Module 1

America, Africa, and

Europe before 1500
Essential Question
Why might a U.S. historian study the Americas, Africa, and Europe before 1500?

About the Photo: American buffalo were In this module you will learn the histories of three regions—the
a vital food source for many Native Americas, West Africa, and Europe—whose people would come together
American groups. and forever change North America.

What You Will Learn …

Lesson 1: The Earliest Americans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Explore ONLINE! The Big Idea Native American societies developed across North and
VIDEOS, including... South America.
• Mexico’s Ancient Civilizations Lesson 2: Native American Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
The Big Idea Many diverse Native American cultures developed
• Corn
across the different geographic regions of North America.
• Machu Picchu
Lesson 3: Trading Kingdoms of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
• Salt The Big Idea Using trade to gain wealth, Ghana, Mali, and Songhai
• Origins of Western Culture were West Africa’s most powerful kingdoms.
• Rome Falls Lesson 4: Europe before 1500. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
• The First Crusade The Big Idea New ideas and trade changed Europeans’ lives.

Document-Based Investigations
Graphic Organizers
Interactive Games
Interactive Map: Migrations of Early
People
Image with Hotspots: The Chinook
Image Carousel: Empires of Gold and
Salt

2 Module 1
Timeline of Events Beginnings–ad 1500 Explore ONLINE!

Module Events World

38,000 BC

c. 38,000–10,000 bc Paleo-Indians
migrate to the Americas.

c. 5000 bc Communities in Mexico 5000 BC

cultivate corn.

c. 2600 bc The Great Pyramid is

built in Giza, Egypt, at the tomb for
the pharaoh Khufu.

c. 1200 bc Olmec begin their

civilization in Mesoamerica.
1000 BC
509 bc Rome is established
as a republic.

455 The Vandals sack Rome.

c. 1350 New ideas begin to

spread through Europe during the
1492 Christopher Columbus and his Renaissance.
crew reach the Americas on October 12. AD 1500

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 3

Reading Social Studies
THEME FOCUS:
Economics, Geography
This module explains the development of major world regions before 1600.
You will read about how, during the Ice Age, nomads made their way from Asia
to North America. Over time they developed distinct cultures and built great
civilizations. You will also read about the cultures and civilizations of Africa and
Europe. As you read the module, pay careful attention to how geography and
economic issues affected the growth of cultures and civilizations.

READING FOCUS:
Specialized Vocabulary of Social Studies
If you flipped through the pages of this book, would you expect to see anything
about square roots or formulas? How about petri dishes or hypotheses? Of course
you wouldn’t. Those are terms you see only in math and science books.
Specialized Vocabulary Like most subjects, social studies has its own specialized
vocabulary. Included in it are words and phrases you will see over and over as you
read social studies materials. The charts below list some terms you will encounter
as you read this book.

Terms about Time

decade a period of 10 years
century a period of 100 years
era a long period marked by great events, developments, or figures
BC a term used to identify dates that occurred long ago, before the birth of Jesus
Christ, on whose teachings Christianity was founded; it means “before Christ.” BC
dates get smaller as time passes, so the larger the number, the earlier the date.
AD a term used to identify dates that occurred after Jesus’s birth; it comes from a
Latin phrase that means “in the year of our Lord.” Unlike BC dates, AD dates get
larger as time passes, so the larger the number, the later the date.
BCE another way to refer to BC dates; it stands for “before the common era”
CE another way to refer to AD dates; it stands for “common era”

Terms about Government and Society

politics the art of creating government policies
economics the study of the creation and use of goods and services
movement a series of actions that bring about or try to bring about a change in society
campaign an effort to win a political office, or a series of military actions
colony a territory settled and controlled by a country

4 Module 1
You Try It! Key Terms and People
Lesson 1
The following passage shows you how some specialized Bering Land Bridge
Paleo-Indians
vocabulary is defined in context. migration
hunter-gatherers
environments
North and Northwest Native Americans culture
in the Pacific Northwest carved images of Lesson 2
totems—ancestor or animal spirits—on tall, pueblos
wooden poles. Totem poles held great religious kivas
and historical significance for Native Ameri- totems
teepees
cans of the Northwest. Feasts called potlatches matrilineal
were another unique, or unusual, aspect of Iroquois League
these Native Americans’ culture. Lesson 3
Berbers
Mansa Musa
hajj
Use the clues to understand meaning. mosques
Askia the Great
1. In the first sentence, find the word totems. Notice
Lesson 4
that the term is highlighted in yellow. Highlighted Socrates
terms appear in a list under Key Terms and People on Plato
the first page of each lesson. Why do you think some Aristotle
specialized vocabulary terms are highlighted, while reason
others are not? democracy
knights
2. Again, find the word totems. The phrase after the Black Death
dash is the definition. Often in this book, specialized Michelangelo
vocabulary words are defined after a dash. So be on Leonardo da Vinci
the lookout for dashes. Johannes Gutenberg
joint-stock companies
3. The word potlatches is defined in the third sentence.
The clue to finding this definition is the word called.
Words like called and known as can indicate that a
definition is coming up. In this case, the word feasts
is a definition of potlatches.
4. The word unique is defined in the final sentence. The
clue to finding this definition is the comma followed
by the word or. So be on the lookout for commas
followed by or.

As you read Module 1, keep track of the specialized

vocabulary terms you learn.

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 5

 Lesson 1

The Earliest Americans

If YOU were there . . .

The Big Idea You are living in North America about 10,000 years
Native American societies
ago, close to the end of the Ice Age. For weeks, your
­developed across North and group has been following a herd of elk across a marshy
South America. landscape. This trip has taken you far from your usual
hunting grounds. The air is warmer here. There are thick
Main Ideas
grasses and bushes full of berries. You decide to camp
■■ Climate changes allowed
here for the summer and perhaps stay a while.
Paleo-Indians to migrate to the
Americas. How would settling here change
■■ Major civilizations developed
your way of life?
in Mesoamerica and South
America.
Early Migrations to the Americas
Key Terms and People Many scientists believe that the first people arrived in North
Bering Land Bridge America during the last Ice Age. At the start of the Ice Age,
Paleo-Indians Earth’s climate became intensely cold. Large amounts of water
migration
froze into huge, moving sheets of ice called glaciers. As a result,
hunter-gatherers
ocean levels dropped more than 300 feet lower than they are
environments
culture today. When the sea level fell, a land bridge between north-
eastern Asia and present-day Alaska was exposed. Geographers
call this strip of land the Bering Land Bridge. Although no
one knows exactly when or how people crossed into North ­

Mammoths, such as the

skeleton shown here, were
present during the Ice Age
and were hunted by early
peoples in North America.

6 Module 1
 Explore ONLINE!
Land Migrations of Early Peoples
150°E
160°E
ASIA
170°E

180°

70°N
it 170°W

BERI
Stra
g 160°W

6 0 °N
HRW US History ri n
PACIF IC Be 150°W

NG
ah06se_c01loc003aa
OC E A N 140°W

W
Migrations Locator

IA
50°N
130°W

N
F1 proof 10/04/04

S
ALASKA
Approved 10/28/04

E
40°N

Interpret Maps
1. Movement In what general direc-
NORTH
tion did early peoples migrate? AMERICA
2. Region What region connected Asia
to Alaska?

America, evidence suggests that people called Paleo-Indians crossed this

bridge into Alaska between 38,000 and 10,000 BC.
This migration—a movement of people or animals from one region
to another—took place over a long time. It is believed that Paleo-Indians
traveled south into Canada, the United States, and Mexico following herds
of animals. Over time, their descendants went as far as the southern tip of
South America. These people were hunter-gatherers, people who hunted
animals and gathered wild plants for food.
About 8000 BC Earth’s climate grew warmer, and the Ice Age ended. Ris-
ing temperatures melted glaciers. Water levels in the oceans rose, and the
Bering Land Bridge was covered with water.
Although most scholars agree that early peoples crossed the ­Bering Land
Bridge into the Americas, some researchers have proposed other theories
about the continents’ settlement. Those scientists point to sites in South
Land Migrations of Early Peop
America that were occupied by humans long before people could have
MS_SNLESE454149_008M
migrated to those places from Beringia, the area surrounding the
HMH Middle Bering
School - US Histo
Land Bridge. One theory in particular provides an explanation. That theory
ISBN: 97805444541
says that people from East Asia came to the west coast of North and South 33p0 x 21
Trim:
America by boat. They could have stayed in sight of land as they ­traveled
1st Proof: 2/26/
north and then south along the coast.
The warmer climate that developed at the end of the Ice Age created new
environments—climates and landscapes that surround living things. Large
herds of animals such as buffalo and deer ate new short grasses that thrived
in the warm climate. As the number of these animals grew, Paleo-Indians
hunted them for resources such as meat, hides, and bones.
Varied environments influenced the development of different Native
American societies, or groups that share a culture. Culture is a group’s set

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 7

 of common values and traditions, including language, government, and
family relationships.
Like all societies, Native American groups changed over time. People
planted seeds, and eventually they learned to breed animals, farm, and
grow plants. Maize, or corn, was one of their most important early crops.
Reading Check Later, they learned to grow beans and squash. Farming allowed people
Draw Conclusions to stop moving around looking for food and to settle in one place. With
How did climate
change affect early adequate food supplies, settlements could support larger populations. As
peoples’ migrations? populations grew, more advanced societies began to develop.

Early Mesoamerican and

South American Societies
Some of the earliest American cultures arose in Mesoamerica, a region that
includes the southern part of what is now Mexico and the northern parts
of Central America.
Academic Olmec and Maya Around 1200 BC the Olmec developed the earliest-known
Vocabulary civilization in Mesoamerica. The Olmec are known for their use of stone in
develop the process of
growing or improving
architecture and sculpture. They built the first pyramids in the Americas, and
they created sculptures of huge stone heads. When their civilization ended
around 400 BC, trade had spread Olmec culture throughout the region.
Like the Olmec, the Maya grew maize and other crops
and lived in small villages. These villages traded goods
with each other, and by about AD 200, the Maya were
building large cities.
Maya cities had pyramids, large stone temples, palaces,
and bridges. The Maya also paved large plazas for public
gatherings and built canals to control the flow of water
through the cities.
In the 900s Maya civilization began to collapse. Histo-
rians are still not sure what caused this great civilization’s
This pyramid is one of five that the Maya built in decline. Theories include disease, soil exhaustion, and
Tikal, Guatemala, which was an important Maya
trading post.
long-term drought, among others.

Aztec The Aztec were fierce warriors, and their superior military ability
was key to their success. Around the mid-1100s AD, the Aztec migrated
south to central Mexico. There they settled down, conquered many towns,
made alliances to build their empire, and controlled a huge trade network.
In AD 1325 the Aztec founded their capital, Tenochtitlán (tay-nawch-­
teet-lahn), on an island in Lake Texcoco. Raised roads called cause-
ways ­connected the island to the shore, making trade and travel easier.
­Tenochtitlán became the greatest city in the Americas and one of the
world’s largest cities.
Trade and tribute paid by conquered people in the form of cotton, gold,
and food made the Aztec rich. By the early 1500s, they ruled the most
powerful state in Mesoamerica.

8 Module 1
 Explore ONLINE!
Aztec and Inca Civilizations

Aztec Empire, 1400–1521

Inca Empire, 1438–1532
Capital city
0 500 1,000 Miles

0 500
30°N 1,000 Kilometers

Gulf of Mexico Tropic of Cancer

Lake
20°N Texcoco
20°N
Tenochtitlán
(Mexico City)

Caribbean Sea
10°N
10°N

PACIFIC OCEAN

0° Equator
AN

.
DE

10°S
%
7
S

Cuzco
3
PERU
M
OU N T A I N S

20°S

Tropic of Capricorn

90°W 80°W

30°S

Interpret°SMaps 40°S
40
1. Location Which early civilization was
located in Mesoamerica?
2. Human-Environment Interaction
Which geographic feature likely
shaped life in the Inca Empire?

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 9

 The Aztec used mathematics and their observations of the heavens
to create a calendar. The calendar was made up of two cycles that
together formed a 52-year period. Among other Aztec achievements
were jade and stone carvings, the use of medicinal herbs, and main-
tenance of a road system. They also had a writing system made up of
signs and symbols. The Aztec spoke Nahuatl, a language that still has
some 1.5 million speakers, most of whom live in Central Mexico.
Inca The Inca began as a small tribe in the Andes Mountains of
South America. They named their capital city Cuzco (koo-skoh). In
the mid-1400s, the Inca began to expand their territory. By the 1500s
Aztec Calendar of the World the empire stretched along the Pacific coast from what is now northern
This map is from an illustrated book Ecuador to central Chile. In time, the empire was home to about 12 mil-
of the Aztec calendar dating to the
1400s. The map shows the world in lion people. The Inca formed a strong central government with a king
the shape of a cross. Each branch is a as ruler. The official language of the empire was Quechua.
direction—east (top), west (bottom),
Because they had no written language, the Inca kept records with a
north (left), and south (right).
system of knotted strings called quipu. They also used quipu for mathemat-
ics. The knots and their positions on the string indicated numbers, while
the strings’ colors represented different types of information. For example,
red strings may have been used to count warriors or yellow strings to
count gold. The Inca also developed a device much like a calculator, allow-
ing them to multiply, divide, and use fractions.
Reading Check The Inca are known for building and for art. Massive buildings and forts
Summarize were made of huge stone blocks. An advanced system of highways ran the
What early length of the empire. Paved roads and rope bridges connected all parts
civilizations existed
in ­Mesoamerica and of Inca territory. This enabled the Inca to communicate with and control
South America? their large empire.
Summary and Preview Early people migrated into North and South
America and developed societies. In the next lesson you will learn about
Native American cultures in North America.

Lesson 1 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking
1. a. Recall What was the Ice Age? 3. Categorize In this lesson you learned about the
b. Summarize Why were early peoples able to use the migration of early peoples and about their societies.
Bering Land Bridge? Create a table similar to the one below and identify
c. Draw Conclusions Why do you think the migration accomplishments of the four early Mesoamerican and
early peoples in the Americas flowed north to south? South American civilizations.
2. a. Identify What was the earliest civilization in the Significant Accomplishments
Americas, and where was it located? Olmec
b. Analyze How did the Aztec build such a powerful, Maya
rich state?
Aztec
c. Evaluate Which of the four civilizations discussed
Inca
do you think was the most highly developed? Explain.

10 Module 1
 Lesson 2

Native American Cultures

If YOU were there . . .

The Big Idea You live in the North American Southwest about
Many diverse Native American
1,000 years ago. You’ve been working in the fields for
cultures developed across the several hours today. The maize crop looks good this
different geographic regions of summer, and you are hoping for a successful harvest.
North America. After finishing your work, you walk home. The opening
Main Ideas to your house is in a cliff wall 30 feet above a canyon
floor. You must use ladders to get to the opening.
■■ Several early societies devel-
oped in North America long Do you like the location of
before Europeans explored the your home? Why?
continent.
■■ Geographic areas influenced
Native American cultures.
Early Societies
The earliest people in North America were hunter-­gatherers.
■■ Language united Native Ameri-
can groups and contributed to After 5000 BC some of these people learned how to farm and
cultural diversity. settled in villages. In time, many diverse and complex societies
developed throughout North America. Although they left no
■■ Despite their differences,
Native American cultures
written record, historians have learned about them by studying
shared similar beliefs and artifacts, or the objects that they made and used.
practices.
Anasazi By 1500 BC the people who lived in the North Ameri-
Key Terms and People can Southwest, like those who lived in Mesoamerica, were
pueblos growing maize. One of the early farm cultures in the Southwest
kivas was the Anasazi (ah-nuh-sah-zee). The Anasazi lived in the
totems Four Corners region, where present-day Arizona, Colorado, New
teepees Mexico, and Utah meet. Anasazi farmers adapted to their dry
matrilineal environment and grew maize, beans, and squash. Over time,
Iroquois League
they began to use irrigation to increase food production. By the
time the Anasazi settled in the area, they were already skilled
basket makers. They wove straw, vines, and yucca to make con-
tainers for food and other items, and they eventually became
skilled potters as well.
The early Anasazi lived in pit houses dug into the ground.
After about AD 750 they built pueblos, or aboveground houses
made of a heavy clay called adobe. The Anasazi built these
houses on top of each other, creating large multistoried com-
plexes. Some pueblos had several hundred rooms and

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 11

Anasazi Cliff Dwellings
Dwellings like these were built into cliffs for safety. Often, ladders were needed to reach the
buildings. The ladders could be removed, keeping invaders from reaching the dwellings.

could house 1,000 people. The Anasazi often built their houses in canyon
walls and had to use ­ladders to enter their homes. These cliff dwellings
provided a strong defense against enemies. The Anasazi also built kivas,
underground ceremonial chambers, at the center of each community.
Kivas were sacred areas used for religious ceremonies. Some of these ritu-
als focused on the life-giving forces of rain and maize.
The Anasazi thrived for hundreds of years. After AD 1300, however,
they began to abandon their villages. Scholars believe that drought, dis-
ease, or raids by nomadic tribes from the north may have caused the Ana-
sazi to move away from their pueblos.
Mound Builders Several farming societies developed in the eastern part
of North America after 1000 BC. The Hopewell lived along the Mississippi,
Ohio, and lower Missouri river valleys. They supported their large popula-
tion with agriculture and trade. They built large burial mounds to honor
their dead.
By AD 700 the Hopewell culture had declined and another culture,
the Mississippian, began to thrive in the same area. Skilled farmers and
­traders, the Mississippian built large settlements. Their largest city,
Cahokia, was located near present-day Saint Louis, Missouri. It had a
population of 30,000.
The Mississippian people built hundreds of mounds for religious cer-
emonies. Cahokia alone had more than 100 temple and burial mounds.
These mounds had flat tops, and temples were built on top of the mounds.
Many of the mounds were gigantic. Monks Mound, near Collinsville,
Illinois, for example, was 100 feet high and covered 16 acres.

12 Module 1
 Several other mound-building cultures thrived in eastern North
Reading Check America. More than 10,000 mounds have been found in the Ohio River
Summarize valley alone. Some of these mounds are shaped like birds and snakes. The
Why did some Native
American groups mound-building cultures had declined by the time European explorers
build mounds? reached the Southeast. Their societies no longer existed by the early 1700s.

Native American Culture Areas

Researchers use culture areas—the geographic locations that influenced
societies—to help them describe ancient Native American peoples. North
America is divided into several culture areas.
North and Northwest The far north of North America is divided into the
Arctic and Subarctic culture areas. Few plants grow in the Arctic because
the ground is always frozen beneath a thin top layer of soil. This harsh
environment was home to two groups of people, the Inuit and the Aleut.
The Inuit lived in present-day northern Alaska and Canada. Their homes
were igloos, hide tents, and huts. The Aleut, whose home was in west-
ern and southern Alaska, lived in multifamily houses that were partially
underground. The two groups shared many cultural features, including
language. Both groups survived by fishing and hunting large mammals.
The Aleut and Inuit also depended on dogs for many tasks, such as ­hunting
and pulling sleds.
South of the Arctic lies the Subarctic, home to groups such as the Dogrib
and Montagnais peoples. While they followed the seasonal migrations of
deer, these peoples lived in shelters made of animal skins. At other times,
they lived in villages made up of log houses. Farther south, the Kwakiutl
and the Chinook thrived, thanks to the rich supply of game animals, fish,
and wild plants that allowed large populations to increase without the
need for farming.
Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest carved images of totems—
ancestor or animal spirits—on tall, wooden poles. Totem poles held
great religious and historical significance for Native Americans of the
Northwest. Feasts called potlatches were another unique, or unusual,
aspect of these Native Americans’ culture. At these gatherings, hosts,
usually chiefs or wealthy people, gave away most of their belongings as

People in different culture areas created

unique artifacts. The bird-shaped pipe (left)
is from the Northwest Coast culture area.
The sewing tool (center) with a carved bone
handle was used in the Great Plains. The
human figure (right) was created by someone
who lived in the Southwest culture area.

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 13

 gifts. Those gifts would likely be distributed to friends or even neighbor-
ing tribes. By displaying their generosity, potlatch hosts increased their
social status and power. Potlatches were also occasions for defining roles
within the group and for granting economic privileges.
West and Southwest Farther south along the Pacific coast was the
California region, which included the area between the Pacific and the
Sierra Nevada mountain range. Food sources were plentiful, so farming
was not necessary. One major plant food was acorns, which were ground
into flour. People also fished and hunted deer and other game. Most Native
Americans in the California region lived in groups of families of about 50
to 300. Among these groups, including the Hupa, Miwok, and Yokuts, more
than 100 languages were spoken.
The area east of the Sierra Nevada, the Great Basin, received little rain.
To survive, Native Americans adapted to the drier climate by gathering
seeds, digging roots, and trapping small animals for food. Most groups
in this area, including the Paiute, Shoshone, and Ute, spoke the same
language.
The Southwest culture region included the present-day states of Arizona
and New Mexico and parts of Colorado and Texas. Pueblo groups, such as
the Hopi and Zuni, lived there. Like the Anasazi, these Native Americans
also adapted to a dry climate. The Pueblo irrigated the land and grew
maize, squash, and beans. These crops were vital to southwestern peoples.
The Pueblo religion focused on two key areas of Pueblo life—rain and
maize. The Pueblo performed religious rituals hoping to bring rain and a
successful maize crop to their people.
Pueblo peoples were settled and built multistoried houses out of adobe
bricks. Over time their towns grew larger, and some towns had more than
1,000 residents. Pueblo peoples made fine pottery that featured beauti-
fully painted designs.
The Apache and Navajo also lived in the Southwest. These groups were
nomadic—they moved from place to place hunting small animals and
foraging for food. The Apache and Navajo also supported themselves by
raiding the villages of the Pueblo and others.
Great Plains The huge Great Plains region stretches south from
Canada into Texas. This culture area is bordered by the Missis-
sippi Valley on the east and the Rocky Mountains on the west.
The Plains were mainly grassland, home to millions of buffalo.
Deer, elk, and other game also thrived there.
Most Great Plains peoples were nomadic hunters. Many groups
hunted buffalo using bows and spears. Blackfoot and Arapaho
Pawnee Star Chart hunters sometimes chased the animals over cliffs, drove them into
The Pawnee carefully observed corrals, or trapped them in a ring of fire. Native Americans on the Plains
the night sky. This map of the used buffalo skins for shields, clothing, and coverings for their teepees—
night sky dates to the 1700s,
but historians believe that cone-shaped shelters. Buffalo skins were also trade items.
Plains Indians used similar maps Some Plains groups were farmers, while others depended more on
before 1500.
gathering foods in addition to hunting. For example, some groups of Sioux

14 Module 1
 gathered wild rice and speared fish. The Mandan and Pawnee settled in
villages and grew corn, beans, and squash. The Pawnee lived in round
lodges made of dirt.
Like some other Native American groups, Pawnee society was
matrilineal. This means that people traced their ancestry through their
mothers, not their fathers. In some groups, such as the Sioux, women
organized societies focused on the community’s well-being. Men of the
Sioux belonged to military societies that acted as a police force.
Northeast and Southeast Eastern North America was rich in sources of
food and shelter. Animals, plant foods, fish, and wood for housing were
plentiful in the region’s woodlands and river valleys.
Most southeastern groups, including the Cherokee, Creek, and
Seminole, lived in farming villages governed by village councils. In the
Northeast, groups like the Algonquian survived by hunting and gathering
plants. Those in the south farmed, hunted, gathered plants, and fished.
Many tribes used strings of beads known as wampum for money.
To the east of the Algonquian lived the Iroquois (or Haudenosaunee).
They were farmers, hunters, and traders. Among their crops were squash,
corn, and beans. During the cold winters, the Iroquois cut holes in the ice
over rivers and lakes to catch fish. In the spring, they tapped the region’s
maple trees to make syrup. The Iroquois lived in longhouses, or rectangu-
lar homes made from logs and bark, that housed eight to ten families.
Five Iroquois nations—the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and
Seneca—formed a political alliance called the Iroquois League. This is also

Iroquois Longhouse
Northeastern Native Americans such as the Iroquois lived in longhouses
made of tree bark. The drawing at right shows the longhouses in one
Iroquois village.

Why do you think a fence was built around the longhouses?

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 15

 20°W

Explore ONLINE!
Native American Culture Areas

30°W

Inuit
Arctic Northeast
Subarctic Great Basin
Inuit Northwest Coast California
Ingalik
Plateau Southwest
40°W
Great Plains Southeast
Han 0 250 500 Miles
Saschutkenne ircl
e °N
Aleut Inuit ic C 60
Arct 0 250 500 Kilometers

Eyak Dogrib Inuit 50°W

Tagish

Native American Culture Areas

Tlingit ah06se_c01leg004aa (LEGEND)
Inuit Middle School - American History
Hudson °N
Slave 50
Chipewyan Bay MapQuest.com/HRW
Beaver Final Proof - 09/01/04--10/26/04
Naskapi
Tongass Beothuk
Carrier Swampy
Haisla Cree
Haida
Montagnais
Heiltsuk NORTH
Kwakiutl Micmac
AMERICA
Nootka Shuswap
Squamish
Makah Nooksack
Chimakum Plains Plains Algonquian
Coast Columbia Blackfoot Cree Ojibway 60°W
Ottawa Massachuset
Salish Spokane °N
Wampanoag 40
R

Chinook Yakima Huron

Peq hegan k
Mandan Narragansett

Mo aw
Gre ois
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Klickitat Walla Walla Nez at qu

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M neidnda
Percé Crow Iro

O o ga
oh a ga
Lak N

On ayu eca
Yaquina es

C en
Santee Sauk E
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Molala Northern Sioux Potawatomi
Paiute Teton Sioux
M

Umpqua Fox W
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Tolowa M
S
OU

Northern D
Hupa Achomawi Shoshone Omaha Susquelaware
Iowa Miami ehann
a
Pawnee
NT

Illinois
Was
Mai

Yuki
Wappo Western Arapaho Missouri Powhatan
du

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Shoshone Shawnee
Miwok Kansa Cahokia e
NS

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°N
Yokuts Hopi (Pueblo) Apache Chickasaw
Chumash Kiowa Tuskegee Cusabo
Navajo
Mohave Creek
Zuni (Pueblo) Comanche Alabama
Apache Wichita Choctaw
Yuma Caddo Mobile Apalachee
Nakipa Suma
Pima Tonkawa
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Ignacieno Yaqui h u m
ar Gulf of Mexico 70°W
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20°N
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Interpret Maps Caribbean
Sea
1. Region Why did some culture areas have
fewer groups of people than other culture
areas did? MESOAMERICA

2. Human-Environment Interaction What nat-

ural features served as boundaries between 10°N
PA C I F I C O C E A N
culture areas?

120°W
110°W 100°W 90°W 80°W

16 Module 1
 known as the Iroquois Confederation. In 1722, a sixth nation, the Tusca-
rora, joined the league. The Confederation kept peace among its members
and waged war to protect its territory from invasion.
Highly organized and extremely powerful, the Iroquois Confederation
held strong for hundreds of years. Its government was founded in the
Reading Check Great Law of Peace, an oral constitution that emphasized the equality of
Generalize all people. The confederation made decisions through representatives and
How did environment consensus, or agreement. Some scholars propose that the constitution
influence Native
American cultures in and structure of the Iroquois Confederation inspired the framers of the
North America? U.S. Constitution.

Native American Languages

As you can see on the “Native American Culture Areas” map, some cul-
ture areas, such as the Arctic, occupied large regions, but had few distinct
groups of people. By contrast, the California and Northwest Coast areas
were home to many groups. Language played an important part in the
cultural diversity of these regions.
At the time of European contact, about 300 languages were spoken
in North America. Most could be grouped into 29 language families, or
­languages that descend from a common ancestor. Present-day California
was home to more than 70 languages and 20 language families, some
Reading Check of which covered areas no larger than a modern county. Other language
Make Inferences families occupied broader territory. One of the largest, the Uto-Aztecan
How were Native language family, covered about a fourth of what is now the continental
American culture
areas and languages United States. Today the Shoshone in the Great Basin and the Hopi in the
connected? Southwest continue to speak Uto-Aztecan languages.

Similar Beliefs and Practices

Despite their differences, Native American groups of North America
shared a number of similar beliefs and practices. For example, Native
Americans held similar spiritual and religious ideas. One was a spiri-
tual connection to the natural world. A chief of a Wabanaki nation in
the Northeast once described this idea by saying “The Great Spirit is our
father, but the Earth is our mother.”
In many belief systems, a tree stood at the center of the earth. For
the Iroquois it was a white pine; for the Sioux, a mighty flowering tree.
Animals, too, were thought to be powerful spirits. Hunters often carried
out rituals to honor the spirit of an animal they were about to kill. Many
groups chose an animal as their symbol and spirit guide.
Native Americans also had similar ideas about land ownership.
­Generally speaking, they did not believe that land could be bought, sold,
Though Native Americans did or owned by individuals. Rather, land was held for the use of everyone in
not own land, they did have a group to hunt, fish, or gather and grow food as needed. Many believed
other forms of private property.
For example, in the Great Plains, that they should preserve the land and its resources for future generations.
women owned tepees and most These beliefs contrasted sharply with those of Europeans, who believed
household goods. that land and everything on it could be bought and owned by individuals.
This difference would cause conflict for hundreds of years.

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 17

 Among all the peoples of North America, women played essential roles
in the groups’ survival. Women performed many tasks, such as mak-
ing baskets and clothing, cooking, hunting, child rearing, and gathering
wild foods. Among the Inuit, women had to prepare meat obtained on
a hunt before the cold air froze the meat. In farming societies, women
were usually responsible for growing crops. In many North American
groups, women owned property in their own right and held considerable
power. For example, Iroquois clanmothers—older, respected women of
the ­community—appointed the chief. The clanmothers could also fire the
chief if he proved to be a poor leader.
Though they held similar traits in common, the diverse culture groups
of North America generally did not join together into large political units.
For most Native American peoples, respected elders and chiefs led local
groups. Native Americans were, however, connected by thousands of miles
Reading Check of trade networks. Along with foodstuffs, raw materials, and exotic goods,
Identify Points of trade networks carried ideas from place to place. One of the most famous
View What beliefs routes began in Iroquois country and ran southward through mountain
and practices did
Native American valleys to present-day North Carolina. It crossed the territory of the
groups share? Shawnee, Choctaw, Cherokee, and other nations.
Summary and Preview People of North America formed many complex
societies. In the next lesson you will read about societies in West Africa.

Lesson 2 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People 4. a. Recall How did Native Americans view land
ownership?
1. a. Recall Why did the Anasazi build kivas?
b. Analyze What role did nature play in the religious
b. Summarize What different types of housing were
ideas of Native Americans?
built by the Anasazi?
c. Explain Why do you think women held positions of
c. Draw Conclusions Why do you think that some
power and influence in many Native American groups?
mounds were built in the shapes of birds and snakes?
2. a. Identify What are culture areas? Critical Thinking
b. Contrast How did food sources for Native
5. Compare and Contrast In this lesson you learned
Americans of the North and Northwest differ from
about early societies and culture areas. Create a
those living in the West and Southwest?
graphic organizer like the one below to compare and
c. Elaborate Why was the formation of the Iroquois contrast early Native American culture groups.
League considered to be a significant political
development?
North and Northwest
3. a. Recall About how many languages were spoken in
West and Southwest
North America at the time of European contact?
Great Plains
b. Analyze What role did language have in the various
Northeast and Southeast
regions of North America?
c. Make Generalizations What generalization can you
make about Native American languages in what is now
California?

18 Module 1
 Lesson 3

Trading Kingdoms of West Africa

If YOU were there . . .

The Big Idea You are a trader’s assistant from the Middle East,
Using trade to gain wealth,
­traveling in a caravan headed for West Africa. The
Ghana, Mali, and Songhai were ­caravan carries many goods, but the most precious is
West Africa’s most powerful salt. Your job is to trade the salt for gold and return the
kingdoms. gold to your employer immediately. Your boss never
Main Ideas meets the traders face to face.
■■ The Empire of Ghana was the Why is your boss so secretive?
first of three great West African
trading kingdoms.
Empire of Ghana
■■ Like Ghana, the empires of Mali By 1500 West Africa was well known for its trading kingdoms.
and Songhai grew strong by
Since ancient times, despite the dangers of the Sahara, trade
controlling trade.
routes crisscrossed West Africa. For many years, Berbers, a
Key Terms and People group of people from northern Africa, controlled these routes.
Berbers In time, however, a series of three great trading empires arose
Mansa Musa thanks to the control of the salt and gold trades. Ghana (GAH-
hajj nuh) was the first of these empires.
mosques
Askia the Great The Rise of Ghana Historians think the first people in Ghana
were farmers along the Niger River. Sometime after AD 300
these farmers, the Soninke (soh-NING-kee), were threatened
by nomadic herders. The herders wanted to take the farmers’
water and pastures. For protection, groups of Soninke families
began to band together. This banding together was the begin-
ning of Ghana.
Ghana was in an ideal position to become a trading center.
To the north lay the vast Sahara, the source of much of the salt.
Ghana itself was rich in gold. People wanted gold for its beauty,
but they needed salt in their diets to survive. Salt, which could be
used to preserve food, also made bland food tasty. These quali-
ties made salt very valuable. In fact, Africans sometimes cut up
slabs of salt and used the pieces as money.
As the gold and salt trade increased, Ghana’s rulers gained
power. Eventually, they built up armies equipped with iron
weapons that were superior to the weapons of nearby people.
Over time, Ghana conquered its neighbors and took control
over trade in the region.

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 19

 Ghana’s rulers grew wealthy
by ­controlling trade in salt and
gold. Salt came from the north
in large slabs, and gold came
from the south.

By 800 Ghana was firmly in control of West Africa’s trade routes. Nearly
all trade between northern and southern Africa passed through Ghana.
With so many traders passing through their lands, Ghana’s rulers looked for
ways to make money from them. One way they raised money was by forcing
traders to pay taxes. All traders who entered Ghana had to pay a special tax
on the goods they carried. Then they had to pay another tax on any goods
they took with them when they left. Ghana’s rulers gained incredible wealth
from trade, taxes on traders and on the people of Ghana, and their own per-
sonal stores of gold. They used their wealth to build an army and an empire.
Islam in Ghana Extensive trade routes brought the people of Ghana into
contact with people of many different cultures and beliefs. As the kingdom
of Ghana extended into the Sahara, increased contact with Arab traders
from the east brought the religion of Islam to Ghana.
Islam was founded in the 600s by an Arab man named Muhammad.
Muslims, followers of Islam, believe that God had spoken to Muhammad
through an angel and had made him a prophet, someone who tells of God’s
messages. After Muhammad’s death, his followers wrote down his teach-
ings to form the book known as the Qur’an. Islam spread quickly through
the Arabian Peninsula.
In the 1060s a Muslim group called the Almoravids (al-muh-rah-vuhdz)
attacked Ghana in an effort to force its leaders to convert to Islam. The
Reading Check Almoravids weakened Ghana’s empire and cut off many ­trade routes.
Identify Without its trade, Ghana could not support its empire, and the empire
How did Ghana
become wealthy eventually fell. The influence of Islam, however, remained strong. By the
through trade? late 1400s Islam would become the most practiced religion in the region.

The Empires of Mali and Songhai

For about 150 years after Ghana’s decline, no one kingdom controlled
trade across the Sahara. Then two new trading empires rose to power in
the region—Mali (mah-lee) followed by Songhai (sawng-hy).
Kingdom of Mali Like Ghana, Mali lay along the upper Niger River.
This area’s fertile soil helped Mali grow. In addition, Mali’s location ​on
the Niger allowed its people to control trade on the river. Through this
control of trade, the empire grew rich and powerful. According to leg-
end, Mali’s rise to power began under a ruler named Sundiata. Sundiata

20 Module 1
 won back his country’s independence and conquered nearby kingdoms,
including Ghana.
Mali’s most famous ruler, however, was a Muslim king named Mansa
Musa (mahn-sah moo-sah). Under his leadership, Mali reached the height of
its wealth, power, and fame.
Mansa Musa ruled Mali for about 25 years, from 1312 to 1337. During
that time, Mali added many important trade cities, including Timbuktu (tim-
buhk-too), Djenné (je-nay), and Gao (gow), to its empire. Traders came to
Timbuktu from the north and the south to trade for salt, gold, metals, shells,
and many other goods.
Religion was also very important to Mansa Musa. In 1324 he left Mali
on a hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca. Making this journey once in their lives
is the spiritual duty of all Muslims. As he traveled to Mecca, Mansa Musa
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 The architectural advances in cities like Timbuktu as well as an
organized government, an emphasis on education, and an expansion of
trade all combined to make Mansa Musa Mali’s most successful ruler.
Much of Mali’s success depended on strong leaders. After Mansa Musa
died, poor leadership weakened the empire. By 1500 nearly all of the lands
the kingdom once ruled were lost. Only a small area of Mali remained.
Songhai Empire In the 1300s Mansa Musa had conquered a rival kingdom
of people called the Songhai, who also lived along the Niger River. As the
Mali Empire weakened in the 1400s, the Songhai grew wealthy by trad-
ing goods along the Niger. They took advantage of Mali’s decline, regained
their independence, and eventually conquered most of Mali.
One of Songhai’s greatest rulers was Muhammad Ture, who chose the
title askia, a title of military rank. He became known as Askia the Great.
Like Mansa Musa, Askia the Great was a devout Muslim who supported
education and learning. Under his rule, the cities of Gao and Timbuktu
Askia the Great became flourished. They contained great mosques, universities, schools, and
ruler of Songhai when libraries. People came from all parts of West Africa to study mathematics,
he was nearly 50 years
science, medicine, grammar, and law.
old. He ruled Songhai for
about 35 years. Askia understood that an empire needed effective government. He
created a professional army, and to improve the government, he set up five
provinces within Songhai. He removed local leaders and appointed new
governors who were loyal to him. He also created specialized departments
to oversee various tasks, much like modern-day government offices do.
Soon after Askia the Great lost power, the empire of Songhai declined.
Reading Check Songhai was invaded by the Moroccans, the kingdom’s northern neighbors.
Compare The Moroccans wanted to control the Saharan salt mines. They had
What did Mali
and Songhai have superior military power and were able to take over Timbuktu and Gao.
in common? Changes in trade patterns completed Songhai’s fall.
Summary and Preview Trade was important to the kingdoms of West
Africa. In the next lesson you will learn about Europe before 1500.

Lesson 3 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking
1. a. Identify How did trade contribute to the rise of 3. Compare and Contrast In this lesson you learned
Ghana? about African kingdoms and trade. Create a chart like
b. Explain Why did Ghana’s rulers tax traders passing the one below and identify the similarities and differ-
through their kingdom? ences that led to the fall of the kingdoms of Ghana,
c. Evaluate Which resource do you think was more Mali, and Songhai.
valuable to Ghana, gold or salt? Why?
Fall of Ghana, Similarities Differences
2. a. Describe How did Mansa Musa introduce his Mali, and
empire to the world? Songhai
b. Compare How did Islam affect the achievements of
Mali and Songhai?
c. Evaluate What do you think was the most
important achievement of Askia the Great? Explain.

22 Module 1
 Lesson 4

Europe before 1500

If YOU were there . . .

The Big Idea You are a peasant in the Middle Ages, living on the land
New ideas and trade changed
of a noble. Although you and your family work very hard
Europeans’ lives. from sunrise to sundown, much of the food you grow
goes to the noble. Your house is very small and has a dirt
Main Ideas floor. Your parents are tired and weak, and you wish you
■■ The Greeks and Romans could do something to improve their lives.
established new forms of
government. Is there any way you could
change your life?
■■ During the Middle Ages,
society eventually changed
from a feudal system to a Greek and Roman Influences
system with a middle class of
By 1500 European culture had been shaped by centuries of
artisans and merchants.
civilization and cultural development. Among the most signifi-
■■ The Renaissance was a time cant and lasting contributions were those made by the ancient
of rebirth in the arts and in
Greeks and Romans.
learning.

Key Terms and People Greek Philosophers and Government Ancient Greeks valued
human reason and believed in the power of the human mind to
Socrates
Plato
think, explain, and understand life. Three of the greatest Greek
Aristotle thinkers, or philosophers, were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
reason Socrates, a great teacher, wanted to make people think and
democracy question their own beliefs. Plato, a philosopher and teacher,
knights wrote a work called The Republic. It describes an ideal society
Black Death based on justice and fairness for everyone. Aristotle taught
Michelangelo that people should live their lives based on reason, or clear and
Leonardo da Vinci
ordered thinking.
Johannes Gutenberg
joint-stock companies Greek scientists and mathematicians also gained fame for their
contributions to geometry and for accurately calculating the size
of Earth. Doctors studied the human body to understand how it
worked. One Greek engineering invention that is still used today
is a water screw, which brings water to farm fields.
Academic One of the Greeks’ most lasting contributions, however,
Vocabulary is their political system. During the time known as the
classical referring to
the cultures of ancient Classical Period, around the fifth and fourth centuries BC,
Greece or Rome Greece was organized into several hundred independent

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 23

 The Roman Senate
played a principal
role in the Roman
government.

city-states, which became the foundation for Greek civilization. Athens

was the first Greek city-state to establish democracy—a form of govern-
ment in which people rule themselves. All male citizens in Athens had the
right to participate in the assembly, a gathering of citizens, to debate and
create the city’s laws. Every citizen voted on every issue. Because all male
citizens in Athens participated directly in government, we call the Greek
form of government a direct democracy.
Roman Law and Government Later, Rome followed Greece’s example
by establishing a form of democratic government. The Roman Republic
was created in 509 BC. Each year freeborn male citizens of Rome elected
officials to rule the city. These officials acted on behalf of the citizens and
debated ideas at an assembly of representatives. They had many powers,
but stayed in power for only one year. Although this early republic was
not a direct democracy, it did allow input from citizens. Later, the Romans
changed their government into one with three parts. These three parts
were made up of elected representatives who protected the city and its
residents.
Roman laws were written and kept on public display so all people could
know them. Roman concepts of equality before the law and innocent until
Reading Check proven guilty protected Roman citizens’ rights.
Analyze The political ideas of Greece and Rome survived to influence govern-
How did Roman and ments around the world, including that of the United States. In the U.S.
Greek ­governments
influence the political system, citizens vote for representatives, making the nation a
United States? democratic republic.

Middle Ages
As the Roman Empire fell, groups from the north and east moved into
­former Roman lands. By the early 500s Europe was divided into many
small kingdoms. This marked the beginning of the Middle Ages, a period
that lasted about a thousand years.
Feudalism In the 480s a powerful group called the Franks conquered
Gaul, the region we now call France. The Franks created a huge empire in

24 Module 1
 Europe. When invaders began to attack European settlements
in the 800s, the Frankish kings could not defend their empire.
Nobles had to defend their own lands. As a result, the power
of nobles grew, and kings became less powerful. Although
loyal to the king, nobles ruled their lands as independent
territories.
Nobles needed soldiers to defend their lands. Nobles gave
knights, warriors who fought on horseback, land in exchange
for military service. Nobles who gave land to knights so the
knights would defend the land were called lords. A knight who
The structure of feudal society promised to support the noble in battle was called a vassal. This system of
has been likened to a pyramid, promises between lords and vassals is known as feudalism.
with kings sitting at the very top
of society and peasants at the Peasants owned no land, so they were not part of the feudal system.
bottom. They did, however, need to grow food to live. As a result, a new economic
system developed. Knights allowed peasants to farm land on their large
estates, called manors. In return, the peasants had to give the knights food
or other goods as payment.
Because of its structure, feudalism promoted the separation of
­territories and people. The Catholic Church, however, served as a strong
unifying force among the states and people of Europe. During the Middle
Ages, nearly everyone in Europe was Christian. Life revolved around the
local church with markets, festivals, and religious ceremonies.
The Crusades In the late 1000s a long series of wars called the Crusades
began between the European Christians and Muslims in Southwest Asia.
The Turks had captured Palestine, also known as the Holy Land because
it was where Jesus had lived. Christians no longer felt safe to travel there
on pilgrimages. Christians were called upon to go to war with the Turks to
recapture Palestine.
Although the Crusades failed, they changed Europe forever. Trade
between Europe and Asia began to grow, introducing Europeans to new
products such as apricots, rice, and cotton cloth, as well as the ideas of
Muslim thinkers.
Travel, Trade, and Towns In the Middle Ages, towns were small. After
about 1000, this situation began to change. New technology meant
­farmers could produce larger harvests. As farmers grew more food, the
population increased.
Travel became safer as increased protection from stronger rulers kept
larger territories secure. Over time, kingdoms became nation-states—
organized political units with central governments. This development
provided even more protection to merchants.
The rulers of the Mongols made routes like the Silk Road (a caravan
route that started in China and ended at the Mediterranean Sea) safe for
travelers and traders. Among these traders was Marco Polo. In 1271 he
journeyed from Europe to China along part of the old Silk Road. He spent
20 years living and traveling in Asia. When Marco Polo returned to
Europe, he brought back stories of spices, coal, and paper money.

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 25

 Timeline: Key Events in the Middle Ages

600 800 1000 1200 1400

789 800 1066 1095 1215 1347 c. 1350

Vikings first Charlemagne is England is The Crusades Nobles force The Black Death The
appear in crowned emperor conquered by begin. King John arrives in Europe, Renaissance
England. of the Holy the Norman of England eventually killing begins.
Roman Empire. king William to sign the millions.
the Conqueror. Magna Carta.

Interpret Timelines
What important event happened in 1215?

Trade routes spread all across Europe. Merchants brought goods from
Asia and Africa to sell in European markets. Their ships also brought back
rats infected with the plague. The disease, known as the Black Death,
spread across Europe, killing an estimated 25 million people. The European
economy was dramatically affected by the shortage of workers. Peasants
and serfs could now demand payment for their labor. They began to move
to cities, which began to grow in size.
Reading Check In time, the growth of trade led to the decline of feudalism and the
Draw Conclusions manor system. A new middle class of artisans and merchants emerged,
How did travel
and trade affect the and trade cities became commercial centers. Trade associations called
feudal system? guilds became an influential part of European life.

Renaissance
The Renaissance period brought new ways of thinking to Europe, weaken-
ing the old feudal system even more. The word Renaissance means “rebirth”
and refers to the period that followed the Middle Ages in Europe. This
movement began in Italy and eventually spread to other parts of Europe.
During the Renaissance, European rulers began to increase their power
over the nobles in their countries. Fewer invasions from outside forces
helped bring a period of order and stability to Europe.
Search for Knowledge Love of art and education was a key feature of the
Renaissance. As Turks conquered much of the Byzantine Empire in the
East, scholars fled to Italy. They brought ancient classical writings with
them. Some of the works were by Greek thinkers like Plato.
Excited by the discoveries brought by Byzantine scholars, European
­scholars went looking for ancient texts in Latin. They discovered many

26 Module 1
Latin texts in monasteries, which had preserved works by Roman writers.
As Italian scholars read these ancient texts, they rediscovered the glories
of Greece and Rome.
The search for knowledge and learning spread to all fields, including art,
literature, science, and political thought. The Renaissance emphasized the
importance of people rather than focusing on religion. This new focus on
human value and the study of humanities was called humanism. People’s
interest in the humanities led them to respect those who could write,
­create, or speak well. During the Middle Ages, most people had worked
only to glorify God.
Italian artists created some of the most beautiful paintings and
sculptures in the world. Their art reflected the basic Renaissance idea—the
value of human beings. They rejected flat, two-dimensional images used in
medieval art in favor of classical forms and techniques such as perspective.
Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci are two of the greatest Renaissance
artists. They are known for their work in the fields of painting, sculpture,
and architecture. Leonardo was also an inventor, engineer, and mapmaker.
Italian writers also penned great works of literature. Dante Alighieri
was a politician and poet. Before Dante, most authors wrote in Latin, the
language of the church. But Dante chose to write in Italian, the common
language of the people. This gave ordinary people the opportunity to read
Dante’s work.
Many texts that Europeans rediscovered in the 1300s dealt with sci-
ence. After reading these works, Renaissance scholars went on to make
their own scientific advances. They also studied ancient math texts
and built on the ideas they read about. For example, they created symbols
for the square root and for positive and negative numbers. Astronomers
discovered that Earth moves around the sun. Other ­scientists used mea-
surements and made calculations to create better, more accurate maps.
By 1450 Johannes Gutenberg
had refined his invention of the
printing press.

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 27

 The development of the printing press was a giant step forward
in spreading new ideas. In the mid-1400s, a German man, Johannes
Gutenberg (goot-uhn-berk), developed a printing press that used mov-
able type. This allowed an entire page to be printed at once. For the first
time in history, thousands of people could read the same books and share
ideas about them.
Economic Changes Affect Trade The growth in trade and services at the
beginning of the Renaissance sparked a commercial revolution. This also
brought a rise in mercantilism. Mercantilism is an economic system that
unifies and increases the power and wealth of a nation.
Four northern Italian cities, Florence, Genoa, Milan, and Venice, devel-
oped into important trading centers. These cities played two major roles in
trade. They served as ports along the Mediterranean Sea. They also served
as manufacturing centers and specialized in certain crafts. This economic
activity made some families in these cities very wealthy.
As trade and commerce grew, the need for banks arose. Bankers in
Florence, Italy, kept money for merchants from all over Europe. The
bankers also made money by charging interest on funds they loaned to
merchants. The greatest bankers in Florence were from the Medici fam-
ily. Although Florence was already wealthy from trade, banking increased
Reading Check
Draw Conclusions
that wealth.
How did the During this time, merchants began to create joint-stock companies,
Renaissance lead or businesses in which a group of people invest together. In a joint-stock
to trade and
a commercial company, the investors share in the company’s profits and losses. Forming
revolution? joint-stock companies allowed investors to take fewer risks.
Summary and Preview Greek and Roman civilizations, the Middle
Ages, and the Renaissance were major forces that shaped European his-
tory. In the next module you will read about how the Renaissance paved
the way for exploration of the Americas.

Lesson 4 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking
1. a. Identify What is the difference between a direct 4. Support a Point of View You learned about the major
democracy and a republic? changes that took place in Europe during the periods
b. Elaborate What is the importance of having a discussed in this lesson. Create a chart similar to the
written law code? one below and identify which period you think was the
2. a. Describe What was the relationship between most important and explain why.
knights and nobles?
Most Important Why
b. Elaborate How did the Crusades affect the feudal
system?
3. a. Identify What does the term Renaissance mean?
b. Analyze What is the relationship among trade,
banking, and joint-stock companies?
c. Elaborate What do you think was the greatest
accomplishment of the Renaissance?

28 Module 1
Social Studies Skills
Interpret Diagrams
Understand the Skill
Diagrams are drawings that use lines and labels
to explain or illustrate something. Different
types of diagrams have different purposes.
Pictorial diagrams show an object in simple
form, much like it would look if you were
viewing it. Cutaway diagrams show the “insides”
of an object. Component diagrams show how
an object is organized by separating it into
parts. Such diagrams are sometimes also called
schematic drawings. The ability to interpret
diagrams will help you to better understand
a historical object, its function, and how it
worked.

Learn the Skill

Use these basic steps to interpret a diagram:
1. Determine what type of diagram it is.
2. Read the diagram’s title or caption to find out
what the diagram represents.
3. Look for any labels and read them carefully.
Most diagrams include text that identifies
the object’s parts or explains relationships
among the parts. Practice and Apply
4. If a legend is present, study it to identify and Interpret the diagram of an early castle and
understand any symbols and colors that are answer the following questions.
used in the diagram. 1. What type of diagram is this?
5. Look for numbers or letters that might 2. What labels in the diagram suggest how the
indicate a sequence of steps. Also, look for castle was heated?
any arrows that might show direction or
movement. 3. What was the purpose of the pulley?
4. Of what materials was the castle made?
5. What features of the castle helped make it
secure against attack?

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 29

Module 1 Assessment
Review Vocabulary, Terms, and People
Complete each sentence by filling in the blank with the correct term or person.

1. During the Ice Age, a narrow strip of land called the was exposed.
2. The of Paleo-Indians from North to South America took ­thousands
of years.
3. Native Americans living in the Pacific Northwest carved on tall
poles.
4. The first political confederation of Native Americans in North America was
the .
5. The most famous ruler of Mali was .
6. While Mali’s leader was on a , or pilgrimage to Mecca, he intro-
duced his empire to the world.
7. The most famous ruler of Songhai took the name .
8. describes an ideal society based on justice in The Republic.

Comprehension and Critical Thinking

Lesson 1 Lesson 3
9. a. Describe How did early peoples in the 11. a. Describe Which two major trade goods
Americas get their food? made Ghana rich?
b. Analyze What led to the development of b. Compare What characteristics did
different culture groups in the Americas? Mansa Musa and Askia the Great have in
c. Elaborate What features did the early common?
civilizations of Mesoamerica and South c. Elaborate How did geography con-
America have in common? tribute to the rise of Ghana, Mali, and
Lesson 2 Songhai?
10. a. Identify Which early Native American Lesson 4
society built cliff dwellings and which 12. a. Recall What role did Greek and Roman
built mounds? traditions play in the development of the
b. Analyze How did Native Americans’ United States?
religious beliefs affect their lives in North b. Summarize How did the Crusades in
America? Southwest Asia and the travels of Marco
c. Evaluate Do you think it was easier Polo in Asia contribute to the growth of
for Native Americans to live in the dry trade in Europe?
climate of the Southwest, where rain- c. Evaluate Which do you think contrib-
fall was scarce, or in the North, where uted the most to the advances
the cold climate presented a constant in learning that occurred during the
challenge? Renaissance—writing in the common
language of a people or inventing the
printing press?

30 Module 1
Module 1 Assessment, continued
Review Themes Social Studies Skills
13. Geography How did changes in climate Interpret Diagrams Use the Social Studies Skills
lead to migration to the Americas? taught in this module to answer the question
14. Economics Describe the development of below.
the European economy during the Middle
Ages. 16. Look back at the diagram of a castle on
the Social Studies Skills page. Which of
Reading Skills the following is the main way to enter the
castle?
Specialized Vocabulary of Social Studies Use
a. well
the Reading Skills taught in this module to answer
the question about the reading selection below. b. moat
c. drawbridge
To encourage the spread of Islam in West Africa, d. windows
Mansa Musa brought back artists and architects
from other Muslim ­countries to build mosques, Focus on Writing
or buildings for Muslim prayer, throughout his 17. Write a Travelogue In a travelogue, you
lands. describe a journey you have taken to an
area. Someone who is not familiar with the
15. What is the definition of the word mosques area can learn about it from your descrip-
in the sentence above? tions. You have read about many cultures
across a long span of history. Pick one area
that you found the most interesting in the
module. Organize your thoughts about the
kinds of people you would have met, the
sights and sounds you would have expe-
rienced, and the kind of things you would
have done if you had traveled there during
the time discussed.
Try to include information about a culture’s
history, customs, beliefs, practices, econo-
mies, political systems, and natural environ-
ments. Write a paragraph about what you
might have liked or disliked about your trip.
Be sure to include a main idea sentence and
several sentences that support the main
idea with evidence.

America, Africa, and Europe before 1500 31

 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

Maya
THE

31 MC1 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

 Go online to view these and
other HISTORY® resources.

The Maya developed one of the most

advanced civilizations in the Americas, but
their story is shrouded in mystery. Around
AD 250, the Maya began to build great cities
in southern Mexico and Central America. They
developed a writing system, practiced astronomy,
and built magnificent palaces and pyramids with
little more than stone tools. Around AD 900,
however, the Maya abandoned their cities, leaving
their monuments to be reclaimed by the jungle Destroying the Maya’s Past
and, for a time, forgotten. Watch the video to learn how the actions of one
Explore some of the incredible monuments and Spanish missionary nearly destroyed the written
cultural achievements of the ancient Maya online. record of the Maya world.
You can find a wealth of information, video clips,
primary sources, activities, and more through your
online textbook.

Finding the City of Palenque

Watch the video to learn about the great Maya city
of Palenque and the European discovery of the site
in the eighteenth century.
“Thus let it be done!
Let the emptiness be filled!
Let the water recede and
make a void, let the earth
appear and become solid; let it
be done . . . “Earth!” they said,
and instantly it was made.”

Pakal’s Tomb
The Popol Vuh Watch the video to explore how the discovery of
the tomb of a great king helped archaeologists
Read the document to learn how the Maya believed
piece together the Maya past.
the world was created.

THE MAYA 31 MC2

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