visibility for cutting film, loading worknow.
and unloading film holders, and manual film In tank processing, as shown in Figure 3.3, the
processing (Figure 3.2). processing solutions and wash water are in tanks
A workbench for cutting film and loading deep enough for the film to be submerged.
cassettes and film holders should be located a

Airtight lid

.... .c
OJ
n
0
cu
.0
....
OJ
a:; n X
> u::: Cascade Wash tank
OJ .8
Vl
Cl

Water inlet Water inlet

Figure 3.3: Typical tank-processing unit .

28 Level II Study Guide

Manual Processing time equal to twice the time required for it to dear.
For manual processing, the film is placed on a Film that is not fixed thoroughly will discolor as it
frame or film hanger. The film is then immersed in ages. Keep in mind that over-fixing reduces the
the developer for a time that depends on the image contrast and density.
temperature of the developer ( Figure 3.4). After fixing is complete, the film is washed in
Typically, development for 5 min at 20 °C (68 °F} is running water with a sufficient flow to rapidly carry
used for manual processing, with shorter times at away the ftxer. The emulsion should remain in
higher temperatures and longer times at lower contact with constantly changing water that covers
temperatures. The film hanger should be tapped the top of the hanger.
against the tank immediately after the film is Effective washing of the film depends on a
completely submerged in developer to dislodge air sufficient flow of water to rapidly carry off the fixer
bubbles adhering to the film. and to allow adequate time for fixer chemicals to
diffuse out of the film. ln general, the hourly flow of
water in the washing tank should be from one to
two times the volume of the tank. Under these
conditions and at water temperatures between 16
and 21 °C (60 and 70 °F), films require about
30 min of washing. A general mle is at least twice
the fixing time.
The film is then placed in a circulating warm-
air drying cabinet, which should not exceed 49 °C
( 120 °F). Film should be removed from the dryer as
soon as it is completely dry. A fi.l.m is adequately dry
when there is no moisture remaining underneath
the hanger clips that could possibly drip down the
film and cause streaking.
It is very important to control the temperature
of the developer, stop bath, fixer and wash water
during processing, and to time the exposure of the
film to these liquids. The various processes occur at
different speeds depending on tl1e temperature. At
Figure 3.4: Developer bath with film on hanger. (Courtesy Scott L. temperatures exceeding 24 °C (75 °F) , the radio-
Dean. Northwest Pipe Co., Washington, WV, Facility.) graph may become fogged and the emulsion may
be loosened from the base, causing permanent
During development, either the developer or the damage to the radiograph. Temperatures of 18 °C
fi lm must be agitated to allow fresh solution to to 24 °C (65 °F to 75 °F) are preferable. If l1igher
contact the film emulsion frequently. him temperatures are unavoidable, precautions should
developed without agitation will show uneven be taken to avoid damaging the film . These may
development and streaking. include use of special formu lations of the chemicals
At the end of the proper development time, the or shorter processing times. Do NOT put ice in the
film is removed from the developer, allowed to chemical tanks because it will dilute the chemicals.
drain for a few seconds and then immersed and It is also important to avoid having large temper-
agitated for 30 s to 60 sin a stop bntli to halt the ature differences between the various liquids to
development process. Stop bath is an acid solution avoid reticulation, frilling or other damage to the
that neutralizes the residual developer in and on the film emulsion.
film, and helps to prevent the film from streaking
during fixing. Chemical Replenishing
Next the film is placed in the fixer and agitated Over time the film development process
for 10 s to 15 s. When the film is initially consumes some of the developer solution and
submerged, the fixer takes on a cloudy, milky-white causes the solution to become less active. Unless the
appearance that should dear in about 1 min if the solution is replaced, film sensitivity will gradually
fixer is at 20 °C (68 °F). After the fixer has cleared, decrease. In order to obtain uniform radiographic
the film should remain in the fixer for an additional results over a period of time, it is necessary to
 Radiographic Testing 29

check the condition of the used developer solution become apparent, which may lead to considerable
and add developer replenisher in proportion to the difficulty in consistently obtaining the required
quantity of film processed or at regular intervals. image quality in successively processed
The rate of replenishment varies with the size radiographs.
and quantity of film and the average density. The
developing power of the developer decreases with Automatic Processing
increasing density or film size and vice versa. When a large number of films must be
If the reduction of developing action is the processed each day, a film processing machine or
result of the processing of many films, it is possible automatic film processor will provide economic
to compensate for decreased chemical activity by advantages. Automated film processing reduces the
using a replenishment technique. Most manu- manpower required in the darkroom, reduces the
facturers of X-ray film developers provide for time required for processing and aids in ensuring
replenishment either by supplying a separate consistent, high-quality processing.
chemical or by providing instructions for mixing Exposed film is placed directly into the
the developer to a different concentration from that processor without the need for film hangers. A
of the original developer solution. series of rollers moves the film at a controlled speed
If a replenisher is added frequently and in small through each step of the process. The processor
quantities, fluctuations in film density due to maintains the chemicals at the proper temperatures,
changes in chemical activity of the developer will agitates and replenishes the solutions automatically,
tend to even out. However, if replenisher is added and dries the film.
infrequently, a fluctuation in film density will
 31

Chapter 3: Review Questions

l. A significant difference between automatic and 5. Static marks in radiographs may result from:
manual processing is that:
a. using contaminated cotton gloves
a. the chemistry in automatic processors is b. using noninterleaved film
more uniform C. sliding film rapidly out of the film holder
b. manual processing is faster d. loading several films into one film holder
c. automatic processing is more reliable and
cost effective 6. During the loading of unexposed radiographic
d. developer time is not critical with film in the darkroom sealing the unused film
automatic processing back in the box with tape will prevent:

2. The darkroom safelights for radiographic a. light spots on the film

testing should have colored filters and frosted b. exposure to light
white bulbs,and be placed 1 m to 1.2 m (3 ft to c. lighter densities on developed films
4 ft) from the darkroom work surfaces. What d. burn out of lead identification numbers
should be the wattage of the bulbs?
7. The liquids used for manual processing should
a. 7.SWto 15W include:
b. 15Wto20W
c. 20Wto30W a. developer, stop bath,and water
d. 30Wto40W b. developer, fixer, stop bath and wetting agent
c. fixer, stop bath and water
3. Because white light bulbs are used in d. developer, stop bath, fixer and water
darkroom safelights, the light must be filtered
with a: 8. Adding chemicals to restore the activity of a
developer solution during normal use is
a. blue/green filter known as:
b. red/amber filter
c. dark filter of any color a. reactivation.
d. yellow/green filter b. replenishment
c. restoration
4. The loading bench in a darkroom should be: d. renovation

a. next to the film processing tanks or 9. The basic purpose of a stop bath is to:
machine
b. away from the film processing tanks or a. cause development to cease
machine b. speed up the fixing process
c. near the entrance for convenience in c. enhance the alkalinity of the developer that
passing films in and out of the darkroom is on the film
d. near the vent fan to ensure a good rate of d. prevent excessive fixation
air flow over the film as it is loaded in the
cassettes or film holders

es QB PL qg ::ig qt, ez
32 Level II Study Guide

IO. The basic purpose of the fixer is to: 16. Which of the following is a possible result of
storing radiographs in a high humidified
a. soften the film emulsion environment?
b. remove the unexposed silver halides
c. reduce the alkalinity of the developer a. The subject contrast will improve.
d. neutralize the developer acids b. There are no adverse affect upon the
radiographs.
11. Other factors being equal, processing film in c. Possible emulsion adhesion defects such as
solutions that are too warm may result in: edge peeling can develop.
d. The film density of the entire film will
a. lower densities decrease.
b. mottling
c. frilling or loosening of the emulsion 17. Excessive density in a radiographic image may
d. uneven densities be a result of:

12. The temperature of the water used during the a. excessive exposure time
washing process should be not be less than: b. insufficient fixing
c. the use of fine-grain film
a. 12.7 °C (55 °F) d. the use of an X-ray energy greater than 200
b. IO °C (50 °F) kV
C. 23.8 °C (75 °F)
d. 15.5 °C (60 °F) 18. In manual processing, low radiographic
density may be due to:
13. Using a wetting agent in manual film
processing will assist in: a. high developer temperature
b. high developer concentration
a. the developing stage of the process c. weak developer solution
b. hardening the film emulsion d. over-replenishing
c. reducing water marks and streaks
d. controlling film density 19. Over-developing may result in:

14. For best results, film should be dried: a. streaking

b. fogging
a. in ambient air c. spotting
b. by an oscillating fan d. lower density
c. in a dryer for a minimum of 2 h
d. in a warm air dryer 20. Which of the following factors is most
important in ensuring that satisfactory
15. The major advantages of automatic film radiographs can be stored for years without
processing are: becoming useless?

a. fewer spills and splashes in the darkroom a. Development beyond 5 min at 20 °C (68
b. improved sensitivity of the radiographs OF).
c. reduced cost and time for processing b. Using low pH stop bath.
d. speed, consistency and efficiency c. Thorough washing to remove all the
thiosulfate.
d. Fixing for at least three times the normal
clearing time.

OOl Q6t 08t 09t P9t

 Radiographic Testing 33

21. As the effective energy of the radiation 22. When a film is exposed to high levels of
increases: radiation, what impact will this have upon the
silver particles on the film during the
a. film graininess increases development process?
b. film graininess decreases
c. radiographic definition increases a. No effect.
d. film speed decreases b. Fewer silver particles will be produced by
the development process making the film
lighter.
c. More silver particles will be produced by
the development process making the film
lighter.
d. More silver particles will be produced by
the development process making the film
darker.
 35

Chapter 4
Exposure Techniques and
Radiographic Interpretation
Exposure Techniques
Whenever possible, radiographic testing is Film
performed with a technique in which the radiation
passes through only one thickness or wall of an
object This single-wall radiography requires that
the source be located on one side of the object and
the film on the other side, with no intervening
material. Single-wall radiography simplifies
exposure calculations and interpretation of the
resulting radiographic image. Nevertheless,
complex shapes and variations in wall thickness
may make it difficult to select the proper radiation Source
energy, filters, screens and film types, as well as film
placement and other variables. Figure 4.2: Hemispherical orange-peel head
For large spherical or cylindrical objects where exposure arrangement.
both the inside and outside surfaces are accessible,
the panoramic technique is useful to reduce time and that the source-to-film distance be
exposure time. Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show the general sufficient so that the geometric unsharpness will be
arrangement of the source and the film for a satisfactory using the intended source location. The
cylinder and a hemisphere. Although this technique panoramic technique is also useful for the
is largely applied to welds, it is equally useful for radiographic testing of many small similar parts
parts of similar shapes that are not welded. The simultaneously, as shown in Figure 4.3.
major requirement is that the wall thickness be
relatively constant for all films exposed at the same Film

Test abjects\ ~
\\ I /I /I~
\ I / /
\ II I /

---~-
' ' \ /;,
11,I /;'
....
. . . . . . ..._ . . ' ,, ,,II , . ~/,,,,. ,,,,.,,,,..,a
~
,,,,.

:--_____ _
Source'' ,. 1 ~,,,,.,,,,.
.•:-,,..
., .,/ ✓.,1,
,,,,./
,,,,. ;, / I , , ....
\' ........
,,,,.,,,,. ;, / I \ ' ',
.,,,,,. ;, / I I \ \ ' ....
/✓,,,,,~ ....
I I \ \
I I \
,' ct:;t,
Figure 4.3: Panoramic exposure arrangement.
Figure 4.1: Weld radiography of larger diameter
pipes and pressure vessels.
36 Level II Study Guide

Radiographic testing of hollow parts (e.g., pipes to ASTM E 1025 and MIL-STD-453 IQis. Wire IQ Is
and pressure vessels) often cannot be performed conforming to ASTM E 747 are also used in the
with the single-wall technique because either the United States. These are similar (but not identical)
source or the film cannot be placed inside the to the DIN or ISO IQ Is widely used in Europe. The
object. image quality or sensitivity values obtained from
When this occurs, it is necessary for the the various types of IQIs are not identical, but they
radiation to pass through two, and sometimes are mathematically related. The relationship for
more, walls of the object. This is called double-wall ASTM plaque and wire types is charted in ASTM
radiography. Most specifications detail the E 747.
requirements for double-wall radiography to ensure When specifications require particular types or
that adequate sensitivity is obtained for both walls sizes of IQIs that are not readily available, it is
and to assist in the interpretation of the useful to be able to determine the characteristics of
radio graphs. equivalent IQIs. ASTM E 1025 provides an equation
and a conversion for determining equivalent IQI
Image Quality Indicators sensitivity.
Image quality indicators (IQis) ensure that Important: During typical usage, IQis do not
satisfactory radiographic image quality has been provide positive measurement of image quality. The
obtained. Often an IQI is a small test piece of [QI image on a radiograph indicates only that the
standard design, made of material that is image quality is not poorer than some minimum
radiographically similar to the object to be tested. requirement. In addition, the IQI image is not
The IQI is placed on the source side of the object intended to be used to judge the size or
whenever possible and is radiographed with the test acceptability of discontinuities.
object.
Because it is placed on the source side of the Identification Markers
object, its image represents the largest object-to- Radiographs must be marked in such a way that
film distance and thus the largest unsharpness each one can be identified with the object that it
displayed by that radiograph. It is a good practice to represents. For test objects requiring more than one
provide the image of at least one IQI on each radio- radiograph, each one must be identified with the
graph and, more often than not, it is required. part of the object that it represents, so the film can
There are many standard IQI designs. The most be matched to the corresponding region of the
commonly used are small plaques with holes object.
(Figure 4.4) and sets of small-diameter wires. The Lead letters and numbers placed on the object
dimensions of IQI features are some small are usually used for this purpose because their high
percentage of the thickness of the object and image radiographic absorption allows them to be imaged
quality is judged by the smallest visible feature, on the radiograph. The exact locations of the lead
such as hole size or wire diameter. markers may be permanently marked on the object
There are two plaque-type IQls commonly used or their locations may be keyed to a map of the
in the United States: ASTM/ ASME IQ Is conforming object and retained as a permanent record.

4T= lT= 2T=

2 mm (0.08 in.) 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) 1 mm (0.04 in.}

ID number
-IT l--
0.5 mm {0.02 in.)

Figure 4.4: Standard image quality indicator for 25.4 mm (1.0 in.) material; T = IQI thickness.
 Radiographic Testing 37

Identification and location markers are essential

in order to correlate the radiographic images of any A
discontinuities with their locations in the object. Source 1~ - - - - - - - - - - - - ~Source 2
Specific requirements for marking vary
considerably from customer to customer. Typical
requirements are available in standards such as
ASTM E 94, ASTM E 1030, various ASME codes
and other specifications.

Discontinuity Depth Film- T

Determinations side
marker
Knowing the depth that a discontinuity lies
below the surface of a part can be very useful to
personnel who must remove the discontinuity or to
interpreters who must determine the part's
acceptability. There are several radiographic testing
techniques that can be used for determining the
depth of a discontinuity. These include stereo-
radiography and three parallax techniques: the rigid Film plane
formula, the single-marker technique and the Key
double-marker technique. A = Source shift between exposures
The rigid formula and single-marker technique B = Discontinuity image shift
T = Source-to-film distance
both rely on making two exposures on the same H = Thickness of test object
film. They are useful only when the discontinuity H1 = Height of discontinuity above film-side
has enough contrast to be visible on a double- marker
exposed radiograph (i.e., one film exposed twice, K = Distance between the test object and
with each exposure being half of the normal film plane
D = Discontinuity
exposure time). The double-marker technique does
not have this limitation, which makes it the most
generally applicable of these three. Figure 4.5: Double-marker approximate method.
As shown in Figure 4.5, the double-marker
technique uses lead markers placed on both the Interpretation and
source and the film side of the object. Then, two
normal exposures are made. Evaluation of Radiographs
One film is exposed with the source in its Interpretation of radiographs is the process of
normal position and the second is exposed with the determining whether the radiograph is suitable for
source shifted an appreciable amount (20-30% of evaluating the condition of the test object. The
the source-to-object distance) parallel to the film interpreter must be familiar with the requirements
plane. In the case of cracks, the source shift must of the governing specification with regard to film
also be parallel to the length of the crack. identification and location markers, image quality
The images of the source-side marker and the indicator size and placement, and film density.
discontinuity will shift relative to the image of the Only personnel trained and experienced in
film-side marker. The shift of the source-side radiographic testing should evaluate the condition
marker will be proportional to the thickness of the of the object. The evaluator must be familiar with
object (the distance from the source side to the film how the radiographic variables that were employed
side), while the shift of the discontinuity image is in making the radiograph may affect the image of
proportional to the distance from the discontinuity the object and the image of the various kinds of
to the film side of the object. Knowing the discontinuities. The evaluator must be able to
thickness of the object, the distance of the identify the images of various types of
discontinuity from the film side of the object can be discontinuities and know which discontinuities are
determined with a simple algebraic calculation. most likely to occur in a given portion of the object
based on knowledge of how the object was made.
38 Level II Study Guide

Visual Acuity and Dark Adaptation supplying sufficient light to penetrate these
The evaluator must have good visual acuity (the densities.
ability to see fine detail) and the ability to discern Film density should be measured with a
small changes in image density (i.e., low-contrast densitometer, an instrument that compares the
images). For this reason, most specifications require intensity of the light transmitted through the film
radiographers, interpreters and evaluators to have to the light intensity incident on the other side of
an annual examination for near-distance visual the film. The densitometer should be allowed to
acuity and some require an examination for warm up for several minutes and then be verified
brightness/contrast discrimination. using a calibrated density strip. A series of density
No matter how good an individual's visual readings should be taken in the density range that
acuity and brightness discrimination may be, the is required for the radiographs that are to be
ability to see low-contrast images is strongly evaluated.
affected by the light level to which the eyes have
been exposed recently. For most interpretation and Identifying Indications
evaluation, it is sufficient to dark adapt one's eyes Indications on a radiograph may be nonrelevant
for at least lO min by avoiding all white light. For or relevant. Nonrelevant indications are those that
the most critical work and for very low-contrast were produced by:
images, dark adaptation for at least 30 min is
necessary. Repeated adaptation can be avoided by 1. features of the object that are intended to be
wearing red goggles when exposed to white light. present, such as its shape, including holes, ridges
Even when sufficiently dark-adapted, a useful or steps in the object, or
procedure to improve the visibility of faint images 2. errors in radiographic testing techniques, such
is to move the radiograph back and forth during as water spots, scratches or pressure marks on
viewing, because indistinct objects are more easily the film.
seen when moving. For example, it is easier to see
an animal in the woods or fields when it is moving Indications caused by film handling or
than when it is still. Viewing the film at an angle processing errors are often called film artifacts. A
can also improve the visibility of faint images. common method of aiding in identification of
artifacts is to simultaneously expose two films of
Viewing Conditions the same type in the film holder to produce two
In addition to dark adaptation, viewing radiographs that are nominally identical. If the
conditions are very important to the interpretation same indication is present on both radiographs, it is
of radiographs. The contrast sensitivity of the either an intended feature of the object or a
human eye is greatest when the surroundings are discontinuity. Despite such aids, there is no
approximately the same brightness as the area of substitute for experience in determining whether
interest. Therefore, to avoid loss of dark adaptation indications are relevant or not. Table 3 lists the
and to provide the best conditions for seeing, the common types of artifacts and their causes.
film illuminator must be masked to prevent bright Relevant indications are those produced by
light from escaping around the edges of the unintentional conditions in the object, usually
radiograph. For the same reason, when there are discontinuities such as voids, inclusions of foreign
light areas in a dark radiograph, a spot illuminator material or cracks.
should be used to prevent glare from the light areas.
Lighting in the viewing area should be subdued and Sources of Discontinuities
the viewer placed to minimize unwanted reflections Discontinuities may be created at any stage
from other light sources. during the life of a metal or other material - from
its initial formation through the end of its service
Film Density Measurement life. They are often roughly classified as inherent
The area of the radiograph under evaluation discontinuities, processing discontinuities or
must be within a specific density range. Most service discontinuities, depending on the stage
specifications require densities between 1.5 and 4.0. during which they were created.
However, some specifications allow densities above
4.0 provided that the illuminator is capable of
 Radiographic Testing 39

Table 3: Film artifacts.

Type of Artifact Cause

Crimps (fold/bend) Careless film handling technique

Static (tree branches) Rough/rapid handling of film loading or unloading cassettes

Handling, processor rollers (visible on film surface viewed with light

Scratches
at an angle)

Pressure mark Heavy object placed on loaded cassette

Screen marks Blemishes/contamination on screens (produce light image on film)

Light leak (light streaking) Tears in cassette after exposure prior to developing

Fog (mottled film) Exposure of unprocessed films to temperature, radiation, or light

Light leak {dark streaking) Tears in cassette prior to radiographic exposure

Manual process chemical splashing, no agitation in developer, no

Chemical spots/streaks
stop bath used

Processor pressure marks Dark areas caused by contamination on rollers or improper clearance

Miscellaneous processing Cross contamination of chemicals, air bells (cause false indications)

Inherent Discontinuities Service Discontinuities

lnherent discontinuities are those that were Service discontinuities are the result of stresses
created during the smelting, refining, pouring and and environments imposed on the part during use.
solidification of the metal into ingots, billets or Cracking may result from processes such as fatigue,
slabs. They usually result from entrapment of creep, thermal shock or stress corrosion. Pit1ing or
foreign material, such as absorbed gases, oxides or general metal loss may be caused by corrosion,
sulfides, although some discontinuities, such as erosion, wear or fretting. Service discontinuities are
pipe are a result of mold design or pouring usually open to the surface and, therefore, more
practices. economically detected by surface methods of
nondestructive testing such as liquid penetrant
Processing Discontinuities testing, eddy current testing or magnetic particle
Processing discontinuities include those testing. However, the affected surface may be
produced during processes that modify the shape internal to the part or in the inner surfaces of a
and/or properties of the raw material, such as sandwich constructi.on and thus not accessible for
forging, rolling, heat treating, machining or surface tests. Radiographic testing may then be the
grinding. Stresses and deformation are major best method of detection.
causes of processing discontinuities such as cracks,
bursts, laps and seams, allhough environmental Identifying Discontinuities
factors such as temperature may also be a cause. It is very important to manufacturing and
Discontinuities in castings and welds also are engineering personnel to know what kind of
usually considered to be processing discontinuities, discontinuity caused a given nondestructive testing
although many of them are similar to inherent indication. Manufacturing personnel can use the
discontinuities because the processes involve the information to try to prevent the recurrence of such
melting and solidification of metal. discontinuities, while engineers are concerned
because some discontinuities have more of an effect
than others do on the usefulness and service life of
an engineered structure.
40 Level II Study Guide

Because the radiographic appearance of a

discontinuity depends on shadow formation, the
technique variables used in producing the
radiograph have a significant effect on the
appearance of the discontinuities. Therefore,
accurate interpretation of radiographs depends on
the training, experience and skilJ of the interpreter.
Accurate evaJuation skills can only be learned by
extensive practice combined with a thorough
knowledge of radiographic principles.
In addition to the influences of radiographic
variables, there may be wide variations in the size
and shape of any given type of discontinuity and
discontinuities may be oriented in various ways
relative to the radiation beam. As a result of these
complexities, verbaJ descriptions of the
radiographic appearance of various types of Figure 4.7: Hot tear due to uneven solidification
discontinuities are at best ambiguous and may be of different section thicknesses in a casting.
confusing. The proper way to become familiar with
the radiographic appearance of discontinuities is lo 3. governing contract or specification, if any;
study the reference radiographs published by 4. type of material;
ASTM and other reputable technical organizations 5. surface condition of the part when
and gain e>..'tensive experience. racliographed;
Examples of welding and casting discontinuities 6. radiographic tesling technique used for each
are shown in Figures 4.6 and 4.7, respectively. exposure, including:
a . identification markers,
b. type and identification of radiation source,
c. thickness of the material,
d. source-Lo-film distance,
e. image quality indicators used,
f. film type, size and quantity,
g. size and type of screens, filters, masking,
etc., if any, and
h. sketch or reference to identify:
( I ) location marker placement,
Figure 4.6: Coarse scattered porosity in a steel weld caused by (2) multi-ex-posure parts and area(s)
entrapment of gas. radiographed, and
(3) arrangement of source, part and film,
Radiographic Inspection including radiation beam direction;
7. evaluation results for each radiograph; and
Documents 8. signature(s) of the radiographer and the
In addition to the radiographs themselves, evaluator.
records should be made of the radiographic testing
technique used, the resuJts of the interpretation and For repetitive work on identical or similar parts,
the identity of the individuals involved. it is useful to keep a permanent record of the
Specifications and contracts usually impose technique used. This will not only reduce the time
detailed lists regarding such records, but at a needed subsequently to determine correct layout
minimum they should include the and tech nique, but it will allow these details to be
following: clocumemed for each part by reference to the
record, rather than repeatedly recording it for each
l. identification of the part or parts radiographed, part. This is often done by serially numbered
including a drawing and serial numbers; shooting sketches or technique sheets kept in a
2. descriptive name(s) for Lhe part(s); permanent file.
 41

Chapter 4: Review Questions

l. Unwanted marks and images that are produced 5. When is it useful to use the rigid formula and
during the processing of a radiograph are single-marker technique used to determine the
known as: depth of a discontinuity?

a. anomalies a. the length of the discontinuity is greater

b. irregularities than 30% the thickness of the part
c. artifacts b. the discontinuity has enough contrast to be
d. relevant indications visible on a double-exposed radiograph
c. only for in-service type discontinuities
2. A densitometer is an instrument that is used to d. for the detection of small rounded
measure the: discontinuities

a. X-ray density of an object 6. Discontinuities caused by fatigue and/or

b. depth of color of an object corrosion are categorized as:
c. physical density of an object
d. the density of the film a. processing discontinuities
b. inherent discontinuities
3. Densitometers should be calibrated before use c. service discontinuities
by: d. metallurgical discontinuities

a. taking a series of readings from a calibrated 7. Which of the following is a type of image
density strip quality indicator?
b. using production radiographs with known
densities a. wire IQI conforming to ASTM E 747
c. measuring the reflected light from a b. plaque-type conforming to ASTM E 1025
radiograph c. plaque-type confirming to
d. using a photometer MIL-STD453
d. all of the above
4. Which of the following discontinuities would
be classified as a "processing discontinuity"? 8. Inherent discontinuities are those found in:

a. fatigue crack a. forgings

b. heat treating cracks b. plate
c. entrapment of foreign material c. ferrous metals
d. thermal shock d. ingots

9. Devices used to ensure that radiographs meet

the desired image quality level are called:

a. image quality indicators

b. location markers
c. diaphragms
d. shims

es PS PL qg qt,
42 Level II Study Guide

l 0. Crimp marks, such as folds and bends that 12. The cause of mottled film is likely caused by:
appear on the developed film, most likely were
caused by: a. unprocessed film being exposed to high
temperatures
a. poor handling of the film b. tears in the cassette prior to radiographic
b. being exposed to light prior to development exposure
c. not using intensifying screens c. rough handling of the film
d. splashing fixer on the film before d. pressure marks
developing

11. For large spherical objects where both the

inside and outside surfaces are accessible
which technique is used to reduce the exposure
time?

a. Double wall technique.

b. Contact technique.
c. Panoramic technique.
d. Elliptical double wall technique.

eo,;
 43

Appendix A:
Radiation Safety
When the human body absorbs radiation, the The legal limit of radiation that an individual may
ionization that is produced damages the body. If the be exposed to, and other requirements, are set by
amount of radiation absorbed is small and it is governmental bodies such as the United States
spread over considerable time, the damage may be Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC) and
temporary because the body is able to repair it, the various state bodies. Radiation detection
same way it repairs bruises, scrapes or small cuts. instruments must be used whenever a radiographic
However, if a large amount of radiation is absorbed exposure is made regardless of the radiation source.
in a short time, the damage may be permanent Dosimeters, rate alarms or film badges must be worn
because it is too great to be repaired by the body. In by anyone working within a radiation area.
extreme cases, death may result. Consequently, Fixed radiation facilities must be surveyed
persons working with radiation must thoroughly before the first use, provided with permanent
understand the safety issues and what safety monitoring instruments and alarms, and
precautions must be taken. periodically surveyed for radiation safety. Field
In regard to safety precautions, two particular radiation work areas must have clearly marked
problems with radiation are that: boundaries and be thoroughly monitored during
operation. The size of fieldwork areas should be
I. X-rays, gamma rays and other ionizing minimized as much as possible by use of devices
radiation cannot be detected by any of the such as portable shields and
human senses, and collimators to reduce the potential for accidental
2. the damage may not be apparent immediately; exposure of radiographers and other
therefore, it is extremely important to follow all personnel.
radiation safety rules. Because some radiation regulations vary from
state to state, radiographers must be familiar with
Safety practices are based on known medical the laws governing radiographic testing in the state
facts about how the body is affected by radiation. where they are working.
44 Level II Study Guide

Appendix B:
Radiographic Conversion Factors

Traditional Units Converted to SI Units

Traditional Unit Multiply By SI Unit

electronvolt (eV) 1.6 X 1Q-l 9 joule (J)

speed of electromagnetic waves in a

1609.344 2.997 925 x 10s m/s
vacuum (c) = 186 282.4 mi/s

unified atomic mass unit (u) 1.66 X 10- 27 kilogram (kg)

3.7 X lQlO becquerel (Bq)

curie (Ci)
37 gigabecquerel (GBq)

10- 2 gray (Gy)

rad (rad)
10 milligray (mGy)

10-2 sievert (Sv)

rem (rem)
10 millisievert (mSv)

2.58 X lQ-4 coulomb per kilogram (C/kg)

roentgen (R)
258 microcoulomb per kilogram (µC/kg)

R/Ci/h at 1 m 0,27 mSv/GBq/h at 1 m

Ci·min/in.2 so GBq·min/cm2

R/min (absorbed dose) 0.01 Gy/min

R/min (dose absorbed by body) 0.01 Sv/min

degree fahrenheit (°F) - temperature 0

0.556 kelvin (Kl or degree celsius ( C)
difference

degree fahrenheit (°F) - temperature 0

(°F - 32)/1.8 degree celsius ( C)
scale

footcandle (ftc) 10.76 lux (Ix)

 45

Glossary

Absorbed dose: Amount of energy imparted to Accommodation facilitates the viewing of

human tissue or a biological system by an objects near and far.
ionizing event per unit mass of irradiated
material at the place of interest. Absorbed Activity: Degree of radioactivity of a particular
dose is expressed in gray (Gy) or rad. isotope. Activity is expressed as the number
of atoms disintegrating per unit of time.
Absorption: Event where photons in a beam of Measured in becquerel (curie).
radiation interact with atoms of a material
the photons pass through and are reduced Agency: Organization selected by an authority to
in energy by this interaction. perform nondestructive testing, as required
by a specification or purchase order.
Accelerating potential: The difference in electric
potential between the cathode and anode Algorithm: Prescribed set of well-defined rules
in an X-ray tube through which a charged or processes for the solution of a
particle is accelerated; usually expressed in mathematical problem in a finite number of
kilovolts or megaelectronvolts. steps.

Accelerator: (1) Device that accelerates charged Alpha particle: Positively charged ion emitted by
particles to high energies. Examples are certain radioactive materials. It is made up
X-ray tubes, linear accelerators and of two neutrons and two protons; hence, it
betatrons. (2) linear accelerator. is identical with the nucleus of a helium
atom.
Acceptable quality level (AQL): Maximum
percentage of defective units of the total Alternating current: Electrical current that
units tested in an acceptable lot. reverses its direction of flow at regular
intervals.
Acceptance criteria: Standard against which
test results are to be compared for Alternating magnetic field: Varying magnetic
purposes of establishing the functional field produced around a conductor by an
acceptability of a test object or system alternating current flowing in the conductor.
being tested.
Ampere (A): Unit of electric current.
Acceptance level: See Level, acceptance.
Analog-to-dlgltal converter: Circuit whose input
Acceptance standard: Reference object similar is information in analog form and whose
to the test object containing natural or output is the same information in digital
artificial discontinuities that are well form.
defined and similar in size or extent to the
maximum acceptable in the product. See Angstrom (A): Unit of distance once used to
Standard. express wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation. The SI unit nanometer (nm) is
Accommodation: Of the eye, adjustment of the now preferred; 1 nm = 10 A.
lens' focusing power by changing the
thickness and curvature of the lens by the Anode: (1) In radiography, the positive electrode
action of tiny muscles attached to the lens. of a cathode ray tube that generates
ionizing radiation. (2) Positively charged
46 Level II Study Guide

terminal, which may corrode electro• Beta particle: Electron or positron emitted from
chemically during production of an electric a nucleus during decay.
current. Compare Cathode.
Beta ray: Radiation stream consisting of beta
Artifact: False indication on a radiograph arising particles.
from, but not limited to, faulty manufacture,
storage, handling, exposure or processing. Betatron: Circular electron accelerator that is a
source of either high-energy electrons or
ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A: X-rays. The electrons are injected by
See Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC- periodic bursts into a region of an
1A. alternating magnetic field. Sometimes the
electrons are used directly as the radiation.
Attenuation: The decrease in radiation intensity
caused by distance and by passage through Billet: Solid semifinished round or square
material. product that has been hot worked for
forging, rolling or extrusion.
Automated system: Acting mechanism that
performs required tasks at a determined Bremsstrahlung: Electromagnetic radiation
time and in a fixed sequence in response to produced when electrons' path and kinetic
certain conditions. Also called a robotic energy brings them close to the positive
system. fields of atomic nuclei - as when electrons
strike a target provided for this purpose.
Backscatter: In transmission radiography, The electrons slow down, giving up kinetic
interaction of radiation with matter behind energy as X-radiation.
the image plane such that scattered
radiation returns to the image plane, often Burst: In metal, external or internal rupture
adding fog and noise that interfere with caused by improper forming.
production of an image of the test object.
Butt weld or butt Joint: Weld joining two metal
Backscatter Imaging: In radiographic testing, a pieces in the same plane.
family of techniques that use backscatter
for image generation. Camera, gamma-ray: Device that contains a
sealed radiation source, where the source
Barium clay: Molding clay containing barium, or shielding can be moved so that the
used to eliminate or reduce the amount of source becomes unshielded (to make a
scattered or secondary radiation reaching radiographic exposure) or shielded (for safe
the film. storage).

Beam: Defined stream of radiation in which all Cassette, fllm: Lightproof container that is used
elements are traveling in nearly parallel for holding radiographic film in position
paths. during the radiographic exposure. The
cassette may be rigid or flexible and may
Beam quality: Penetrating energy of a radiation contain intensifying screens, filter screens,
beam. both or neither.

Beam spread: Divergence from a beam of Casting: Object of shape obtained by

radiation in which all elements are traveling solidification of a substance in a mold.
in parallel paths.
Casting shrinkage: Total shrinkage includes the
Becquerel (Bq): SI unit for measurement of sum of three types: (1) liquid shrinkage (the
radioactivity, equivalent to one reduction in volume of liquid metal as it
disintegration per second. Replaces curie. cools; (2) solidification shrinkage (the
One curie equals 37 GBq. change in volume of metal from the
 Radiographic Testing 47

beginning to ending of solidification); and Contrast: (1) In film radiography, the measure of
(3) solid shrinkage (the reduction in volume differences in the film blackening or density
of metal as it returns to room temperature). resulting from various radiation intensities
transmitted by the object and recorded as
Cathode: (1) Negatively charged terminal in an density differences in the image. Thus,
arrangement that produces current by difference in film blackening from one area
chemical reactions. Compare Anode. (2) In to another. (2) The difference in visibility
radiography, the negative electrode of an X- between an indication and the surrounding
ray tube, the electrode from which electrons area.
are emitted.
Contrast, subject: Ratio of radiation intensities
Cathode ray: Stream of electrons emitted by a transmitted by selected portions of the
heated filament and projected in a more or object being radiographed.
less confined beam under the influence of
a magnetic or electric field. Control: See Process control and Quality
control.
Certification: Process of providing written
testimony that an individual (or test Corrosion: Deterioration of a metal by chemical
technique, process or equipment) is or electrochemical reaction with its
qualified. See also Certified. environment Removal of material by
chemical attack, such as the rusting of
Certified: Having written testimony of automobile components.
qualification. See also Certification.
Crack: (1) Break, fissure or rupture, usually
Ceslum-137 (Cs-137): Radioactive isotope of V-shaped (the cross-section view that
element cesium, having a half life of about otherwise appears jagged) and relatively
30 years and photon energy of about narrow and deep. A discontinuity that has a
660 keV. relatively large cross-section in one
direction and a small or negligible cross-
Characteristic curve: The plot of density versus section when viewed in a direction
log of exposure or log of relative exposure. perpendicular to the first. (2) Propagating
discontinuities caused by stresses such as
Cobalt-60 (Co-60): Radioactive isotope of heat treating or grinding. Difficult to detect
element cobalt, having half life of 5.3 years unaided because of fineness of line and
and photon energies of 1.17 MeV and pattern (may have a radial or latticed
1.33 MeV. appearance).

Code: A written standard enacted or enforced as Curie (Cl): Unit of measurement of the quantity
a law. of radioactivity. Replaced by becquerel in SI,
where 1 Ci= 3.7 x 1010 Bq, or 1 Ci=
Collimator: A device of radiation-absorbent 37 GBq.
material intended for defining the direction
and angular divergence of the radiation Decay curve: Graph showing radioactive
beam. strength in becquerel (curie) as a function
of time for an isotope. Decay curves are
Compton scatter: Reduction of the energy of an used in determining exposure times in
incident photon by its interaction with an radiographic testing.
electron. Part of the photon energy is
transferred to the electron, giving it kinetic Defect: Discontinuity that exceeds the
energy, and the remaining photon is acceptance criteria or is detrimental to the
redirected with reduced energy. service of the test object. See also
Discontinuity.
48 Leve/ II Study Guide

Definition: Description of linear demarcation metal. Pipe and nonmetallic inclusions are
sensitivity, or the detail sharpness of object the most common and can lead to other
outline in a radiographic image. It is a types of discontinuities in fabrication.
function of screen type, exposure geometry,
radiation energy and characteristics of film Dose: See Absorbed dose.
or sensor.
Dose rate: Radiation dose delivered during a
Delamlnatlon: Laminar discontinuity, generally specified unit of time and measured, for
an area of unbonded materials. instance, in sievert per minute (or in rem
per hour). See also Absorbed dose.
Densitometer: A device for measuring the
optical density of radiographic film. Dosimeter: Device that measures radiation
dose, such as an ionization chamber.
Density, film: The quantitative measure of film
blackening when light is transmitted or Effective focal spot: Size and geometry of focal
reflected, expressed as the log of the ratio spot after target interaction. Viewed from
of incident to transmitted light. along the primary beam central axis at the
target, the effective focal spot would appear
Depth of field: Range of distance over which an nearly square and smaller than the actual
imaging system gives satisfactory definition focal spot area covered by the electron
when its lens is in the best focus for a stream.
specific distance.
Evaluation: Process of determining the
Depth of focus: Distance a sensor may be magnitude and significance of a
moved from a lens system and still produce discontinuity after the indication has been
a sharp image. interpreted as relevant. Evaluation
determines if the test object should be
Depth of fusion: Depth to which base metal has rejected, repaired or accepted. See
melted during welding. Indication and Interpretation.

Detail: In radiography, the degree of sharpness Exposure factor: In radiography, the quantity
of outline of an image, or the clear that combines source strength
definition of an object or discontinuity in the (milliampere), time (usually minute) and
object. See also Definition. distance. It is the product of milliamperage
and time divided by distance squared and
Developer: In radiography, a chemical solution determines the degree of film density.
that reduces exposed silver halide crystals
to black metallic silver. Exposure, radiographic: The subjection of a
recording medium to radiation for the
Diffraction: A special case of scatter, where purpose of producing a latent image.
coherently scattered photons undergo
interference or reinforcement, resulting in Field: In video technology, one of two video
patterns indicative of the scattering picture components that together make a
medium. See also X-ray diffraction. frame. Each picture is divided into two parts
called fields because a frame at the rate of
Discontinuity: Unintentional interruption in the 30 frames/s in a standard video output
physical structure or configuration of a test would otherwise produce a flicker
object. After nondestructive testing, discernible to the eye. Each field contains
discontinuities interpreted as detrimental in one-half of the total picture elements. Two
the host object may be called defects. fields are required to produce one complete
picture or frame so the field frequency is
Discontinuity, Inherent: Material anomaly 60 fields/s and the frame frequency is
originating from solidification of molten 30 frames/s.
 Radiographic Testing 49

Field of view: Range or area that can be seen Frame: Complete raster scan projected on a
through an imaging system, lens or video screen. There are thirty frames per
aperture. second in a standard video output. A frame
may comprise two fields, each displaying
FIim badge: Package of photographic film worn part of the total frame. See also Field.
as a badge by radiographic personnel {and
by workers in the nuclear industry) to Gamma rays: High-energy, short-wavelength
measure exposure to ionizing radiation. electromagnetic radiation emitted by the
Absorbed dose can be calculated by degree nucleus of a radioactive isotope. Energies
of film darkening caused by irradiation. of gamma rays are usually between
0.01 MeV and 10 MeV. X-rays also occur in
FIim holder: See Cassette, film. this energy range but are of nonnuclear
origin.
FIim speed: Relative exposure required to attain
a specified film density. Geometric unsharpness: See Unsharpness,
geometric.
FIiter: (1) Network that passes electromagnetic
wave energy over a described range of Graininess: The visual impression of irregularity
frequencies and attenuates energy at all of silver deposits in a processed film.
other frequencies. (2) Processing device or
function that excludes a selected kind of Gray (Gy): SI unit for measurement of the dose
signal or part of a signal. (3) In radiography, of radiation absorbed per unit mass at a
the thickness of absorbing material placed specified location. Replaces the rad where
in a primary radiation beam to selectively rad denotes radiation absorbed dose, not
remove longer wavelength radiation, radian. 1 Gy = 1 J-kg-1 = 100 rad.
thereby adjusting the quality of the
radiographic image. Gray level: Integer number representing the
luminance or darkness of a pixel or, as a
Fixing: Procedure used in film processing that composite value, of an image composed of
removes undeveloped silver salts in the pixels.
emulsion from the surface of the film,
leaving only the developed black silver of Half-fife: The time required for one-half of a
the image on the film. given number of radioactive atoms to
undergo decay.
Focal spot: Area on target that receives
bombardment of electrons. See also Half-value layer or thickness: The thickness of
Effective focal spot. an absorbing material required to reduce
the intensity of a beam of incident radiation
Focus: Position of a viewed object and a lens to one-half of its original intensity.
system relative to one another to offer a
distinct image of the object as seen through Image: Visual representation of a test object or
the lens system. See Accommodation and scene.
Depth of field.
Image enhancement: Any of a variety of image
Fog: Increase of film density caused by sources processing steps, used singly or in
other than from the intended primary beam combination to improve the detectability of
exposure. Heat, humidity, pressure and objects in an image.
scatter radiation can all cause fogging of
the film. Image processing: Actions applied singly or in
combination to an image, in particular the
Fracture: Break, rupture or crack large enough measurement and alteration of image
to cause a full or partial partition of a features by computer. Also called picture
casting. processing.
50 Level II Study Guide

Image quality indicator: Strip of material the Inverse square law: From a point source of
same composition as that of the material radiation, the intensity of energy decreases
being tested, representing a percentage of as the inverse square of distance from the
object thickness and provided with a source increases and vice versa.
combination of steps, holes or slots or
alternatively made as a series of wires. Ionizing radiation: Form of radiation that can
When placed in the path of the radiation, its displace orbital electrons from atoms. Types
image provides a check on the radiographic include X-rays, gamma rays and particles
technique used. such as neutrons, electrons and alpha
particles.
In-motion radiography: Technique in which
either the object being radiographed or the IQI: See Image quality Indicator.
source of radiation is in motion during the
exposure. lrldlum-192 (lr-192): Radioactive isotope of the
element iridium, having a half-life of 73 to
Indication: Nondestructive testing response that 75 days and primary photon energies of
requires interpretation to determine its 0.31 MeV, 0.47 MeV and 0.66 MeV.
relevance.
Latent Image: A condition produced and
Indication, discontinuity: Visible evidence of a persisting in the image receptor by
material discontinuity. Subsequent exposure to radiation and able to be
interpretation is required to determine the converted into a visible image by
significance of an indication. processing.

Indication, false: (1) Indication produced by Level, acceptance: In contrast to rejection level,
something other than a discontinuity or test level above or below which, depending
test-object configuration. (2) Indication on the test parameter, test objects are
caused by misapplied or improper acceptable.
technique.
Level, rejection: Value established for indication
Indication, nonrelevant: Indication caused by a or test signal above or below which,
condition that does not affect the usability depending on the test parameter, test
of the object (a change of section, for objects are rejectable or otherwise
instance). distinguished from the remaining objects.

Indication, relevant: Indication from a Linear accelerator: High-frequency electron

discontinuity (as opposed to a nonrelevant generator.
indication) requiring evaluation by a
qualified technician, typically with reference Material noise: Random signals caused by the
to an acceptance standard, by virtue of the material structure of the test object A
discontinuity's size or location. component of background noise.

Inherent discontinuities: Discontinuities that are Mechanical properties: Properties of a material

produced in the material at the time it is that reveal its elastic and inelastic behavior
formed (for example, during solidification where force is applied, thereby indicating its
from the molten state). suitability for mechanical applications (for
example, modulus of elasticity, tensile
Interpretation: Determination of the significance strength, elongation, hardness and fatigue
of nondestructive testing indications from limit).
the standpoint of their relevance or
non relevance. Mllllroentgen: A radiation dose measurement
replaced by sievert. 100 000 mR = 1 Sv.
 Radiographic Testing 51

Neutron: Uncharged elementary particle with Photoreceptor: Photon sensor. Examples include
mass nearly equal to that of the proton. film and electronic detector elements.

Neutron radiography: Radiographic testing Physical properties: Nonmechanical properties

using a neutron beam. such as density, electrical conductivity, heat
conductivity and thermal expansion.
Neutron radioscopy: Radioscopy using a
neutron beam. Pixel: One element of a digital image. Each pixel
represents a finite area in the scene being
Noise: Any undesired signals that tend to imaged.
interfere with normal detection or
processing of a desired signal. Primary radiation: Radiation emitting directly
from the target of an X-ray tube or from a
Nondestructive testing (NOT): Determination of radioactive source.
the physical condition of an object without
affecting that object's ability to fulfill its Process: Repeatable sequence of actions to
intended function. Nondestructive testing bring about a desired result.
techniques typically use a probing energy to
determine material properties or to indicate Process control: Application of quality control
the presence of material discontinuities principles to the management of a repeated
(surface, internal or concealed). process.

Nonrelevant indication: See Indication, Process testing: Initial product testing to

nonrelevant. establish correct manufacturing procedures
and then by periodic tests to ensure that
One hundred percent testing: Testing of all the process continues to operate correctly.
parts of an entire production lot in a
prescribed manner. Compare Sampling, Quallflcatlon: Process of demonstrating that an
partlal. individual has the required amount and the
required type of training, experience,
Orientation: Angular relationship of a surface, knowledge and abilities. May also apply to
plane, discontinuity or axis to a reference the qualification of a test technique,
plane or surface. process or instrument. See also Qualified.

Pair production: The process whereby a gamma Quality: Ability of a process or product to meet
photon with energy greater than 1 MeV is specifications or expectations of its users in
converted directly into matter In the form of terms of efficiency, appearance, longevity
an electron-positron pair. Subsequent and ergonomics.
annihilation of the positron results in the
production of two 0.5 MeV gamma photons. Quality assurance: Administrative actions that
specify, enforce and verify a quality control
Peripheral vision: Seeing of objects displaced program.
from the primary line of sight and outside
the central visual field. Quality control: Physical and administrative
actions required to ensure compliance with
Photoelectrlc effect: Emission of free electrons the quality assurance program. May include
from a surface bombarded by sufficiently nondestructive testing in the manufacturing
energetic photons. Such emissions may be cycle.
used in an illuminance meter and may be
calibrated in lux. Rad: Radiation absorbed dose. Unit of absorbed
dose of ionizing radiation. One rad is equal
Photon: Quantum of electromagnetic radiation. to the absorption of 100 erg (10- 5 J) of
radiation energy per gram of matter
52 Level II Study Guide

associated with human tissue or a Recommended practice: Set of guidelines or

biological system. Replaced by the gray recommendations.
{Gy).
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A: Set of
Radiation safety officer: Individual supervising guidelines for employers to establish and
a program to provide radiation protection. conduct a nondestructive testing personnel
The representative appointed by the qualification and certification program.
licensee for liaison with the applicable SNT-TC-1A was first issued in 1968 by the
regulatory agency. Society for Nondestructive Testing (SNT,
now ASNT) and has been revised every few
Radiographer: Person who performs, supervises years since.
and is responsible for industrial
radiographic testing operations. Rejection level: See Level, rejection.

Radiographic equivalence factor: That factor by Relevant indication: See Indication,

which the thickness of a material must be relevant.
multiplied in order to determine what
thickness of a standard material (often Rem: Roentgen equivalent mammal (formerly,
steel) will have the same absorption. man). Unit of absorbed radiation dose in
biological matter. It is equal to the absorbed
Radiographic Interpretation: Determination of dose in rad multiplied by the quality factor
the cause and significance of indications on of the radiation.
a radiograph.
Repeatability: Ability to reproduce a detectable
Radiographic screens: Fluorescent sheets or indication in separate processings and tests
lead used to intensify the effect of radiation from a constant source.
on films. The screens can be made of a
fluorescent metal. Metallic screens help Resolution: Aspect of image quality pertaining
absorb secondary and scattered radiation, to a system's ability to reproduce objects,
which helps to improve image quality. often measured by resolving a pair of
adjacent objects or parallel lines.
Radiologic testing (RT): Penetrating radiant
energy in the form of X-rays, gamma rays or Resolution, discontinuity: Property of a test
neutrons for nondestructive testing of system that enables the separation of
objects to provide images of the objects' indications caused by discontinuities
interiors. Also called radiography. In located in close proximity to each other in a
SNT-TC-1A (2001), radiographic testing is test object.
considered a technique of the radiologic
testing method. Resolution test: Procedure wherein a line or a
series of lines or line pairs are detected to
Radiography: Radiologic testing. verify or evaluate a system's
sensitivity.
Radiology: Science of electromagnetic radiation,
particularly ionizing radiation. Resolution threshold: Minimum distance
between a pair of points or parallel lines
Radioscopy: Radiographic testing technique in when they can be distinguished as two, not
which gamma rays, X-rays or neutrons are one, expressed in minutes of arc. Vision
used to produce an image on a video or acuity in such a case is the reciprocal of
screen display as opposed to a latent image one-half of the period expressed in minutes.
on a film. The test object or interrogating
optics may move in real time to present a Resolving power: Ability of detection systems to
moving radiographic image. separate two points in time or distance.
Resolving power depends on the angle of
 Radiographic Testing 53

vision and the distance of the sensor from Signal: Response containing relevant
the test surface. Resolving power in vision information.
systems is often measured using parallel
lines. Compare Resolution. Signal processing: Acquisition, storage, analysis,
alteration and output of digital data through
Roentgen (R): Unit for measurement of a computer.
radiation intensity; amount of radiation that
will generate one electrostatic unit in 1 cm3 Signal-to-noise ratio: Ratio of signal values
of air at standard atmospheric conditions. (responses that contain relevant
The roentgen (R) has been replaced by an information) to baseline noise values
SI compound unit, coulomb per kilogram (responses that contain nonrelevant
(C•kg- 1 ). information). See Noise.

Sampling, partial: Testing of less than 100% of Source: Machine or material from which ionizing
a production lot. See also One hundred radiation emanates.
percent testing.
Specification: Set of instructions or standards to
Sampling, random partial: Partial sampling that govern the results or performance of a
is fully random. specific set of tasks or products.

Sampling, specified partial: Partial sampling in Spectrum: (1) Amplitude distribution of

which a particular frequency or sequence of frequencies in a signal. (2) Representation
sample selection is prescribed. An example of radiant energy in adjacent bands of hues
of specified partial sampling is the testing in sequence according to the energy's
of every fifth unit. wavelengths or frequencies. A rainbow is a
well-known example of the visible light
Scattering: Random reflection and refraction of spectrum.
radiation caused by interaction with
material it strikes or penetrates. Spot check tests: Testing a number of objects
from a lot to determine the lot's quality, the
Sensitivity: Measure of a sensor's ability to sample size being chosen arbitrarily, such
detect small signals. Limited by the signal- as 5% or 10%. This does not provide
to-noise ratio. accurate assurance of the lot's quality.

Sensor, X-ray: In radiographic testing, device or Spot examination: Local examination of welds
material that changes with and provides or castings.
evidence of contact with ionizing radiation.
Examples include X-ray film, X-ray sensitive Standard: (1) Physical object with known
phosphors and electronic devices such as material characteristics used as a basis for
linear detector arrays. comparison, specification or calibration.
(2) Concept established by authority,
Shielding: Material or object used to reduce custom or agreement to serve as a model
intensity of or exposure to penetrating or rule in the measurement of quantity or
radiation. the establishment of a practice or
procedure. (3) Document to control and
SI: International system of measurement based govern practices in an industry or
on seven units: meter (m), kilogram (kg), application, applied on a national or
second (s), kelvin (K), ampere (A), candela international basis and usually produced by
(cd) and mole (mol). consensus. See also Acceptance standard.

Sievert (Sv): SI unit for measurement of Stepped wedge: Reference object, with steps of
exposure to ionizing radiation, replacing various thicknesses in the range of the test
rem. 1 Sv = 1 J,kg-1 = 100 rem. objects' thicknesses, for the radiographic
54 Level II Study Guide

testing of objects having thickness Tolerance: Permissible deviation or variation

variations or complex geometries. The from exact dimensions or standards.
stepped wedge must be made of material
radiographically similar to that of the Tube current: The transfer of electricity, created
radiographic test object and may include by the flow of electrons, from the filament
image quality indicator features (such as to the anode target in an X-ray tube; usually
calibrated holes) in any or all steps. expressed in milliamperes.

Stereo Imaging: Imaging technique involving the Unsharpness, geometric: Fuzziness or lack of
capture and display of two images of the definition in a radiographic image resulting
same object from different angles. from the source size, object-to-film distance
Binocular viewing simultaneously of the two and the source-to-object distance.
images simulates 3D viewing.
Video presentation: Electronic screen
Stereoradlography: Radiographic testing using presentation in which radiofrequency
stereo imaging. signals have been rectified and usually
filtered.
Subject contrast: The ratio (or the logarithm of
the ratio) of the radiation intensities X-ray: Penetrating electromagnetic radiation
transmitted by selected portions of the test emitted when the inner orbital electrons of
object. an atom are excited and release energy.
Radiation is nonisotopic in origin and is
Survey meter: Portable instrument that generated by bombarding a metallic target
measures rate of exposure dose or ionizing with high-speed charged particles, usually
radiation intensity. electrons.

Target: That part of the anode of an X-ray X-ray diffraction: Radiographic testing technique
emitting tube that is hit by the electron used for material characterization, based on
beam. change in scattering of X-radiation as a
result of interaction with test material. See
Tenth-value layer or thickness: The thickness of also Diffraction.
the layer of a specified substance that,
when introduced into the path of a given X-ray fluorescence: Radiographic testing
narrow beam of radiation, reduces the technique used for material
intensity of this radiation by a factor of ten. characterization, based on wavelengths of
fluorescence from material irradiated by
Threshold level: Setting of an instrument that X-rays.
causes it to register only those changes in
response greater or less than a specified
magnitude.